REVIEWER: BIOPSYCH

LESSON 1: Biopsychology as Neuroscience

PHINEAS GAGE : A man who survived a severe head & brain injury

Biopsychology - A scientific study of behavior based on a biological perspective,

psychobiology, behavioral biology, or behavioral neuroscience

The brain is one of the largest and most complex organs of the human body that is
responsible for controlling our emotions, motor behavior, memory, and every
process that regulates the body.

The Relationship of Biopsychology to other disciplines of Neuroscience

 Neuroanatomy - ―the study of the structure of parts of the nervous system.‖

 Neurochemistry - ―the study of chemicals that control & influence the
physiology of the nervous system.‖
 Neuroendocrinology - the study of the interaction between the nervous
system & endocrine system, that is how the brain regulates the hormonal
activity.
 Neuropathology - ―the study of diseases of the nervous system.‖
 Neuropharmacology - the study of how the drugs affect the neural activities
through which they influence behavior.
 Neurophysiology - the study of the functions of the nervous system.

Types of Research that Characterized the Biopsychological Perspective

1. Human and Nonhuman Subjects

Nonhuman Subjects

1. It is easy to study the relationship between brain functions and behavior

because animal brains are smaller and simpler.
2. Can easily compare the different brain structures and functions of different
animal species.

Human Subjects

1. Humans have high intellectual functioning.

2. It is cheaper to use humans compared to animals as subjects of research.

2. Experimental and Non-experimental

Experimental research is used to infer causation or to identify the causal

relationship between the two or more variables.
 “disconnected halves of the brain had their own independent sensations,
perceptions and learned separately, and without the other half having any
awareness” – Sperry (1968)

Types of Experimental Research

A. Between subjects design - is utilized when each group of subjects are

assigned to different experimental conditions.
B. Within-subjects design each participant is allowed to be part of each
experimental condition.

VARIABLES

The independent variables are variables that are manipulated in the study and
assess its effects through the dependent variables.

Those variables other than the independent variables that seem to affect the
dependent variable is called the confounding variable.

“The Effects of Split Brain Surgery on the Frequency of Epileptic Seizures” – Eichner „68

3. Quasi-experimental research is a semi or not purely experimental research

which is used when manipulating the independent variable is impossible and
could also be due to important ethical considerations.
4. Case Study focuses on a single case or subject, which can help the researcher
to get in depth information

Pure and Applied Research

Pure research or also called basic research aims to gain knowledge about
theories and phenomena.

Applied research aims to discover a solution or bring direct benefit to humankind or

simply relate the results to a particular situation.

Major Divisions of Biopsychology

Physiological Psychology - ―focuses on direct manipulation and recording of

neural mechanisms of behavior using nonhuman subjects in a controlled
experiments‖

Psychopharmacology - ―focuses on the manipulating neural mechanisms of the

behavior through inducing drugs.

Neuropsychology - ―focuses on studying the effects of brain damage to cognition

and behavior in human patients.
Psychophysiology - ―study the physiological activity of every psychological process
such as attention, emotion and information processes.

Cognitive Neuroscience - ―study of neural activity and connections in the brain

which are involved in cognition or higher intellectual processes‖

Comparative Psychology - ―studies the behavior & mental process of different

animal species by using comparative method to understand the evolution, genetics,
& adaptiveness of behavior.‖

LESSON 2: Anatomy and Functions of the

Nervous System

BASIC FEATURES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Three Main Functions

1. Sensory
2. Integration
3. Motor

Brain- cranial nerves

Spinal cord -
peripheral nerves
Sns – voluntary
(skeletal muscle)
Ans – involuntary
(heart)

Meninges

Dura matter outermost layer of meninges.

It is composed of two layers: namely, the periosteal/ endosteal layer and

the meningeal layer. The dura matter serves as a protective function to the
brain and the spinal cord and limits the rotational movement of the brain
Kekere & Alsayouri , 2020).

arachnoid mater the web like meningeal layer underneath the dura mater

pia mater the innermost thin membrane and directly adherent to the surface of the
brain and spinal cord.
subarachnoid space The space between the arachnoid mater & the pia mater w/c
is filled w/ cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) & functions as a cushion to the CNS & skull (

Heimer,1993)

The Ventricular System and Production of Cerebrospinal Fluid

The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) serves a protective function by acting as a shock
absorber:

 It also provides essential nourishment and helps in removing waste from

the CNS (Telano, & Baker, 2020).
 subarachnoid space, cerebral ventricles of the brain, and the central
canal of the spinal cord.

The central canal, or sometimes called spinal foramen or ependymal canal, extends
throughout the spinal cord.

The ventricular system is composed of four internal chambers in the brain, the
two lateral ventricles, third and fourth ventricles.

These three interconnected systems (subarachnoid space, central canal, &

ventricular system) forms a single reservoir that facilitates the production and
removal of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the brain.

The production and secretion of most cerebrospinal fluid occur in the choroidal
plexus of the ventricular system.

It flows from the:

1. lateral ventricle to the 3rd ventricle via the interventricular foramen (also called
the foramen of Monro).
2. It goes to the 4th ventricle by passing through the cerebral aqueduct (also
called the aqueduct of Sylvius).
 3. It exits the 4th ventricle into the cerebral subarachnoid space through the
median aperture (also called the foramen of Magendie) & the 2 lateral
apertures (also called the foramen of Luschka).
4. The CSF continues into the spinal subarachnoid space through the central
canal of the spinal cord. (Adigun, & Al-Dhahir, 2019)

Blood Brain Barrier

Functions:

1. it manages the microenvironment

(regulates the substances and structures
around a particular area)
2. it regulates the entry of nutrients
3. regulates the exit of brain waste
4. it regulates the ion and fluids between the
blood and the brain
5. helps maintain relatively normal levels of
hormones

Transport Types

1. Diffusion
2. Paracellulartransport
3. Transport protein
4. Receptor-mediated
transcytosis
5. Adsorptive transcytosis
6. Efflux.

Neuroanatomical Techniques

Golgi StainingTechnique - Camillo Golgi - uses silver nitrate to densely stain an

entire single neuron including its dendrite and axon branches. This helps
researchers see the structure of a single neuron, although in silhouette form. Cannot
provide evidence about the number of single neurons in a particular area.

NISSL Staining Technique - Franz Nissl - uses dyes such as cresylviolet and
other Nissl dyes to estimate the number of cell bodies in a particular part of the brain
by counting the Nissl stained dots.

Electron Microscopy - used to get information about the detailed structure of

neurons. Uses a scanning electron microscope to obtain an electron micrograph.
However, due to a detailed picture of the neurons, it becomes difficult to get
visualize general aspects of neuron structure.

Neuroanatomical Directions

 Anterior/ventral - means towards the ―front‖

 posterior/dorsal - means towards the ―back‖.
 Superior/cranial/ rostral - means towards the head end or upper/higher part
of the body,
 Inferior/caudal - means away from the head or the lower part of the body.
 Medial - means towards the midline of the body,
 Lateral means away from the midline.

Coronal plane (frontal plane) -divided

into anterior and posterior which is created
by slicing the brain vertically.
Horizontal plane (transverse plane) -
divides the brain into superior/rostral and
inferior/caudal directions which is done by
slicing the brain horizontally.
Sagittal plane -created by slicing the brain
in the middle, thus dividing it into right and
left cerebral hemispheres

The Central Nervous System

The Development of the Central Nervous System

The CNS starts to develop during the third week of the embryonic stage.

The developing central nervous system contains three interconnected chambers

that later becomes the ventricles.

The tissues that surrounds the ventricles form the three primary vesicles: the
prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain), & the rhombencephalon
(hindbrain).

As the brain continuously develops, the rostral chamber becomes the three separate
division of chambers: the left and right ventricles, and the third ventricles.

The area surrounding the lateral ventricles becomes the telencephalon and the area
surrounding the third ventricle becomes the diencephalon.

In the final structure,

the chamber inside the
midbrain
(mesencephalon)
becomes narrow,
forming the cerebral
aqueduct, and the two
structures develop in
the hindbrain: the
metencephalon and the
myencephalon.

Three Major Divisions of the Brain

I .Forebrain (Prosencephalon)

A. Telencephalon

Cerebral Cortex - The cerebral cortex is the

outer layer of the neural tissue of the cerebrum.

A long and deep grove between the

convoluted cortex is called the fissures and the
short and small grove is called the sulci
(plural: sulcus).
The gyri (plural: gyrus) is the ridge on the surface of the brain which is
separated by fissures and sulci.

The cerebral cortex

covers the two portions of
the cerebral
hemispheres: the left
and right hemispheres.

•It is separated by long

and deep fissures, called
the longitudinal fissures.

•These two hemispheres

are connected by a
bundle of nerve fibers
underneath the cerebral
cortex, called the
cerebral commissures.

The largest commissure is called the corpus callosum which served as the
communicating pathway between the two cerebral hemispheres.

The frontal lobe is responsible for performing complex cognitive (frontal cortex
anterior to the precentral gyrus/motor cortex) and motor functions (precentral gyrus).

The parietal lobe regulates the body temperature, control movement, and process
information related to taste and touch. Specifically, the postcentral gyrus regulates
the sense of touch and the remaining parts of the parietal lobe are responsible for
the perception of our body and objects location as well as in directing attention to a
particular stimulus.

The occipital lobe is responsible for the vision.

The temporal lobe processes memory and information perceived by the sense of
taste, hearing, sight, and touch.

The superior temporal gyrus is responsible for processing information related to

hearing and language, the inferior temporal gyrus deals in identifying complex
visual information, and the medial part of the temporal lobe play an important role in
certain kinds of memory processes.

The allocortex covers 10% of the cerebral cortex.

