ANAPHY: TISSUES • Free (Apical) Surface – cells are

exposed and not attached to

Tissues are groups of specialized cells
and the extracellular substances other cells.
surrounding them.
• Lateral Surface – cells are attached to
Histology is the microscopic study of other epithelial cells.
tissue structure.
• Basal Surface – base of the cell;
The four primary tissue types attached to the basement
1. Epithelial – a covering or lining membrane.
tissue.
Functions of Epithelial Tissues
2. Connective – a diverse primary
tissue type
1. Protects underlying structures.
that makes up part of every organ in the
2. Acts as a barrier.
body.
3. Permits passage of substances.
3. Muscle – a tissue that contracts or
4. Secretes substances.
shortens,
5. Absorption of substances.
making movement possible.
Epithelial tissues are classified primarily
4. Nervous – responsible for
coordinating and according to the number of cell layers
and the
controlling many body activities.
shape of the superficial cells.
Epithelial Tissues
The cell layers can be simple,
• Epithelium, or epithelial tissue, covers
stratified, or
and
pseudostratified.
protects surfaces, both outside and
inside The cell shapes can be squamous,
cuboidal,
the body.
columnar, or a special transitional
• Included under the classification of
shape,
epithelial
that varies with the degree of stretch.
tissue are the exocrine and endocrine
glands. Simple epithelium consists of a single
layer of
1. Mostly composed of cells.
cells, with each cell extending from the
2. Covers body surfaces.
basement membrane to the free
3. Distinct cell surfaces.
surface.
• Stratified epithelium consists of more
than
one layer of cells, but only the basal
layer
attaches the deepest layer to the
basement
membrane.
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
is a
special type of simple epithelium, that
appears to be falsely stratified.
It consists of one layer of cells, with all
the
cells attached to the basement
membrane.
There are three types of epithelium
based on idealized shapes of the
epithelial cells:
1. Squamous cells are flat or scalelike.
2. Cuboidal cells are cube-shaped
about as wide as they are tall.
3. Columnar cells tend to be taller than
they are wide.
Simple cuboidal epithelium is a single
layer of cube-like cells that carry out
active transport, facilitated diffusion, or
secretion. They have a greater secretory
capacity than simple squamous
epithelial cells.
Simple columnar epithelium is a
single layer of tall, thin cells. The large
size of these cells enables them to
perform complex functions, such as
secretion.
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
secretes mucus, which covers its free
surface.
Cilia in the airways move the mucus
and accumulated debris toward the
throat, where it is swallowed.
Though the deepest cells are cuboidal
or columnar and are capable of dividing
and producing new cells, the naming is
based on the shape of the surface
cells.
There are two types of stratified
squamous epithelia:
keratinized stratified squamous and
nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelia.
The outer layer of the skin is comprised
of a keratinized squamous epithelium.
The keratin reduces the loss of water
from the body.
Stratified cuboidal epithelium consists
of more than one layer of cuboidal
epithelial cells. It functions in
absorption, secretion, and protection.
Stratified columnar epithelium
consists of more than one layer of
epithelial cells the surface cells are
columnar, but the deeper cells are
irregular or cuboidal in shape.
This epithelium carries out secretion,
protection, and some absorption.
Transitional epithelium is a special
type of stratified epithelium that can be
greatly stretched.
Cilia move materials over the top of the
cell.
Microvilli increase surface area.
Cells have several structures that hold
one cell to one another or to the
basement membrane.
These structures do three things:
mechanically bind the cells together,
help form a permeability barrier, and
provide a mechanism for intercellular
communication.
Desmosomes are mechanical links that
bind cells together.
Hemidesmosomes are half
desmosomes that anchor cells to the
basement membrane.
Tight junctions prevent the passage of
materials between epithelial cells
because they completely surround each
cell, similar to the way a belt surrounds
the waist.
Gap junctions are small channels that
allow small molecules and ions to pass
from one epithelial cell to an adjacent
one.
