Introduction to Brain & Behavior Chapter 2 1

The Nervous Systems Functional Anatomy

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Brain Function and Structure

• brains primary function is to produce behavior or movement

• therefore the brain must absorb information around us that produces appropriate response
• nervous system admits information from the world, convert this information to biological activity that
produces perception

→ the nervous system produces movement in a perceptual world the brain constructs

Plastic Patterns of Neural Organization

• brain is plastic → neural tissue can adapt to changing circumstances y changing how its functions
are organized (e.g. blind person with enhanced auditory capacities)
• in order to learn something new, neural circuits are changed to represent and store knowledge
• neuroplasticity
• nervous systems potential for physical or chemical changes to compensate for injury or changing
circumstances
• phenotypic plasticity
• an individuals capacity to develop into more than one phenotype
• individuals genotype interacts with the environment to elect specific phenotype
• large genetic repertoire result from epigenetic influences
• e.g. specific diet adds chemical markers, epigenetic tags or specific genes

Functional Organization of the Nervous System

• anatomical organization
• brain and spinal cord together central nervous system
• nerve fibers radiating beyond and all neurons outside
brain and spinal cord form peripheral nervous system
(PNS) → carries sensory information into CNS and
motor information out of CNS

• functional organization
• neurons in somatic devision of PNS connect
through cranial and spinal nerves to receptors on
surface and muscles → gather sensory information
and convey information to move muscles
• autonomic devision helps govern internal organs
• enteric nervous system (sometimes considered part
of ANS) controls digestion and stomach
contractions

Interacting Four-Part System

(I) CNS includes brain and spinal cord → nervous system core that mediates behavior
(II) somatic nervous system includes all spinal and cranial nerves carrying information to CNS from
muscles, joints and skin and transmits outgoing motor instructions that elicit movement
(III) autonomic nervous system balances internal organs by producing rest-and digest response
through parasympathetic nerves or fight or flight response through sympathetic nerves
(IV) enteric nervous system controls gut, communicates with CNS by ANS but mostly autonomously

afferent information is incoming sensory information to the CNS or one of its parts
efferent information is outgoing information leaving the CNS or one of its parts
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The Brain's Surface Features

Protecting the Nervous system

• meninges (sg. meninx)

• three layers of protective fissures under the skull
• outmost layer dura mater (latin hard mother) → though
double layer of fibrous tissue
• arachnoid layer (greek spiders web) → ultra thin sheet of
delicate connective tissue that follows brain contours
• inner layer pia mater (latin soft mother) → moderately
tough membrane of connective tissue clinging to brains
surface
• between arachnoid layer an pia layer flows cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) → clear solution of sodium
chlorine and other salts, cushions brain so it can move/expand lightly without pressing on skull

BASICS: Finding your ways around the Brain

Term Meaning with respect to nervous system

anterior near/toward the front on animal or head (see

frontal or rostral)

caudal near/toward the tail of animal (see posterior)

coronal cut vertically from crown of head down,

referencing plane of brain section showing a
frontal view

dorsal on/toward back of four-legged animal

(equivalent to posterior for human spinal cord)
reference to human brain nuclei (above) and to
brain sections viewed from above

frontal of the front (see anterior or rostral), referencing

to brain sections viewed from the front

horizontal cut along the horizon, referencing plane of

brain section revealing a dorsal view
inferior below (see ventral)

lateral toward side of body or brain

medial toward middle of body or brain, in reference to

brain sections, side view of central structures

posterior near/toward the tail of animal (see caudal),

foreman spinal cord, at the back

rostral toward beak (front) of animal (see frontal)

sagittal cut lengthways from front to back of skull to

reveal medial view into brain from the side
cut in midsagittal plane divides brain into
symmetrical halves

superior above (see dorsal)

ventral on/toward belly of four-legged animal (inferior)

reference to human brain nuclei (below)
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Cerebral Geography

temporal lobe
part of the cerebral cortex that functions in
connection with hearing, language and musical
abilities, lies below lateral fissure, beneath the
temporal bone at side of skull

frontal lobe
part of the cerebral cortex, performing brain's
executive functions (decision-making), lies anterior to
central sulcus and beneath frontal bone of the skull

parietal lobe
part of the cerebral cortex, directs movements toward
a goal or to perform a task, lies posterior to central
sulcus and beneath parietal bone at top of the skull

occipital lobe
part of the cerebral cortex, where visual processing
begins, lies at back of the brain and beneath the
occipital bone

cerebellum (latin for little brain) and brain stem visible

in lateral and medial view

much of cerebral cortex visible from brains surface

gyri (sing. gyrus) → small bump formed by folding of
cerebral cortex
sulci (sing. sulcus) → groove in brain matter, most are
in neocortex or cerebellum, some are so deep that
they are called fissure (longitudinal fissure between
cerebral hemispheres and lateral fissure along sides of
the brain

brain stem area for most unconscious behavior, tubes

mark cranial nerves that run from and to brain as part
of SNS

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CLINICAL FOCUS: Infections of the Brain