The neocortex constitutes 90% or the major area of the cerebral cortex which is
responsible for an individual's direct attention, thought, perception, and episodic
memory (Bennett, 2019).
Characteristics of Neocortex

1. The cortical neurons can either be pyramidal or stellate cells. The pyramidal
cells are multipolar pyramid-shaped neurons/cells with huge dendrites (apical
dendrites), while the stellate cells are small star-shaped neurons with short or
no axons.
2. Cortical neurons in different layers have different density and sizes.
3. Many of the axons and dendrites in the neocortex are organized vertically.
4. The thickness of each layer varies from area to area.

Limbic System - The limbic system is a set of brain

structures that is responsible for an individual’s
emotions, motivated behaviors, regulating
autonomous and endocrine function, and
consolidating memories ( Stephani, 2014).

5 F’s

 Feeding (satiety and hunger)

 Forgetting (memory)
 Fighting (emotional response)
 Family (sexual reproduction, maternal instincts)
 Fornicating (sexual arousal)

 Amygdala - is involved in regulating emotional responses such as anger,

violence, fear, and anxiety
 Hippocampus - learning, memory, and associating emotional responses to
particular situations of events
 Fornix - damage to fornix may result in deficits in declarative memories which
deal with autobiographical information
 Cingulate cortex - regulates emotions and behavior
 Septum is a midline nucleus located in the subcortical area of the brain.
 Mammillary bodies are a pair of small round bodies, located at the end of the
anterior part of the fornix

Basal Ganglia - involved in motor control and learning, executive functions,

behavior, and emotions

 amygdala - emotion .
 caudate nucleus - is responsible for executing movements, motor learning,
motivation and reward.
 Inferior to the head of caudate and anterior to the tail of caudate, a round
shape structure known as putamen.
  globus pallidus is located between the putamen and thalamus and controls
conscious and proprioceptivemovements
o knowing whether feet are on soft grass or hard cement without looking
(even while wearing shoes)
o balancing on one leg
o throwing a ball without having to look at the throwing arm.

B. Diencephalon

1. Thalamus - relay the motor and

sensory neurons to the cerebral cortex.
One of the most understood is the
sensory relay nuclei which receive the
sensory signal, then processes, transmit,
and project sensory information to areas
of the sensory cortex.

Examples of sensory relay nuclei are

lateral geniculate nuclei which relay
visual information, medial geniculate
nuclei which relay auditory information, and ventral posterior nuclei which relay
somatosensory information to areas of the sensory cortex.

2. Hypothalamus - It is also involved in regulating some of the motivated

behaviors such as sleeping, eating, and sexual behaviors. It also controls the
endocrine system by regulating the release of hormones from the pituitary gland

3. Optic chiasm and mammillary bodies - The optic chiasm is an X-shaped

structure formed by the crossing of the optic nerves in the brain which allows the
visual cortex to generate binocular vision.
The mammillary bodies are a pair of small round bodies which is involved in
processing recollective memories (i.e., memories related to episodes of past
experiences).

However, memory information starts from the hippocampus in which CA3 neurons is
activated by the theta waves before transmitting the information via the fornix to the
mammillary bodies

II. Midbrain (Mesencephalon)

C. Mesencephalon

1. Tectum - The tectum composed of two

pairs of bumps called colliculi. The
inferior colliculi are for auditory
function and superior colliculi for
visual-motor function. These two colliculi formed the coropora quadrigemina.

2. Tegmentum - the
periaqueductal gray matter,
substantia nigra, and the red
nucleus. The periaqueductal
gray matter -regulates heart rate
and blood pressure, autonomic
processes, production of
vocalization, and fearful and
defensive reactions. It is also a
particular interest to
biopsychologist because of its
important role in analgesia
(inability to feel pain).

substantia nigra & red nucleus play an important part in the sensorimotor system.

III. Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon)

D. Metencephalon

Pons, the point of origin or termination for four of the

cranial nerves that transfer sensory information and
motor impulses to and from the facial region and the
brain.

The cerebellum is the large, convoluted structure on

the brain stem’s dorsal surface. It is an important
sensorimotor structure; cerebellar damage eliminates
the ability to precisely control one’s movements and to adapt
them to changing conditions.

E. Myelencephalon
Medulla oblongata -is responsible for regulating several
basic functions of the autonomic nervous system, including
respiration, cardiac function, vasodilation, and reflexes like
vomiting, coughing, sneezing, and swallowing.

Reticular formation - it plays a fundamental role in arousal

and consciousness, control of movement and sensation, and in regulation of visceral
functions.

Spinal Cord

The spinal cord is a long, thin, tube-like

structure that extends from the end of the
brainstem up to the bottom of the spine. It
is a communication pathway wherein the
transmission of sensory and motor signals
from the brain to the rest of the body, or vice
versa takes place.

The spinal cord consists of two major areas: the

gray and white matter. The gray matter which is
composed largely of soma (cell bodies) and few
unmyelinated neurons are located beneath the
spinal cord. On the other hand, the white matter
forms the outer layer and is made of myelinated
axons. The two dorsal arms are called dorsal horns,
whereas the two ventral arms are called ventral
horns.

Thirty-one pairs of peripheral nerves are directly

connected to the spinal cord. Each of these nerves
divides and connects to the spinal cord through one of
two roots, the dorsal and ventral root. All dorsal
roots are sensory or afferent unipolar neurons
that contain a group of cell bodies outside the
cord, thus, forming the dorsal root ganglion. On the
other hand, the ventral roots are motor or efferent
multipolar neurons where their cell bodies can be
found in the ventral horns.

THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)

A. Spinal Nerves - A spinal nerve is a nerve directly connected to the spinal cord
which carries sensory, motor, and autonomic signals from the body to the brain,
or vice versa. There are 31 pairs in different levels of the spine: 8 cervical, 12
thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal. Each pair connects the spinal cord
with a specific region of the body.
B. Cranial Nerves - The cranial nerves are pairs of nerves that connect the brain
and different parts of the head, neck, and truck. There are 12 pairs of it, and each
corresponds to a roman numeral which is based on the location, from front to
back. They are typically categorized as sensory, motor, or both. The sensory
nerves are involved with senses, whereas, the motor nerves are in charge of
controlling movements.

I. Olfactory nerve (sensory) - it is a nerve that transmits sensory information

perceived by the person’s sense of smell via the olfactory bulb
II. Optic nerve (sensory) it is responsible for carrying visual information to
the brain
III. Oculomotor nerve (motor) - this nerve is in charge of controlling muscle
movements of the eye including the movement of eyeballs and eyelids It
also performs involuntary functions such that pupil size changes as it
responds to light The pupil constricts when the light is bright to allow less
light to pass through and the pupil dilates when dark to allow more light to
enter.
 IV. Trochlear nerve (motor)- this nerve is also involved in movements of the
eye, specifically controls the downward and inward movements
V. Trigeminal nerve (sensory & motor)- this largest cranial nerve is
responsible for chewing & clenching teeth (motor functions), as well as
sensations (sensory function) to 3 divisions (ophthalmic, maxillary,
mandibular) of the face
VI. Abducens nerve (motor) - this nerve controls the lateral rectus muscle
which is also involved in controlling eye movements (e.g outward gaze)
VII. Facial nerve (sensory & motor) - this is the most complex cranial nerve
which consists of four nuclei responsible for controlling muscle movements
(used for facial expression chewing, swallowing, and jaw movements),
sense of taste of the major parts of the tongue, the sensation from the
external ear and supply major glands in the head and neck
VIII. Vestibulocochlear nerve (sensory) - it is composed of the vestibular
nerve and cochlear nerve which are responsible for balance and hearing,
respectively
IX. Glossopharyngeal nerve (sensory & motor) - this 9th cranial nerve is
involved in receiving sensory information from the throat, inner ear, and
back of the tongue (involved in the sensation of taste) (sensory functions). It
is also involved in controlling the stylopharyngeus a muscle that allows the
throat ( to shorten and widen
X. Vagus nerve (sensory & motor) - it is the longest nerve involved in the
sensation perceived from the outer ear and the internal organs in the neck,
chest, and abdomen It also controls the muscles in the throat and soft
palate which helps the person speak and swallow The vagus nerve plays a
minor role in taste sensation Additionally, it is also involved in the sensation
to the heart which detects changes in blood pressure and oxygen levels in
the blood
XI. Accessory nerve (motor) - this cranial nerve controls the neck muscles
responsible for rotating, flexing, and extending the neck and shoulders It is
divided into two parts the spinal and cranial portion
XII. Hypoglossal nerve (motor) - this is nerve is responsible for controlling the
movements of the major parts of the tongue wherein, damage to this nerve
can cause tongue paralysis

C. Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system is the control system of the peripheral nervous
system which is responsible for involuntary bodily functions including heart
rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, and sexual arousal. It is composed of
two main subdivisions: the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
systems. Both of these systems consist of afferent and efferent neurons which
facilitate and transmit the sensory and motor signals from the internal organs to the
brain, or vice versa.

Sympathetic Nervous System - The sympathetic nervous system is mostly

involved in the fight or flight response of the body. This means that this division
of the autonomic nervous system is usually activated when confronted by
stressful and emergencies. For instance, a person’s heart tends to beat faster and
saliva tends to be overly produced when a person is being chased by a king cobra.

Parasympathetic Nervous System - The parasympathetic nervous system is

known as the rest and digest system, as it controls bodily processes during
ordinary situations. It supports the activities that are involved in the constriction of
pupils, decreased heart rate and blood pressure, constriction of bronchial muscles,
increase digestion, increased production of saliva and mucus, and increase in urine
secretion.

LESSON 3: Anatomy and Functions of Cells of the Nervous System (Part 1)

Glial cells - Non-neuronal cells and do not transmit electrical impulses, plays an
important role in maintaining equilibrium. (PNS: Satellite Cells & Schwann Cells;
CNS: Microglia, Ependymal Cell, Oligodenrocytes, Astrocytes)

Neurons - transmit electro-chemical signals to and from the brain, muscles, gland
cells and the rest of the nervous system. The bodily processes and functions
including thoughts, feelings and behavior would be impossible without neurons and
supporting cells within the nervous system.