Glands are secretory organs that
secrete substances onto a surface, into
a cavity, or into the bloodstream.
Glands are composed primarily of
epithelium, with a supporting network of
connective tissue. Glands with ducts are
called exocrine glands.
Endocrine glands are ductless glands;
they secrete their products into the
bloodstream.
Multicellular exocrine glands can be
classified according to the structure of
their ducts and secretory regions.
Simple glands have a single, non-
branched duct, some have branched
ducts.
Compound exocrine glands have
multiple, branched ducts.
Glands with secretory regions shaped
as tubules are called tubular, whereas
those shaped in saclike structures are
called acinar or alveolar.
Tubular glands can be straight or
coiled.
Glands with a combination of the two
are called tubuloacinar or tubuloalveolar.
Exocrine glands can also be classified
according to how products leave the
cell.
Merocrine secretion involves the
release of secretory products by
exocytosis.
Apocrine secretion involves the
release of secretory products as
pinched-off fragments of the gland cells.
Holocrine secretion involves the
shedding of entire cells.
Connective tissue is a diverse primary
tissue type that makes up part of every
organ in the body.
Connective tissue differs from the
other three tissue types in that it
consists of cells separated from each
other by abundant extracellular matrix.
Functions of Connective Tissue
1. Enclose and separate other
tissues.
2. Connecting tissues to one another.
3. Supporting and moving parts of
the body.
4. Storing compounds.
5. Cushioning and insulating.
6. Transporting.
7. Protecting.
The specialized cells of the various
connective tissues produce the
extracellular matrix.
• The name of the cell identifies the cell
functions.
• Osteoblasts form bone, osteocytes
maintain it, and osteoclasts break it
down.
• Fibroblasts are cells that form fibrous
connective tissue, and fibrocytes
maintain it.
• Chondroblasts form cartilage and
chondrocytes maintain it.
Found in connective tissue are cells
associated with the immune system,
such as white blood cells.
Macrophages are large cells that are
capable of moving about and ingesting
foreign substances, including
microorganisms in the connective tissue.
Mast cells are nonmotile cells that
release chemicals, such as histamine,
that promote inflammation.
The extracellular matrix of connective
tissue has three major components:
protein fibers, ground substance, and
fluid.
Three types of protein fibers—collagen,
reticular, and elastic—help form most
connective tissues.
Collagen fibers, which resemble
microscopic ropes, are very flexible but
resist stretching.
Reticular fibers are very fine, short
collagen fibers that branch to form a
supporting network.
Elastic fibers have the ability to return
to their original shape after being
stretched or compressed, giving tissue
an elastic quality.
Loose connective tissue consists of
relatively few protein fibers that form a
lacy network, with numerous spaces
filled with ground substance and fluid.
Three subdivisions of loose connective
tissue are areolar, adipose, and
reticular.
Areolar connective tissue primarily
consists of collagen fibers and a few
elastic fibers. The most common cells in
loose connective tissue are the
fibroblasts
Adipose tissue consists of adipocytes,
or fat cells, which contain large amounts
of lipid for energy storage. Adipose
tissue pads and protects parts of the
body and acts as a thermal insulator.
Reticular tissue forms the framework of
lymphatic tissue, such as in the spleen
Dense connective tissue has a
relatively large number of protein fibers
that form thick bundles and fill nearly all
of the extracellular space.
There are two major subcategories of
dense connective tissue: collagenous
and elastic.
Dense collagenous connective tissue
has an extracellular matrix consisting
mostly of collagen fibers.
Dense collagenous connective tissue
having the collagen fibers oriented in the
multiple directions is termed dense
irregular.
Dense elastic connective tissue has
abundant elastic fibers among its
collagen fibers. The elastic fibers allow
the tissue to stretch and recoil.
Cartilage is composed of chondrocytes,
located in spaces called lacunae within
an extensive matrix. Collagen in the
matrix gives cartilage flexibility and
strength. Cartilage provides support,
but if bent or slightly compressed, it
resumes its original shape.