• Meningitis
• harmful microorganisms invading meninges (especially in pia mater, arachnoid layer or CSF)
• symptoms include inflammation which presses pressure on brain and lead from delirium to even
coma, earliest symptoms headache and stiff neck (cervical rigidity) → head retraction (tilting head
backwards)

• Encephalitis
• infection of brain itself, different forms like encephalitis lethargica
• symptoms like sleep disturbance, symptoms of Parkinson's (tremors, difficulties with voluntary
movement)
• caused by death of substancia nigra
• radical treatment → hemispherectomy, surgical removal of affected hemisphere

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Introduction to Brain & Behavior Chapter 2 4

Cerebral Circulation

brains surface covered in blood vessels, stories feed blood to the brain and send it back through veins
in kidneys and lungs for cleaning and oxygenation
three major arteries send blood to cerebellum (anterior, middle and posterior cerebral arteries)
brain highly sensitive to blood loss, blockage or leak can lead to death of affected region → stroke
stroke characterized by sudden appearance of neurological symptoms as result of severely interrupted
blood flow, strokes disrupt different brain functions depending of affected artery

The Brain's Internal Features

grey matter
areas of nervous system containing primarily cell body and capillary blood vessels that collects and
modify information of support this activity

white matter
areas of the nervous system rich in fat-heated neural axons that form the connections between brain
cells

ventricles
one of four cavities in brain that contain CSF to
cushion the brain, may play a role in maintaining
brain metabolism

corpus callosum
band of white matter containing about 200 million
nerve fibers that connects the two cerebral
hemispheres to provide a route for direct
communication between them

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CLINICAL FOCUS: Stroke

• blockage or break in cerebral artery, two major types

• ischemic stroke → blocked blood vessel, can be treated by tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA)
which breaks up clots
• hemorrhagic stroke → burst vessel bleeding into brain

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Subcortical brain regions

• brain stem controls basic physiological functioning

• relation between sub cortex and cortex, redundant functions exist at many levels of nervous system
organization

Microscopic Inspection: Cells and Fibers

• neurons carry out brain's major functions

• glial cells aid and modulate neuron activity
• nuclei (sing. nucleus) → a group of cells forming a cluster that can be identified with special stains
to form a functional grouping
• neurons connected to each other by axons
• large collections of axons that run together are called nerves (outside CNS) or tracts (in CNS)
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The Nervous System's Evolutionary Development

Stages in Brain Evolution

• in embryo, nervous system begins as a sheet of

cells, this sheet folds into hollow tube and
develops into three regions: forebrain, midbrain
and hindbrain (equivalent to fish or reptile)

• prosencephalon (front brain) for olfaction (smell)

• develops further into diencephalon (subcortex
"between brain") and telencephalon (cerebral
hemispheres and cortex "endbrain")
• mesencephalon (middle brain) for vision and
hearing
• rhombencephalon (hindbrain) controls
movement and balance, spinal cord is part
• develops further into metencephalon (across
brain, including cerebellum) and
myelencephalon (spinal brain, including spinal
cord)

The Nervous System and Intelligent Behavior

• most behaviors are product of many interacting brain areas and levels
• hierarchical organization affects all human behavior
• experiments with oculus show that invertebrates also display intelligent behavior (e.g. learning by
observation)

principle VI: brain systems are organized hierarchically and in parallel

The Central Nervous System: Mediating Behavior

Spinal Cord

• executes most movements elicited by brain or autonomously via somatic nervous system
• each spinal segment receives information from one part of body and sends commands to that area
• spinal nerves (part of SNS) carry sensory information from skin, muscle etc. to spinal cord and send
motor instructions to control muscles → spinal reflex when tapping knee cap

Brainstem

• receives afferent nerves from all body senses & sends out efferent nerves to cord to control body
• responsible for most unconscious behavior, separated intro three sections
• hindbrain → most important in motor functions
• midbrain → most important in sensory functions
• diencephalon ("between brain") → most important for integrative sensorimotor tasks
• hindbrain and midbrain extension of spinal cord, sensory structures lying posterior (dorsal in
animals) and motor structures anterior (ventral in animals), all regions carry out more than one
function

principle VII: sensory and motor devisions permeate the nervous system
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(I) Hindbrain