External Anatomy of Neurons

Cell body or the soma supplies

protein to other parts of the neurons
which is essential for the proper
functioning of neurons. It is
composed of organelles and
nucleus that are also involved in a
variety of cell functions.

Dendrites - are tree-like branches

designed for receiving
electrochemical signals from other
neurons and transmit them to the cell body.

Cell membrane - is a semipermeable membrane that protects the neuron. It is a

two-layer lipid molecule w/c consists of embedded signal proteins & channel
proteins.

Axons - transmits electrochemical signals away from the cell body.

Axon hillock - connects the cell body and the axons and is responsible for firing
signals (i.e. action potential) down the axons.

Myelin or myelin sheath - is made up of fatty substances and proteins that form
around the axons. It plays three important functions: it protects and acts as an
insulator to the axons, and enhances the speed of transmitting the electrical signal.

Node of Ranvier - facilitates the rapid transmission of electrical impulses along the
axons. In the case of myelinated axons, the firing of electrical impulses occurs only
when the axonal membrane is uncovered. On the other hand, this action potential
occurs differently with unmyelinated axons as it allows the signal to continuously
and slowly flow along the axons.

Terminal buttons - are small-knob structures located at the end of the axons which
releases chemicals (called neurotransmitters) into the synapse and send signals to
other neurons. When the electrical impulses reach the end of the terminal buttons, it
releases the neurotransmitters contained in the synaptic vesicles to the synaptic
gap.

Synapse - is a gap located at the end of the terminal buttons which consist of the
presynaptic membrane, synaptic cleft, and postsynaptic membrane.

Internal Anatomy of Neurons

Nucleus - is an oval-shaped structure that contains DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

and plays a critical role in the production of protein within the cell. Specifically, the
nucleolus that contained within the nucleus produces ribosomes that are essential in
producing proteins needed in regulating cell functions. (Bajwa, 2018)

Cytoplasm - is a clear jelly-like fluid inside the neuron. It is important in supporting

and keeping organelles and molecules in their place. (Bailey, 2019)

Mitchondria - is the energy source of neurons. It is responsible for regulating

calcium ions (CA2+) which helps transmit the electrical impulses down to the axon
and triggers the presynaptic membrane and synaptic vesicles to release the
neurotransmitters into the synapses.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) forms a series of flattened sacs w/n the cytoplasm. It
consists of two types: the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) & the smooth
endoplasmic reticulum (SER). The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) consists of
ribosomes & is located only in the cell body. On the other hand, the smooth
endoplasmic reticulum (SER) consists of tubule networks that connect the RER &
Golgi apparatus.

Golgi Apparatus or also called Golgi Complex and Golgi Body is a membrane-
bound organelle that receives proteins from the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER),
then sorts and packs them into vesicles before it secretes to the cell membrane

Ribosomes is a type of organelle located in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) which

is involved in producing proteins necessary for neuronal functions.

Microtubules

Synaptic vesicles

Neurotransmitters are chemicals messengers stored inside the synaptic vesicles

which are involved in the synaptic transmission.
TYPES OF NEURONS

A neuron with more

than two processes
extending from its cell
body is classified as a
multipolar neuron;
most neurons are
multipolar.

A neuron with one

process extending from
its cell body is classified as a unipolar neuron. Unipolar neurons are typically
sensory neurons w/ receptors located within the skin, joints, muscles, and internal
organs.

A neuron with two processes extending from its cell body is classified as a
bipolar neuron.

Neurons with a short axon or no axon at all are called interneurons; their
function is to integrate neural activity within a single brain structure, not to conduct
signals from one structure to another.

Glia in CNS

Astrocytes - support neuronal function by producing antioxidants (glutathione),

recycling neurotransmitters (glutamate and GABA), and maintaining the BBB (to
sustain the micro environmental equilibrium).

 Provide physical support to neurons and clean up debris within the brain
 Phagocytosis – the process of cleaning up debris through engulfing and
digesting dead neurons.

Oligodendrocytes- highly specialized neural cells whose function is to myelinate

central nervous system axons.

Microglia– served as one representatives of the immune system in the brain,

protecting the brain from invading microorganisms. Primarily responsible for the
inflammatory reaction in response to the brain damage.

Glia in PNS

Schwann cells – myelinate the axons of the PNS

Satellite cells - are small glia that surrounds neurons' sensory ganglia in the ANS.
These resemble the astrocytes of the CNS and assist in regulating the external
chemical environment.
Communication within a Neuron

Measuring Electrical Potential of Axons

Electrode – electrical conductors that provide a path for electricity to enter or leave
the medium

Microelectrode –a very fine electrode, generally used to record activity of individual

neurons.

Membrane potential – electrical charge

Oscilloscope –instrument capable of displaying graph of voltage

 Resting potential –the membrane

potential of a neuron when it is not
being altered by excitatory or
inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (-
70 mV)
 Depolarization– reduction (towards
0) of the membrane potential of a
cell from its normal resting potential.
 Hyperpolarization–an increased in
the membrane potential of a cell,
relative to the normal resting
potential.
 Action potential –the brief electrical impulse that provides the basis for
conduction of information along an axon.
 Threshold of excitation –voltage level that triggers an action potential.

The Membrane Potential: Balance of Two Forces

The Force of Diffusion: Movement of molecules from regions of high

concentration to regions of low concentration.

The Force of Electrostatic Pressure: The attractive force between

atomic particles charged with opposite signs or the repulsive force
between atomic particles charged with the same sign.

 Cations (-)
 Anions (+)

Ions in the Extracellular and Intracellular Fluid

 Intracellular fluid –the fluid contained within cells

 Extracellular fluid –body fluids located outside the cells
  A- organic anions (negatively charged proteins and intermediate products of
the cell’s metabolic processes are found only in the intracellular fluid)
 Chloride ions (Cl-) - (found predominantly in extracellular fluid)
 Sodium ions (Na+) – Natrium (found predominantly in extracellular fluid)
 Potassium ions (K+) – Kalium (found predominantly in intracellular fluid)

How can Na+ remain in greatest concentration in the extracellular fluid, despite the
fact that both forces (diffusion and electrostatic pressure) tend to push it inside?

The membrane is impermeable to Na+, as it is to A-, the organic anions.

Sodium-potassium transporter –a protein found in the membrane of all cells that

transports sodium ions out of the cell and transports potassium ions into the cell

What would happen if the membrane suddenly became permeable to Na+?

The sudden inflow of positively charged ions would drastically change the
membrane potential.

The Action Potential

Ion channel – a specialized protein molecule that

permit specific ions to enter or leave the cell.

Conduction of the Action Potential

Saltatory conduction –conduction of action potentials by myelinated axons. The

action potential jumps from one node of Ranvier to the next.

To describe the ways in w/c

neurons can communicate w/
each other.

These communications make it

possible for circuits of neurons
to gather sensory information,
make plans and initiate
behaviors.
The primary means of communication between neurons is synaptic transmission –
the transmission of messages from one neuron to another through a synapse.

These messages are carried by neurotransmitters, released by terminal

buttons. These chemical diffuse across the fluid-filled gap between the terminal
buttons and the membranes of the neurons with which they form synapses.

Neurotransmitters produce postsynaptic potentials –alterations in the

membrane potential of a postsynaptic neuron, produced by release of
neurotransmitter at the synapse –that increase or decrease the rate of firing of the
axon of the postsynaptic neuron.

Ligand -chemical that binds with the binding site of a receptor.

Neurotransmitters are natural ligands, produced and released by neurons.

STRUCTURE OF THE SYNAPSES

Synapses can occur in three places:

1. Axodendritic synapses –can occur on the smooth surface of a dendrite or on

dendritic spines – a small bud on the surface of a dendrite, with which a
terminal button from other neuron forms a synapse.
2. Axosomatic synapse –occur on somatic membrane
3. Axoaxonic synapse -.consists of synapses between two terminal buttons.

Presynaptic membrane the membrane of the terminal button that lies adjacent to
the post synaptic membrane

Postsynaptic membrane the cell membrane opposite the terminal button in a

synapse; the membrane of the cell that receives the message.
Synaptic cleft the space between the
presynaptic membrane & the postsynaptic
membrane.

Contains extracellular fluid, through which

the neurotransmitter diffuses.

Synaptic vesicle –a small, hollow,

beadlike structure found in terminal
buttons; contains molecules of a
neurotransmitter.

Release zone –a region of the interior of

the presynaptic membrane to which synaptic vesicles attach and release their
neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft.

RELEASE OF A NEUROTRANSMITTER

ACTIVATION OF RECEPTORS

They do so by diffusing across the fluid that fills the synaptic cleft. Once they reach
the other side of the synaptic cleft, they attach to the binding sites of the
postsynaptic receptors –a receptor molecule in the postsynaptic membrane that
contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter.

Once binding occurs, the postsynaptic receptors open neurotransmitter-dependent

ion channels –an ion channel that opens when a molecule of a neurotransmitter
binds with postsynaptic receptor –which permit the passage of specific ion to pass
through the membrane, changing the local membrane potential.

a. The direct methods is simpler, when a molecule of the appropriate

neurotransmitter attaches to the binding sites, the ion channel opens.

b. The indirect method is more complicated. Most receptors do not open ion
channels directly but instead starts a chain of chemical events.

POSTSYNAPTIC POTENTIALS

Major Types of Neurotransmitter-Dependent Ion Channels found in the Postsynaptic

membrane

 a.Sodium (Na+)
 b.Potassium (K+)
 c.Chloride (Cl-)

TERMINATION OF THE POSTSYNAPTIC POTENTIAL

a. Postsynaptic potentials are brief depolarization or hyperpolarization caused by
the activation of postsynaptic receptors with molecules of a neurotransmitter.