There are three types of cartilage:
hyaline, fibrocartilage, and elastic
cartilage.
Elastic cartilage contains elastic fibers
in addition to collagen and
proteoglycans. The elastic fibers appear
as coiled fibers among bundles of
collagen fibers.
Bone is a hard connective tissue that
consists of living cells and a mineralized
matrix. Osteocytes are located within
lacunae.
The strength and rigidity of the
mineralized matrix enables bones to
support and protect other tissues and
organs. Two types of bone tissue exist
spongy bone and compact bone.
Spongy bone has spaces between
trabeculae or plates, of bone and
therefore resembles a sponge.
Compact bone is more solid, with
almost no space between many thin
layers of mineralized matrix.
Blood is a liquid connective tissue.
It contains a liquid matrix, termed the
plasma, along with formed elements.
The formed elements are erythrocytes,
leukocytes, and platelets.
It functions in transport of food, oxygen,

Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant waste, hormones, and other substances.
type of cartilage and has many
functions, such as covering the ends of
bones, where they form joints.
Fibrocartilage has more collagen than
does hyaline cartilage and is able to
withstand compression and resist
tearing or pulling.
Muscle
The main function of muscle tissue is to
contract, or shorten, making movement
possible.
Muscle contraction results from
contractile proteins located within the
muscle cells.
The three types of muscle tissue are
skeletal, cardiac, and smooth.
Skeletal muscle attaches to the
skeleton and enables the body to move.
Skeletal muscle cells are striated, or
banded, because of the arrangement of
contractile proteins within the cells.
Cardiac muscle is the muscle of the
heart it is responsible for pumping blood.
Cardiac muscle cells are cylindrical
but much shorter than skeletal muscle
cells.
They are often branched and connected
to one another by intercalated disks.
Smooth muscle forms the walls of
hollow organs it is also found in the skin
and the eyes.
Smooth muscle is responsible for a
number of functions, such as moving
food through the digestive tract and
emptying the urinary bladder.
Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue forms the brain, spinal
cord, and nerves. It is responsible for
coordinating and controlling many body
activities.
Nervous tissue consists of neurons
and support
cells, termed glial cells.
The neuron is responsible for
conducting action potentials. It is
composed of three parts: a cell body,
dendrites, and an axon.
Tissue Membranes
A tissue membrane is a thin sheet or
layer of
tissue that covers a structure or lines a
cavity.
Most membranes consist of epithelium
and the
connective tissue on which the
epithelium rests.
There are four tissue membranes in the
body: cutaneous, mucous, serous,
and synovial. The skin, termed the
cutaneous membrane, is an external
body surface membrane.
The mucous membranes line cavities
that open to the outside of the body,
such as the digestive, respiratory, and
reproductive tracts.
Mucous membranes consist of
epithelial cells, their basement
membrane, and a thick layer of loose
connective tissue.
Many, but not all, mucous membranes
secrete mucus.
The functions of mucous membranes
include protection, absorption, and
secretion.
Serous membranes line cavities that do
not open to the exterior of the body,
such as the pericardial, pleural, and
peritoneal cavities.
Synovial membranes line the cavities
of freely movable joints.
Inflammation is usually a beneficial
process occurring when tissues are
damaged.
The inflammatory process occurs in
stages.
Inflammation mobilizes the body’s
defenses and isolates and destroys
microorganisms, foreign materials, and
damaged cells so that tissue repair can
proceed.
Inflammation produces five major
symptoms: redness, heat, swelling, pain,
and disturbance of function.
Tissue repair involves substitution of
dead cells for viable cells.
Tissue repair can occur by regeneration
or by fibrosis.
In regeneration, the new cells are the
same type as those that were destroyed,
and normal function is usually restored.
In fibrosis, or replacement, a new type
of tissue develops that eventually
causes scar production and the loss of
some tissue function.
Stem cells are self-renewing,
undifferentiated cells that continue to
divide throughout life.