• hindbrain
• evolutionary the oldest part of brain
• contains pons, medulla, reticular formation and cerebellum
• structures that coordinate and control most voluntary and involuntary movement
• cerebellum
• size of cerebellum increases with physical speed & dexterity of species (e.g. leopard large
cerebellum)
• size of cerebellum associated with cognitive capacity in humans
• reticular formation
• midbrain area, nuclei (grey matter) and fiber pathways (white matter) mixed → netlike
appearance
• associated with sleep-wake rhythm and behavioral arousal, each nuclei has a special function
• pons
• contains substructures that control many vital body movements
• nuclei receive inputs from cerebellum, form bridge from cerebellum to rest of brain
• medulla
• contains substructures that control many vital body movements
• nuclei regulate breathing and cardio-vascular system

(II) Midbrain

• midbrain
• central part of the brain
• contains neural circuits for hearings, seeing and orienting movements
• tectum
• roof of midbrain (are above the ventricle)
• functions are sensory processing and production of orienting movement (e.g. turning head to
detect source of auditory stimuli)
• visual information sent to superior colliculus
• auditory information sent to inferior colliculus
• tegmentum
• floor of midbrain (area below the ventricle)
• collection of nuclei with movement related, species-specific and pain perception functions
• red nucleus controls limb movement
• substancia nigra is connection to forebrain (important for initiating movements)
• periaqueductal gray matter (PAG) contains circuits controlling species-specific behavior and
important role in modulation of pain by opioid drugs

(III) Diencephalon

• diencephalon
• the between brain which integrates sensory and motor information on the way to cerebral cortex
• principle structures are thalamus and hypothalamus
• hypothalamus
• contains many nuclei (about 22) associated with temperature regulation, eating, drinking and
sexual behavior (sex differences found in some structures)
• control production of hormones via interaction with pituitary gland
• thalamus
• information from all sensory systems is integrated and projected into appropriate region of
neocortex
• optic tract send information to lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) and thalamus send it to visual
region
• olfactory information passes dorsomedial thalamic nucleus on way to forebrain
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Forebrain

• forebrain
• evolutionary newest part of the brain
• coordinates advanced cognitive functions like thinking, planning and language
• contains limbic system (regulates emotion and behaviors that produce and require memory) basal
ganglia (controls voluntary movement) and neocortex

Cerebral Cortex

• contains two types of cortex: three- or four-layered and six-layered

• neocortex
• most recently evolved outer layer (new bark) of the forebrain
• composed of about six layers of gray matter
• responsible for contracting our reality
• allocortex
• older, more primitive three- or four-layered cortex, adjacent to neocortex
• found in other, more primitive animals than mammals
• role in controlling motivational and emotional states as well as some forms of memory
• both tissues together as cortex
• makes up eighty percent of the human brain, has expanded most during evolution
• pattern of sulci and gyri varies across species

Cortical Lobes

• human cortex almost symmetrical left and right hemisphere, separated by longitudinal fissure
• fissures often establish boundaries between lobes
• each hemisphere divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital
• posterior lobes have sensory functions: temporal → auditory, occipital → visual, parietal → tactile
• frontal lobe motor functions, integration of motor and sensory information, executive functioning
• Injuries to the distinctive lobes can produce:
• injury occipital lobe → deficits in processing visual information (light vs dark but no shape or color)
• injury parietal lobe → difficulties in identify/locate skin stimulation & deficits in directed movement
• injury temporal lobe → difficulty recognizing sounds but still know that they are hearing
something, difficulties in processing complex visual info (face)
• injury frontal lobe → difficulties organizing and evaluating ongoing behavior & planning for future

Cortical Layers

• six layers of neocortex have distinct characteristics

• different layers have different types of cells
• cell destiny varies (almost no cells in layer l, very densely packed cells in layer lV)
• regional and functional differences
• cortex connected to virtually all other brain areas → created reality
• cytoarchitectonic map
• map of the neocortex based on organization, structure and distribution of the cells
• sensory cortex has distinct layer lV (afferent)
• motor cortex has distinct layer V (efferent)

Basal Ganglia

• basal ganglia
• subcortical forebrain nuclei that coordinate voluntary of limbs and body
• connected to thalamus and to midbrain
• together with thalamus, substantia nigra and subthalamic forms system controlling voluntary
movement
• consists of three principle structures:
• caudate nucleus
• putamen
• globus palladius
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• Parkinson's disease
• disorder of the motor system correlated with a loss of dopamine from the substantia nigra and
characterized by tremors, muscular rigidity and a reduction in voluntary movement

• Tourette syndrome
• disorder of the basal ganglia characterized by tics, involuntary vocalization (including curse words
and animal sounds) and odd, involuntary movements of the body, especially of the face and head

→ basal ganglia critical role in controlling and coordinating movements, not activation of muscle

Limbic system

• limbic system
• disparate forebrain structures lying between neocortex an brain stem that form a functional
system controlling affective and motivated behaviors and certain forms of memory
• includes many different structures
• cingulate cortex → participates in certain memory functions and controlling navigation in space
• amygdala → contribute to reward system of psychoactive drugs, addictive substances or
behaviors, removal of amygdala results in drastic behavioral changes
• hippocampus → participates in certain memory functions and controlling navigation in space