Two mechanisms keep them brief:

a. Reuptake the re-entry of the neurotransmitter just release by a terminal button

back through its membrane, thus terminating the postsynaptic potential.
b. Enzymatic deactivation the destruction of the neurotransmitter by an enzyme
after it release.

Acetylcholine ( ACh ) a neurotransmitter found in the brain, spinal cord, and parts
of the PNS; responsible for muscle contraction.

Acetylcholinesterase ( AChE ) the enzyme that destroys acetylcholine soon after it

is released by the terminal buttons, thus terminating the postsynaptic potential.

EFFECTS OF POSTSYNAPTIC POTENTIAL: NEURAL INTEGRATION

 Excitatory postsynaptic potentials increase the likelihood that the postsynaptic

neuron will fire; inhibitory postsynaptic potentials decrease this likelihood.
 Thus, the rate at which an axon fires is determined by the relative activity of
the excitatory and inhibitory synapses on the soma and dendrites of the cell.
 Neural integration –the process by which inhibitory and excitatory potentials
summate and control the rate of firing of a neuron.
 The interaction of the effects of excitatory and inhibitory synapses on a
particular neuron
 Excitatory synapses becomes active the release of the neurotransmitter
produces depolarizing EPSPs in the dendrites of a neuron. These EPSPs are
then transmitted down the dendrites, across the soma, to the base of the axon.
If the depolarization is still strong enough when it reaches this point, the axon
will fire.
 Inhibitory synapses becomes active inhibitory postsynaptic potentials are
hyperpolarizing they bring the membrane potential away from the threshold of
excitation.Thus, they tend to cancel the effects of excitatory postsynaptic
potentials.
 The rate at which a neuron fires is controlled by the relative activity of the
excitatory and inhibitory synapses on its dendrites and soma. If the activity of
the excitatory synapses goes up, the rate of firing will go up. If the rate of
inhibitory synapses goes up, the rate of firing will go down

AUTORECEPTORS

 A receptor molecule located on a neuron that responds to the neurotransmitter

released by that neuron.
  Postsynaptic receptors detect the presence of a neurotransmitter in the
synaptic cleft and initiate excitatory or inhibitory postsynaptic potentials. But
the postsynaptic membrane is not the only location of receptors that respond
to neurotransmitters.
 •Many neurons also possess receptors that respond to the neurotransmitter
that they release, called autoreceptors.
 Autoreceptors do not control ion channels. Thus, when stimulated by a
molecule of the appropriate neurotransmitter, autoreceptors do not produce
changes in the membrane potential. Instead, they regulate internal processes,
including the synthesis and release of the neurotransmitter.
 In most cases, the effects of autoreceptor activation are inhibitory; that is, the
presence of the neurotransmitter in the extracellular fluid in the vicinity of the
neuron causes a decrease in the rate of the synthesis or release of the
neurotransmitter.
 Autoreceptors are part of a regulatory system that controls the amount of
neurotransmitter release.
 If too much is release; if not enough is released, the rates of production and
release go up.

COMMUNICATION AT AXOAXONIC SYNAPSES

 Axoaxonicsynapses do not contribute directly to neural integration. Instead,

axoaxonicsynapses alter the amount of a neurotransmitter released by the
terminal buttons of the postsynaptic axon.
 The release of a neurotransmitter by a terminal button is initiated by an action
potential. Normally, a particular terminal button releases a fixed amount of
neurotransmitter each time an action potential arrives.
 The release of the neurotransmitter can be modulated by the activity of the
axoaxonicsynapses.

They can produce presynaptic modulation:

 Presynaptic inhibition the action potential of a presynaptic terminal button in an

axoaxonic synapse; reduces the amount of neurotransmitter released by the
postsynaptic terminal button.
 Presynaptic facilitation the action of a presynaptic terminal button in an
axoaxonic synapse; increases the amount of neurotransmitter released by the
postsynaptic terminal button.

Nonsynaptic communication: Neuromodulators and Hormones

Neuromodulators a naturally secreted substance that acts like a neurotransmitter

except that it is not restricted to the synaptic cleft but diffuses through the
extracellular fluid.
Hormones are produced in cells located in the endocrine glands

Endocrine gland a gland that releases its secretions into the extracellular fluid
around capillaries and hence into the blood stream.

Target cell the type of cell that is directly affected by a hormone or nerve fiber.

LESSON 4: METHODS AND STRATEGIES OF RESEARCH

Experimental Ablation–the removal or destruction of a portion of the brain of a

laboratory animal - Latin “ablatus” –“carrying away”

Lesion study an experimental study in which the behavior of animals with brain
lesions is studied- To discover what functions are performed by different regions of
the brain and then to understand how these functions are combined to accomplish
particular behaviors.

PRODUCING BRAIN LESIONS

Anesthetize the animal, cut its scalp, remove part of its skull, & cut through the dura
mater, bringing the cortex into view Then we can use suction device to aspirate the
brain tissue. To accomplish this tissue removal, we place a glass pipette on the
surface of the brain & suck away brain tissue w/ a vacuum pump attached to the
pipette by a flexible tube.

In destroying regions that are hidden away in the depths of the brain, brain lesions
of subcortical regions are usually produced by passing electrical current through a
stainless steel wire that is coated with an insulating varnish except for the very tip.

RF lesion a brain lesion produced by passing radio frequency (RF) current through
a fine wire inserted into the brain. Lesions produced by these means destroy
everything in the vicinity of the electrode tip.

Excitotoxic lesion–a brain lesion produced by intra-cerebral injection of an

excitatory amino acids . A more selective method

The selectivity of excitotoxic lesions permits the investigator to determine whether

the behavioural effects of destroying particular brain structure are caused by the
death of neurons located there or by the destruction of axons that pass nearby.

Sham lesion–a ―placebo‖ procedure that duplicates all the steps of producing a
brain lesion except for the one that actually causes the brain damage.

STEREOTAXIC SURGERY - ―Stereotaxis”–solid arrangement

Brain surgery using a stereotaxic apparatus to position an electrode or cannula in a

specified position of the brain.
Stereotaxic Atlas - The heads of newborn babies contain a soft spot at the junction
of the coronal and sagittal sutures calle fontanelle.

Once this gap closes, the junction is called bregma.

Bregma–a junction of the sagitall and coronal sutures of the skull

Often used as a reference point for stereotaxic brain surgery

Stereotaxic atlas a collection of drawings of sections of the brain of a particular

animal with measurements that provide coordinates for stereotaxic surgery

Stereotaxic Apparatus - A device that permits a surgeon or cannula into a specific

part of the brain.

HISTOLOGICAL METHODS

 Fixation  Staining
 Sectioning  Electron microscopy
Fixation and Sectioning

Fixative–a chemical such as formalin (Used to prepare and preserve body tissue)

Formalin–the aqueous solution of formaldehyde gas (The most commonly used

tissue fixative)

It halts autolysis, hardens the very soft and fragile brain, and kills any
microorganisms that might destroy it.

Microtome– an instrument that produces very thin slices of body tissues.

Slices prepared for examination under a light microscope are typically 10 to 80 µm

in thickness those prepared for the electron microscope are generally cut at less
than 1 µm (A µm, or micrometer is one millionth of a meter, or one thousandth of a
millimetre)

Slices of brain tissue is called sections

Staining

Franz Nssl–discovered that a dye known as methylene blue would stain the cell
bodies of brain tissue.

The material that takes up the dye, known as the Nssl substance, consists of RNA,
DNA, and associated proteins located in the nucleus and scattered, in the form of
granules in the cytoplasm.

Cresyl violet–most frequently used stain

Electron microscopy

Scanning electron microscope–a microscope that provides three-dimensional

information about the shape of the surface of a small object.

TRACING NEURAL CONNECTIONS

Tracing Efferent Axons

Anterograde labelling method–a histological method that labels the axons and
terminal buttons of neurons whose cell bodies are located in a particular region.

PHA-L –Phaseolus vulgaris leukoagglutinin - A protein derived from kidney

beans used as an anterograde tracer

-Taken up by dendrites and cell bodies and carried to the ends of the axons

Tracing Afferent Axons

Retrograde labelling method–a histological method that labels cell bodies that
give rise to the terminal buttons that form synapses with cells in a particular region.

-Moving backward

Fluorogold–a dye that serves as a retrograde label. Taken up by terminal button

and carried back to the cell bodies

Study of the Living Human Brain

Computerized Tomography (CT) – the use of a device to analyse data obtained by

a scanning beam of X-rays to produce a two-dimensional picture of a slice through
the body.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)–a technique whereby the interior of the body
can be accurately imaged

Recording and Stimulating Neural Activity

Recording Neural Activity

 Axons produce action potentials, and terminal buttons elicit postsynaptic

potentials in the membrane of the cells with which they form synapses.
 Recording can be made chronically, over an extended period of time after an
animal recovers from surgery, or acutely, for a relatively short period of time
during which an animal is kept anesthetized.

Recording with Microelectrodes

 Microelectrode –a very fine electrode, generally used to record activity of

individual neurons.
  Single-unit recording –recording the electrical activity of single neuron.

Recording with Macroelectrodes

 Macroelectrode an electrode used to record the electrical activity of large

numbers of neurons in a particular region of the brain; much larger than
microelectrode
 Electroencephalogram (ECG) an electrical brain potential recorded by
placing electrodes on the scalp.

Recording the Brain’s Metabolic and Synaptic Activity

 2-deosyglucose(2-DG) a sugar that enters cells along with glucose but is not
metabolized.
 Autoradiography a procedure that locates radioactive substance in a slice of
tissue
o The radiation exposes a photographic emulsion or a piece of film that
covers the tissue
 Fos - a protein produced in the nucleus of the neuron in response tosynaptic
stimulation
 Positron emission tomography(PET) the use of a device that reveals the
localization of a radioactive tracer in a living brain.
 Functional MRI (fMRI) a modification of the MRI procedure that permits the
measurement of regional metabolism in the brain.

Measuring the Brain’s Secretion

Microdialysis–a procedure for analysing chemicals present in the interstitial fluid

through a small piece of tubing made of a semipermeable membrane that is
implanted in the brain. High-performance liquid chromatography

Stimulating Neural Activity

 Electrical or chemical stimulation

 Electrical stimulation involves passing an electrical current through a wire
inserted into the brain.
 Chemical stimulation is accomplished by injecting a small amount of an
excitatory amino acids into the brain
o Disadvantage: slightly more complicated, as it requires cannulas, tubes,
special pumps or syringes, & a sterile solutions of excitatory amino
acids.
o Advantage: it activates cell bodies but not axons. Thus, the effects of
chemical stimulation are more localized than the effects of electrical
stimulation.
Neurochemical Methods

Finding Neurons that produce Particular Neurochemicals

Immunocytochemical method –a histological method that uses radioactive

antibodies or antibodies bound with a dye molecule to indicate the presence of
particular proteins or peptides.

Localizing Particular Receptors

To identify the neurons that receive input, an experimenter use an anterograde

labelling method to trace the pathway of axons

Methods: Autoradiography and Immunocytochemistry

Genetic Methods

Twin Studies – often involve comparing the characteristics of identical and

fraternal twins and comparing twins of both types who have been reared together or
reared apart

Concordance – a trait if both members show it

Discordance, in genetics typically means that a similar trait is not shared between
twin members

2 types of Twins: identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic)

Adoption Studies - compare the similarity between an adoptee and his or her
biological versus adoptive relatives, or the similarity between biological relatives of
affected adoptees with those of unaffected or control adoptees

Targeted Mutations –mutated genes that re-produced in the laboratory and

inserted into the chromosomes of mice.

LESSON 5: Visual System

Two major functions of the brain:

1. 1.It controls the movement of the muscles

2. 2.It regulates the body’s internal environment
Sensory receptor a specialized neuron that detects a particular category of
physical events.

Sensory transduction the process

by which sensory stimuli are
transduced into slow, graded
receptor potentials.

Receptor potential a slow, graded

electrical potential produced by a
receptor cell in response to a
physical stimulus.

STIMULUS

Perceptual dimensions of color.

Hue – the dominant Brightness –intensity Saturation –purity

wavelength

ANATOMY OF THE VISUAL SYSTEM

EYES - Eyes are held in place and

moved by six extraocular muscles
attached to the tough, white outer coat
of the eye called the sclera.

Conjunctiva These mucous

membranes line the eyelid and fold
back to attach to the eye.

Accommodation –changes in the

thickness of the lens of the eye,
accomplished by the ciliary muscles, that focus images of near or distant objects of
the retina.

 After passing through the lens, light passess through the main part of the eye,
which contains the vitreous humor
 Light falls on the retina

Retina the neural tissue and photoreceptive cells located on the inner surface of the
posterior portion of the eye.

Receptor cells of retina

 Rod –Sensitive to light of low intensity (night vision)

  Cone –maxillary sensitive to one of three different wavelengths of light and
hence encodes color vision. (receiving info during the day)
o The human retina contains approx. 120 million rods and cons.

Photoreceptor transduces photic energy into electrical potentials.

 Fovea the region of the retina that mediates the most acute vision of birds and
higher mammals.-
o Color sensitive to cones constitute the only type of photoreceptor found
in the fovea

Optic disk the location of the exit point from the retina of the fibers of the ganglion
cells that form the optic nerve

 Responsible for the blind spot.

 This is where the axons conveying visual information gather together and
leave the eye through the optic nerve.

Bipolar cell –a bipolar neuron located in the

middle layer of the retina, conveying
information from the photoreceptors to the
ganglion cells.

Ganglion cell –a neuron located in the

retina that receives visual information from
bipolar cells. Its axons give rise to the optic
nerve

Horizontal cell –a neuron in the retina that

interconnects adjacent photoreceptors and
the outer processes of the bipolar cells.

Amacrine cell –a neuron in the retina that

interconnects adjacent ganglion cells and
the inner processes of the bipolar cells.

Photoreceptors

Lamella –a layer of membrane containing

photopigments

 Found in rods and cones of the retina.

Photopigment–a protein dye bonded to retinal, a substance derived from vitamin A

 responsible for transduction of visual information

Two parts of molecules:

Opsin (a protein) a class of protein that, together with retinal, constitutes the

photopigments. Ex. Rhodopsin a particular opsin found in rods.

Retinal (a lipid) a chemical synthesized from Vitamin A; joins with an opsin to form
a photopigment.

 When a molecule of rhodopsin is exposed to light, it break into its two

constituents, rod opsin and retinal.
 When that happens, the rod opsin changes from its rosy color to a pale yellow;
hence, we say that the light bleaches the
photopigment.
 The splitting of the photopigment causes
a change in the membrane potential of
the photoreceptor, which changes the
rate at which the photoreceptor releases
it neurotransmitter, glutamate.
 The first two types of cells in the circuit
do not produce action potentials. Instead,
their release of neurotransmitter is
regulated by the value of their membrane
potential; depolarizations increase the
release, & hyperpolarization decrease it

Connections between eye and brain

 The axons of the retinal ganglion cells bring information to the rest of the brain.
 They ascend through the optic nerves & reach the dorsal lateral geniculate
nucleus.

Dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus–a group of cell bodies within the lateral
geniculate body of the thalamus

 receives inputs from the retina and projects to the primary visual cortex.
 Contains 6 layers of neurons, each of w/c receives input from only 1 eye.

Magnocellular layer - the two inner layers of cells in the dorsal lateral geniculate
nucleus

 transmits information necessary for the perception of form, movement, depth,

and small differences in brightness

Parvocellular layer - the four outer layers of cells in the nucleus

  transmit information necessary for the
perception of color and fine details.

Calcarine fissure a horizontal fissure on the

inner surface of the posterior cerebral cortex

 the location of the primary visual cortex

Striate cortex often called the primary visual

cortex because it contains a dark staining layer
of cells.

CODING OF VISUAL INFORMATION IN THE RETINA

Coding of light and dark

 One of the most important methods for studying the physiology of the visual
system is the use of microelectrodes to record the electrical activity of single
neurons.

Receptive field –the portion of the visual field in which the presentation of visual
stimuli will produce an alteration in the firing rate of a particular neuron.

 The location of the receptive field of a particular neuron depends on the

location of the photoreceptors that provide it with visual information
 If a neuron receives information from photoreceptors located in the fovea, its
receptive field will be at the fixation point –the point in which the eye is looking.
 If the neuron receives information from the photoreceptors located in the
periphery of the retina, its receptive field will be located off to one side.

Hartline (1938) discovered that the frog retina contained 3 types of ganglion cells.
 1. ON cells –responded with an excitatory
burst when the retina was illuminated.
2. OFF cells –responded when the light
was turned off
3. ON/OFF cells –responded briefly when
the light went on and again when it went
off.

Kuffler (1952,1953), discovered that their receptive field (Cats subject) consists of a
roughly circular center, surrounded by a ring.

 The second characteristic of the receptive fields of ganglion cells –their

center surround organization –enhances our ability to detect the outlines of
objects even when the contrast between the object and the background is low.
 These exaggerated borders do not exist in the illustration; they are added by
our visual system because of the center-surround organization of the receptive
fields of the retinal ganglion cells.

Coding of Color

Color Mixing

Trichromatic (three-color) theory–Thomas Young

 eye detected different colors because it contained three types of receptors,

each sensitive to a single hue.
 Human observer any color can be reproduced by mixing various quantities of
three colors judiciously selected from different points along the spectrum.
 Color mixing refers to the addition of two or more light sources.
 He visual system uses the process of color mixing, not pigment mixing.

Opponent-color system -Ewald Hering

 Hue might be represented in the visual system as opponent colors

 Yellow, blue, red & green (black and white)
 Some colors appear to blend, whereas others do not.

Photoreceptors: Trichromatic Coding

 Physiological investigation of retinal photoreceptors in higher primates have

found that Young was right: three different types of photoreceptors (3 different
types of cones) are responsible for color vision.
 Blue [short wavelength 420 nm (blue violet )], green [medium wavelength 530
nm (green)], and red [long wavelength 560 nm (yellow green)].
Defective color vision:

1. Protanopia (1st color

defect) confuse red and
green. They see the world in
shades of yellow and blue:
both red and green look
yellowish to them.
2. Deuteranopia (2nd color
defect) also confuse red &
green & also have normal
visual acuity. Their green
cones appear to be filled
with ―red‖ cone opsin.
3. Tritanopia (3rd color defect)
have difficulty with hues of
short wavelengths and see the world in greens and reds.

Retinal Ganglion Cells: Opponent-Process Coding

Daw(1968) &Gouras(1968) found that

retinal ganglion cells respond specifically to
pairs of primary colors, with red opposing
green and blue opposing yellow.

 The retina contains two kinds of color-

sensitive ganglion cells: red-green
and yellow-blue.

LESSON 6: Mechanisms of Perception: Audition, the Body Senses, Chemical

Senses and Attention

Types of Sensory Areas of Cortex

Primary sensory cortices process information directly received from the relay
thalamic nuclei

The secondary sensory cortices

receive information from the primary
sensory cortices and other areas such
as intralaminar and midline thalamic
nuclei.

The association cortices are areas

located between auditory, visual, and
somatosensory cortices that integrate processed sensory impulses
Principles of Sensory
System Organization

1. Hierarchical
Organization

•The sensory systems are

characterized by the
hierarchical organization
whose functions are
organized from simple to complex. That is, the cerebral cortex consists of
interconnected complex wires. Thus, the sensation to perception process follows a
series of a pathway that guides a signal towards the higher-level areas within the
scheme.

2. Functional Segregation

According to Pineland Barnes (2018), functional segregation assumes that primary

sensory cortices, secondary sensory cortices, and associated cortices work together
to perform the same function. However, evidence has shown that these three
levels of the cerebral cortex contain different areas that specialized in performing
various analyses.

3. Parallel Processing

A serial system processes stimuli one at a time. However, recent developments

have suggested that sensory systems are parallel systems that allow information
to pass through multiple pathways. The parallel system is characterized by
parallel processing in which information or stimuli are processed
simultaneously.

The Auditory System: The Stimuli

Dimensions of Sound

A. Pitch refers to the position of a single sound in a

complete range of sound which can vary from high
to low depending on the frequency of vibration of
sound waves.

The frequency of vibration can be measured in hertz (Hz), or the cycles per second.

B. Loudness determines the intensity of sound.

A human ear can tolerate sounds 10 times greater than the amount that is just
perceptible
 C. Timbre refers to the type of
sounds produced by a specific
object.

The human ear is an analytical

organ. Compared to the human eye, which is a synthetic organ two different
wavelengths of light are perceived as a single color

 The middle ear consists of a hollow region behind the tympanic membrane,
approximately 2 ml in volume.
 It contains the bones of the middle ear, called ossicles, which are set into
vibration by the tympanic membrane.
 The malleus (hammer) connects with the tympanic membrane and transmits
vibration via the incus (anvil) and stapes (stirrup) to the cochlea, the
structures that contains the receptors.
 The baseplate of the stapes presses against the membrane behind the oval
window, the opening in the bony process surrounding the cochlea.
 The cochlea is the snail shaped structure of the inner ear that contains he
auditory transducing mechanism.
 The cochlea is divided longitudinally into three sections.
o 1. The receptive organ, known as the organ of corti , consists of the
basilar membrane, the hair cells, and the tectorial membrane.
o 2. The auditory receptors called hair cells, and they are anchored via
rodlike supporting cells ( Deiters’s cells), to the basilar membrane.
o 3. The cilia of the hair cells pass through the reticular membrane, and
the ends of some of them attach to the fairly rigid tectorial membrane,
which projects overhead like a shelf.
Auditory Pathway

 The organ of Corti sends

auditory information to the
brain by means of the cochlear
nerve, a branch of the auditory
nerve (VIII).
 The neuron that give rise to the
afferent axons that travel
through this nerve are of the
bipolar type.
 Their cell bodies reside in the
cochlear nerve ganglion
 These neurons have axonal
processes, capable of
sustaining action potentials,
that protrude from both ends of
the soma.
 The end of one process acts like a dendrite, responding with excitatory
postsynaptic potentials when the transmitter substance is released by the
auditory hair cells.
 The excitatory postsynaptic potentials trigger action potentials in the auditory
nerve axons, which form synapses with neurons in the medulla.

The Central Auditory System

 Axons enter the cochlear nucleus of the medulla and synapse there,
  Most of the neurons in the cochlear nucleus
send axons to the superior olivary complex, also
located in the medulla.
 Neurons there project axons through a large
bundle of axons called lateral lemniscus to the
inferior colliculus located in the dorsal midbrain.
 Neurons there project to the medial geniculate
nucleus of the thalamus, which sends axons to
the auditory cortex of the temporal lobe.
 Each hemisphere receives information from
both ears but primarily from the contralateral
one.
 And auditory information is relayed to the
cerebellum and reticular formation as well.
 Neurons in the primary auditory cortex send
axons to the auditory association cortex.

Detection of Pitch

The work of von Bekesy

has shown us that because
of the mechanical
construction of the cochlea
and basilar membrane,
acoustic stimuli of different
frequencies cause different
parts of the basilar
membrane to flex back and
forth.

The perceptual dimension of pitch corresponds to the physical dimension of

frequency. The cochlea detects frequency by two means: moderate to high
frequencies by place coding and low frequencies by rate coding.

Place code is the system by which information about different frequencies is coded
by different locations on the basilar membrane.

Cochlear implants are devices used to restore hearing in people with deafness
caused by damage to the hair cells

The purpose of a cochlear implant is to restore a person’s ability to understand

speech.
Rate Coding

Kiang (1965) was unable to find any cells that responded best to frequencies less
than 200 Hz.

It appears that lower frequencies are detected by neurons that fire in synchrony with
the movements of the apical end of the basilar membrane.

Rate code is the system by which information about different frequencies is coded
by the rate of firing of neurons in the auditory system.

Detection of Timbre

The shape of the waveform repeats itself regularly at the fundamental frequency,
which corresponds to the perceived pitch of the note.

Fundamental frequency –the lowest and usually most intense frequency of a

complex sound, most often perceived as the sound’s basic pitch.

An analysis of waveform shows that it actually consists of a series of sine waves

that includes the fundamental frequency, and many overtones, multiples of the tines
with different intensities.

Overtone – the frequency of complex tones that occurs at multiples of the

fundamental frequency.

Subcortical Mechanism of Sound Localization

Localization of sounds in space is mediated by the lateral and medial superior

olives, but in different ways.

When a sound originates to a person’s left, it reaches the left ear first and it is louder
at the left ear. Some neurons in the medial superior olives respond to slight
differences in the time of arrival of signals from the two ears, whereas some neurons
in the lateral superior olives respond to slight differences in the amplitude of sounds
from the two ears.

Effects of Damage to the Auditory System

1. It provides information about how the auditory system works.

2. It can serve as a source of information about the causes and treatment of
clinical deafness.

AUDITORY CORTEX DAMAGE

For bilateral lesion, complete loss of hearing, which presumably results from the
shock of the lesion because hearing recovers in the ensuing weeks . The major
permanent effects are loss of the ability to localize sounds and impairment of the
ability to discriminate frequencies

A unilateral lesion disrupts the ability to localize sounds in space contralateral, but
not ipsilateral, to the lesion

Deafness - Severe hearing problems typically result from damage to the inner ear
or the middle ear or to the nerves leading from them rather than from more central
damage.

There are two common classes of hearing impairments: those associated with
damage to the ossicles (conductive deafness) and those associated with
damage to the cochlea or auditory nerve (nerve deafness).

 The major cause of nerve deafness is a loss of hair cell receptors.

The Vestibular System

 The vestibular system has two components: the vestibular sacs and the
semicircular canals.
 The vestibular sacs respond to the force of gravity and inform the brain about
the head’s orientation.
 The semicircular canals respond to angular acceleration –changes in the
rotation of the head –but not to steady rotation.
 The function of the vestibular system include balance, maintenance of the
head in an upright position, and adjustment of eye movement to
compensate for head movements.
 Vestibular stimulation does not produce any readily definable sensation:
certain low frequency stimulation of the vestibular sacs can produce nausea,
and stimulation of the semicircular canals can produce dizziness and rhythmic
eye movements (nystagmus)

Anatomy of the Vestibular Apparatus

The figure shows the labyrinths of the inner ear,

which include the cochlea, the semicircular
canals, and the two vestibular sacs: the utricle
(―the little pouch‖) and the saccule (―little sac‖)

The semicircular canals approximate the three

major planes of the head: sagittal, transverse, and horizontal.

Receptors in each canal are activated by changes in rotation of the head in one
plane.
The semicircular canal consists of a
membranous canal floating within a bony one;
the membranous canal contains a fluid called
endolymph and floats within a fluid called
perilymph.

An enlargements called ampulla contains that

organ in which the sensory receptors reside.

The sensory receptors are hair cells similar to

those found in the cochlea.

Their cilia are embedded in a gelatinous mass

called the cupula, which blocks part of the
ampulla.

When the head suddenly turns, inertia causes

the endolymph to move relative to the cupula,
and the bending of the cupula exerts a shearing
force on the cilia of the hair cells.

The vestibular sacs are roughly circular, and

each contains a patch of receptive tissue.

The receptive tissue is located on the ―floor‖ of

the utricle and on the ―wall‖ of the saccule when
the head is in an upright position.

The Receptor
Cells
The Vestibular Pathway

The bipolar cell bodies

that give rise to the
afferent axons of the
vestibular nerve are
located in the vestibular
ganglion, which appears
as a nodule on the
vestibular nerve

• Most of the axons of the

vestibular nerve synapse
within the vestibular nuclei
in the medulla, but some
axons travel directly to the cerebellum.

• Neurons of the vestibular nuclei send their axons to the cerebellum, spinal cord,
medulla and pons.

The Somatosensory System

 The somatosenses provide information about what is happening on the

surface of our body and inside it.
 The cutaneous sense (skin senses) include several submodalities
commonly referred to as touch.
 Kinesthesia provides information about body position and movement and
arises from receptors in joints, tendons, and muscles.
 The organic muscles arise from receptors in and around the internal organs,
providing us with unpleasant sensations, such as stomach aches or
gallbladder attacks, or pleasurable ones, such as those provided by a warm
drink on a cold winter day.

The Stimuli

The cutaneous sense respond to several different types of stimuli: pressure,

vibration, heating, cooling, and events that cause tissue damage (and hence, pain).

 Feelings of pressure are caused by mechanical deformation of the skin.

 Vibration is produced in the laboratory or clinic by tuning forks or mechanical
devices, but it more commonly occurs when we move our fingers across a
rough surface (e.g., judging an object’s roughness).
 Sensations of warmth and coolness are produced by objects that change skin
temperature from normal.
  Sensation of pain can be caused by many different types of stimuli, but it
appears that most cause at least some tissue damage.
 Kinesthesia is provided by stretch receptors in skeletal muscles that report
changes in muscle length to the central nervous system and by stretch
receptors in tendons that measure the force being exerted by the muscles.
 Receptors within joints between adjacent bones respond to the magnitude and
direction of limb movements.
 Organic sensitivity is provided by receptors in the linings of muscles, outer
layers of the gastrointestinal system and other internal organs, and linings of
the abdominal and thoracic cavities.

Anatomy of the Skin and Its Receptive Organs

The skin participates in

thermoregulation by
producing sweat, thus
cooling the body, or by
restricting its circulation of
blood, thus conserving
heat.

Its appearance varies

widely across the body,
from mucous membrane
to hairy skin to the
smooth, hairless skin of
the palms and the soles
of the feet.

Hairy skin contains

encapsulated (free) nerve
ending and Ruffini
corpuscles, which respond to
low-frequency vibration.

Free nerve endings are

found just below the surface
of the skin, in a basework
around the base of hair
follicles and around the
emergence of hair shafts from
the skin.

 Glabrous skin contains

 a more complex mixture of free nerve endings and axons that terminate within
specialized end organs.
 The increased complexity probably reflects the facts that we use the palms of
our hands and to hold and touch objects.
 In contrast, the rest of the body most often contacts the environment
passively; that is, other things come into contact with it.

Pacinian corpuscles are the largest sensory organs in the body. They are found
in the glabrous skin and in the external genitalia, mammary glands, and various
internal organs. They are sensitive to touch, particularly to high frequency
vibration.

Meissner’s corpuscles are found in papillae (―nipples‖), small elevation of the

dermis that project up into the epidermis. These end organs are innervated by two to
six axons. They respond to low frequency vibration.

Merkel’s disks are found at the base of the epidermis, in the same general
locations as Meissner’s corpuscles, adjacent to sweat ducts.

Detection of Cutaneous Stimulation

The three most important qualities of cutaneous stimulation are touch, temperature,
and pain.

Touch - When the Pacinian corpuscle is bent relative to the axon, the membrane
becomes depolarized. If the threshold of excitation is exceeded, action potential is
produced at the first node of Ranvier. This receptor is sensitive to vibration.

 Adaptation: Moderate, constant stimulus applied to the skin fails to produce

any sensation after it has been present for a while
 Pressure sensations were also briefly recorded when the weight was
removed, while the surface of the skin regained its normal shape.

Temperature - Changes in temperature are detected by free nerve endings and

that warmth and coolness are detected by different populations of receptors

Pain - Instense mechanical stimulation activates a class of high-threshold receptors

that produce a sensation of pain.

Sensation of pain can also be caused by the release of a chemical by injured cells. -
prostaglandin

The Somatosensory Pathways

 Somatosensory axons from the skin, muscles, or internal organs enter the
central nervous system via spinal nerves.
  Those located in the face and head primarily enter through the trigeminal
nerve (5thcranial nerve)
 The cell bodies of the unipolar neurons are located in the dorsal root ganglia
and cranial nerve ganglia.
 Axons that convey precisely localized information, such as fine touch, ascend
through the dorsal columns in the white matter of the spinal cord to nuclei in
the lower medulla.
 From there, axons cross the brain and ascend through the medial lemniscus to
the ventral posterior nuclei of the thalamus, the relay nuclei for
somatosensation
 Axons from the primary somatosensory cortex, which in turn sends axons to
the secondary somatosensory cortex.
 In contrast, axons that convey poorly localized information, such as pain or
temperature, form synapses with other neurons as soon as they enter the
spinal cord.

Perception of Pain

Phantom limb: sensations that appear to originate in a limb that has been
amputated.

The Gustatory System

Four qualities of taste,

1. Bitterness 3. Sweetness
2. Sourness 4. Saltiness
Anatomy of the Taste buds and Gustatory Cells

The tongue, palate, pharynx, and larynx contain approximately 10,000 taste buds.

Most of these receptive organs are arranged around papillae, small protuberances
of the tongue.

Detection of Gustatory Information

Transduction of taste is similar to the chemical transmission that takes place at

synapses: the tasted molecule binds with the receptor and produces a changes in
membrane permeability that cause receptor potentials.

Different substances bind with different types of receptors, producing different taste
sensations.

Gustatory Pathway
Gustatory information is transmitted through cranial nerves 7 (facial nerve), 9
(glossopharyngeal nerve), and 10 (vagusnerve).
  Information from the anterior part of the tongue travels through the chorda
tympani, a branch of the 7thcranial nerve (facial nerve).
 Taste in the posterior part of the tongue send information through the lingual
(tongue) branch of the 9thcranial nerve
(glossopharyngeal nerve), ; the 10thcranial
nerve (vagusnerve) carries information from
receptors of the palate and epiglottis.
 The first relay station for taste is the nucleus of
the solitary tract, located in the medulla.
 Thalamic taste sensitive neurons send their
axons to the primary gustatory cortex, which is
located in the insular and opercular regions of
the frontal lobe.
 Neurons in this region project to the secondary
gustatory cortex, located in the caudolateral
and orbitofrontal cortex.
 Gustatory information also reaches the
amygdala and the hypothalamus and adjacent
basal forebrain.

The Olfactory System

 The stimulus for odor consists of volatile substances having a molecular

weight in the range of approximately 15 to 300.
 Almost all odorous compounds are lipid soluble and of organic origin.
 Our 50 million olfactory receptor cells reside within two patches of mucous
membrane (the olfactory epithelium), each having an area of about 1 square
inch.
 The olfactory epithelium is located at the top of the nasal cavity.
 Less than 10 % of the air that enters the nostrils reaches the olfactory
epithelium; a sniff is needed to sweep air
upward into the nasal cavity so that it
reaches the olfactory receptors.
 Olfactory receptor cells are bipolar neurons
whose cell bodies lie within the olfactory
mucosa that lines the cribriform plate, a
bone at the base of the rostral part of the
brain.
 The cells send a process toward the surface
of the mucosa, w/c divides into ten to twenty
cilia that penetrate the layer of mucus.

  The odor must dissolve in the mucus and stimulate receptor molecules on the
olfactory cilia.
 The axons of receptor cells enter the skull through small holes in the cribriform
plate.
 The olfactory mucosa also contains free nerve endings of trigeminal nerve
axons; these nerve endings presumably mediate sensations of pain that can
be produced by sniffing some irritating chemicals, such as ammonia.
 The olfactory bulbs lie at the base of the brain on the ends of the stalk-like
olfactory tracts.
 Each olfactory receptor cells sends a single axon into the olfactory bulb, where
it forms
 Olfactory tract axons project directly to the amygdala and to two regions of the
limbic cortex: the pyriform cortex and the entorhinal cortex.
 The amygdala sends olfactory information to the hypothalamus , the entorhinal
cortex sends it to the hippocampus, and the pyriform cortex sends it to the
hypothalamus and to the orbitofrontal cortex, via the dorsomedial nucleus of
the thalamus.

Transduction of Olfactory Information

The Golf activates an enzyme that opens sodium channels & depolarizes the
membrane.

Each glomerulus receives information from only one type of olfactory receptor.

This means that the task of detecting different odors is a spatial one; the brain
recognizes odors by means of the patters of activity created in the glomeruli.

Detection of Specific Odors

How can we use a relatively small

number of receptors to detect to many
different odorants?

 The particular odorant binds to

more than one receptor.
 Because a given glomerulus
receives information from only
one type of receptor, different
odorants produce different
patterns of activity in different
glomeruli.
 Recognizing a particular odor,
then, is a matter of recognizing a particular patter of activity in the glomeruli.
LESSON 7: The Sensorimotor System

Three Principles of Sensorimotor Function

1. The sensorimotor system is hierarchically organized

 The commands that emerge from the association cortex specify general goals
rather than specific plans of action
 The main advantage of this hierarchical organization is that the higher levels of
the hierarchy are left free to perform more complex functions
 The sensorimotor and company hierarchies are also characterized by
functional segregation.
2. Motor output is guided by sensory
input

The eyes, the organs of balance, and

the receptors in skin, muscles, and joints
all monitor the body’s responses, and
they feed their information back into
sensorimotor circuits.•

In most instances, this sensory feedback

plays an important role in directing the
continuation of the responses that produced it.

3. Learning can change the nature and the locus of sensorimotor control.

During the initial stages of motor learning, each individual response is performed
under conscious control; then, after much practice, individual responses become
organized into continuous integrated sequences of action that flow smoothly and are
adjusted by sensory feedback without conscious regulation.
General Model of Sensorimotor System
Function

Notice its hierarchical structure, the

functional segregation of the levels (e.g.,
of secondary motor cortex), the parallel
connections between levels, and the
numerous feedback pathways.

Sensorimotor Association Cortex

A. Posterior Parietal Association

Cortex
 The posterior parietal association
cortex (the portion of parietal
neocortex posterior to the primary somatosensory cortex ) plays an important
role in integrating these two kinds of information, in directing behavior by
providing spatial information, and in directing attention
 The posterior parietal cortex is classified as association cortex because it
receives input from more than one sensory system. It receives information
from the three sensory systems that play roles in the localization of the body
and external objects in space: the visual system, the auditory system, and
the somatosensory system
 Much of the output of the posterior parietal cortex goes to areas of motor
cortex, which are located in the frontal cortex: to the dorsolateral prefrontal
association cortex, to the various areas of secondary motor cortex, and to the
frontal eye field—a small area of prefrontal cortex that controls eye
movements.
 Damage to the posterior parietal cortex can produce a variety of deficits,
including deficits in the perception and memory of spatial relationships, in
accurate reaching and grasping, in the control of eye movement, and in
attention
 Apraxia is a disorder of voluntary movement that is not attributable to a
simple motor deficit (e.g., not to paralysis or weakness ) or to any deficit in
comprehension or motivation.
 Contralateral neglect is a disturbance of a patient’s ability to respond to
stimuli on the side of the body opposite ( contralateral) to the side of a brain
lesion in the absence of simple sensory or motor deficits
 Most patients with contralateral neglect have difficulty responding to things to
the left.
  Two types of evidence suggest that information about objects that are not
noticed by patients with contralateral neglect may be unconsciously
perceived
1. when objects were repeatedly presented at the same spot to the left of
patients with contralateral neglect, they tended to look to the same spot on
future trials, although they were unaware of the objects
2. patients could more readily identify fragmented (partial) drawings viewed to
their right if complete versions of the drawings had previously been
presented to the left, where they were not consciously perceived.
B. Dorsolateral Prefrontal Association Cortex
 It receives projections from the posterior parietal cortex, and it sends
projections to areas of secondary motor cortex, to primary motor cortex,
and to the frontal eye field.

Secondary Motor Cortex

Areas of secondary motor cortex are those that receive much of their input from
association cortex (i.e., posterior parietal cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex)
and send much of their output to primary motor cortex

Areas of Secondary Motor Cortex

8 areas of secondary motor cortex in each hemisphere, each with its own
subdivisions:

 three different supplementary motor areas (SMA, preSMA, and

supplementary eye field)
 two premotor areas (dorsal and ventral)
 three small areas—the cingulate motor areas—in the cortex of the cingulate
gyrus.

•In general, areas of secondary motor cortex are thought to be involved in the
programming of specific patterns of movements after taking general instructions
from dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

Mirror Neurons

Primary Motor Cortex

The primary motor cortex is located in the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe.

Understanding of the function of primary motor cortex has undergone radical

changes over the past two decades. The following two sections describe these
changes.

Conventional View of Primary Motor Cortex Function

In 1937, Penfield and Boldreymapped
the primary motor cortex of conscious
human patients during neurosurgery by
applying brief, low intensity electrical
stimulations to various points on the
cortical surface and noting which part of
the body moved in response to each
stimulation.

They found that the stimulation of each

particular cortical site activated a
particular contralateral muscle and
produced a simple movement. When
they mapped out the relation between
each cortical site and the muscle that
was activated by its stimulation, they
found that the primary motor cortex is
organized somatotopically—that is,
according to a map of the body.

The somatotopiclayout of the human primary motor cortex is commonly referred to

as the motor homunculus.

It is important to appreciate that each site in the primary motor cortex receives
sensory feedback from receptors in the muscles and joints that the site influences.

Current View of Primary Motor Cortex Function

Recent efforts to map the primary motor cortex have used a new stimulation
technique. Rather than stimulating with brief pulses of current that are just above the
threshold to produce a reaction, investigators have used longer bursts of current
(e.g., 0.5 to 1 seconds), which are more similar to the duration of a motor response.

The results were amazing: Rather than eliciting the contractions of individual
muscles, these currents elicited complex natural-looking response sequences.

Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia

The cerebellum and the basal ganglia are both important sensorimotor structures,
but neither is a major part of the pathway by which signals descend through the
sensorimotor hierarchy.

Instead, both the cerebellum and the basal ganglia interact with different levels of
the sensorimotor hierarchy
Cerebellum

The cerebellum receives information from primary and secondary motor cortex,
information about descending motor signals from brainstem motor nuclei, and
feedback from motor responses via the somatosensory and vestibular systems.

The cerebellum is thought to compare these three sources of input and correct
ongoing movements that deviate from their intended course.

By performing this function, it is believed to play a major role in motor learning,

particularly in the learning of sequences of movements in which timing is a critical
factor

Diffuse cerebellar damage -the patient loses the ability to control precisely the
direction, force, velocity, and amplitude of movements and the ability to adapt
patterns of motor output to changing conditions. It is difficult to maintain steady
postures (e.g., standing), and attempts to do so frequently lead to tremor. There are
also severe disturbances in balance, gait, speech, and the control of eye movement.
Learning new motor sequences is particularly difficult

Basal Ganglia

They contribute few fibers to descending motor pathways; instead, they are part of
neural loops that receive cortical input from various cortical areas and transmit it
back to the cortex via the thalamus.

The traditional view of the basal ganglia was that they, like the cerebellum, play a
role in the modulation of motor output.

Now, the basal ganglia are thought to also be involved in a variety of cognitive
functions

Descending Motor Pathways

Neural signals are conducted from the primary motor

cortex to the motor neurons of the spinal cord over four
different pathways.

Two pathways descend in the dorsolateral region of the

spinal cord—collectively known as the dorsolateral
motor pathways, and two descend in the ventromedial
region of the spinal cord—collectively known as the
ventromedial motor pathways.

Dorsolateral Corticospinal Tract and Dorsolateral

Corticorubrospinal Tract
A. Dorsolateral corticospinal tract -
descends from the primary motor
cortex does so through the medullary
pyramids—two bulges on the ventral
surface of the medulla—then
decussates and continues to descend
in the contralateral dorsolateral spinal
white matter.
 Betz cells—extremely large
pyramidal neurons of the primary
motor cortex.
 Most axons of the dorsolateral
corticospinal tract synapse on
small interneurons of the spinal
gray matter, which synapse on the
motor neurons of distal muscles of the wrist, hands, fingers, and toes.
B. Dorsolateral corticorubrospinal tract (rubro refers to the red nucleus) The
axons of neurons in the red nucleus then decussate and descend through the
medulla, where some of them terminate in the nuclei of the cranial nerves that
control the muscles of the face. The rest continue to descend in the dorsolateral
portion of the spinal cord.
 The axons of the dorsolateral corticorubrospinal tract synapse on interneurons
that in turn synapse on motor neurons that project to the distal muscles of the
arms and legs.

Ventromedial Corticospinal Tract and

Ventromedial Cortico-brain-stem-
spinal Tract

A. Ventromedial corticospinal tract -

descend ipsilaterally from the primary
motor cortex directly into the
ventromedial areas of the spinal white
matter.
 It branches diffusely and innervates
the interneuron circuits in several
different spinal segments on both
sides of the spinal gray matter.
B. Ventromedial cortico-brainstem-
spinal tract –comprises motor cortex
axons that feed into a complex
network of brain stem structures.
  The axons of some of the neurons in this complex brain stem motor network
then descend bilaterally in the ventromedial portion of the spinal cord.
 Each side carries signals from both hemispheres, and each neuron synapses
on the interneurons of several different spinal cord segments that control the
proximal muscles of the trunk and limbs.

4 major brain stem structures that interact with the ventromedial cortico-
brainstem-spinal tract

1. Tectum -receives auditory and visual information about spatial location

2. Vestibular nucleus -receives information about balance from receptors in the
semicircular canals of the inner ear
3. Reticular formation -contains motor programs that regulate complex species
typical movements such as walking, swimming, and jumping;
4. Motor nuclei of the cranial nerves -control the muscles of the face.

Comparison of the Two Dorsolateral Motor Pathways & the Two Ventromedial
Motor Pathways

The two ventromedial tracts are much more diffuse. Many of their axons innervate
interneurons on both sides of the spinal gray matter and in several different
segments, whereas the axons of the two dorsolateral tracts terminate in the
contralateral half of one spinal cord segment, sometimes directly on a motor neuron.

The motor neurons activated by the two ventromedial tracts project to proximal
muscles of the trunk and limbs (e.g., shoulder muscles), whereas the motor neurons
activated by the two dorsolateral tracts project to distal muscles (e.g., finger
muscles).

1. Lawrence and Kuypers(1968a) transected (cut through) the left and right
dorsolateral corticospinal tracts of their subjects in the medullary pyramids,
just above the decussation of the tracts. Following surgery, these monkeys
could stand, walk, and climb quite normally; however, their ability to use their
limbs for other activities was impaired.
2. Lawrence and Kuypers (1968b ) made additional transections in the monkeys
whose dorsolateral corticospinal tracts had already been transected in the first
experiment . The dorsolateral corticorubrospinal tract was transected in one
group of these monkeys. The monkeys could stand, walk, and climb after this
second transection, but when they were sitting, their arms hung limply by their
sides (remember that monkeys normally use their arms for standing and
walking).

Sensorimotor Spinal Circuits

Muscles –
  Motor units are the smallest units of motor activity.
 When the motor neuron fires, all the muscle fibers of its unit contract together.
 Acetylcholine, which is released by motor neurons at neuromuscular junctions,
activates the motor end-plate on each muscle fiber and causes the fiber to
contract.
 All of the motor neurons that innervate the fibers of a single muscle are called
its motor pool.

Two Basic Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers

Fast muscle fibers –are those that contract and relax quickly.

 They fatigue quickly because they are poorly vascularized

 Participate in quick movements such as jumping,

Slow muscle fibers –are capable of more sustained contraction because they are
more richly vascularized

 participate in gradual movements such as walking.

Categories of Skeletal Muscles

 Flexors act to bend or flex a joint

 Extensors act to straighten or extend it.

Any two muscles whose contraction produces the same movement, be it flexion or
extension, are said to be synergistic muscles ; those that act in opposition, like the
biceps and the triceps, are said to be antagonistic muscles

Receptor Organs of Tendons and Muscles

Golgi tendon organs are embedded in the tendons, which connect each skeletal
muscle to bone.

 respond to increases in muscle tension (i.e., to the pull of the muscle on the
tendon), but they are completely insensitive to changes in muscle length.
 Provide the central nervous system with information about muscle tension, but
they also serve a protective function. When the contraction of a muscle is so
extreme that there is a risk of damage, the Golgi tendon organs excite
inhibitory interneurons in the spinal cord that cause the muscle to relax.
 Muscle spindles are embedded in the muscle tissue itself
 respond to changes in muscle length, but they do not respond to changes
in muscle tension.

Stretch Reflex - a reflex elicited by a sudden external stretching force on a muscle.

  •The sudden stretch of the thigh muscle stretches its muscle spindle stretch
receptors, which in turn initiate a volley of action potentials carried from the
stretch receptors into the spinal cord by spindle afferent neurons via the
dorsal root.
 This volley of action potentials excites motor neurons in the ventral horn of
the spinal cord, which respond by sending action potentials back to the
muscle whose stretch originally excited them.
 The arrival of these impulses back at the starting point results in a
compensatory muscle contraction and a sudden leg extension.

Withdrawal Reflex

Reciprocal Innervation

It refers to the fact that antagonistic

muscles are innervated in a way that
permits a smooth, unimpeded motor
response: When one is contracted, the
other relaxes.

Recurrent Collateral Inhibition - inhibits the very motor neuron from which it
receives its input.

Walking: A Complex Sensorimotor Reflex