Olfactory System

• located at the very front of the brain, responsible for the sense of smell
• olfactory bulb sends input to pyriform cortex from there information guided by amygdala and
dorsomedial thalamus to frontal cortex
• in more simpler brain input directly to brain stem
• human olfactory bulb relatively small compared to cats and dogs but odors important for feeding
and sexual behavior

Somatic Nervous System: Transmitting Information

Cranial Nerves

• cranial nerves
• one of a set of 12 nerve pairs that control sensory
and motor functions of the head, neck and internal
organs, can have efferent or afferent functions, somer
nerves have both sensory and motor functions

• one set controls right side of the brain and other set
intros left side
• cranial nerves form part of the SNS
• contribute to maintaining autonomic functions by
connecting the brain and internal organs (vagus nerve,
cranial nerve X)
• influencing other autonomic responses such as salivation
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Spinal Nerves

• vertebrae (sing. vertebra)

• the bones that form the spinal column
• categorized into five anatomical regions:
cervical, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal

• dermatome
• body segment corresponding to a
segment of the spinal cord
• has sensory nerve to send information
from skin, joints and muscles to spinal
cord but also motor nerve to control
muscle movement in particular body
segment
• these sensory and motor nerves called
spinal (or peripheral) nerves function
equally to cranial nerves

Somatic Nervous System

• posterior (dorsal in animals) root of collection of afferent posterior fibers that gather when they enter a
spinal cord segment
• anterior (ventral in animals) root of collection of efferent fibers that exit spinal cord
• outer part of spinal cord consist of white matter (nerves) and inner part grey matter (cell bodies)

• law of Bell and Magendie

• the principle that sensory fibers are dorsal and motor fibers are ventral
• enables neurologists to make accurate inferences

Integrating Spinal Functions

→ spinal cord segments are interconnected, integration does not require brain participation but close
working relation, brain and spinal cord can function independently, the two are intimately
connected in their CNS functions

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CLINICAL FOCUS: Magendie, Bell, and Bell Palsey

• Magendie found that cutting the dorsal roots caused loss of sensation and cutting the ventral roots
caused loss of movements
• Charles Bell found localized cranial motor nerve dysfunction - Bells Palsy
• facial paralysis that develops when motor part of the facial nerve on one side of the head becomes
inflamed, onset is typically sudden, most people fully recover although it might take months

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Autonomic and Enteric Nervous System: Visceral Relations

ANS: Balancing Internal Functions

• unconscious processes → keeping heart beating,

regulate glucose release by liver, adjusting of
pupils to light, keeps working during sleep
• ANS regulates internal organs and glands via
connections through SNS and CNS
• connections are ipsilateral

• sympathetic devision
• part of the autonomic nervous system
• arouses the body for action like fight-or-flight
response by increasing heart rate and blood
pressure

• parasympathetic devision
• part of the autonomous nervous system
• acts in opposite to sympathetic devision,
preparing the body to rest and digest by
reversing the alarm response or stimulating
digestion

• autonomic control center → ganglia, control organs

and each acts as mini brain for specific organ
• sympathetic gangly near spinal cord on each side,
forming chains running parallel to cord
• parasympathetic devision connected to sacral
region of spinal cord, three cranial nerves: vagus
nerve (calms most of internal organs) and facial
and oculomotor nerves which control salivation
and pupil dilation, connects with ganglia near
target region

ENS: Controlling the Gut

• sometimes considered part of the ANS but functions mostly independently

• controls bowel motility, secretion, blood flow to permit fluid and nutrient absorption, support waste
elimination
• ENS neurons located in plexus (tissue) lining the esophagus, stomach, small intestine and colon
• ENS neurons and glia for ganglia connected by nerve fibers found in two layers of gut tissue
• brain and ENS connect through and, especially vagus nerve
• ENS sends information directly to brain that affects mental state
• gut bacteria microbiome influences nutrient absorption and are source of neurochemicals that can
regulate many physiological and psychological processes
• inspired development of psychobiotics, live microorganisms to treat behavioral disorders

Ten Principles of Nervous System Function

Principle 1: The Nervous System Produces Movement in a Perceptual World the Brain Constructs

• nervous systems function is to produce behavior or movements that are related to outside objects,
places, memories etc.
• mental representation depends on information send to the brain
• brain of each animal species produces a reality that is adaptive for species to survive
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Principle 2: Neuroplasticity is the Hallmark of Nervous System Functioning

• experience alters brain organization, crucial for learning, nervous system stores information only if
neural connections change
• plasticity can be beneficial in recovering from disorders (brain injures or diseases) and allows brain
to compensate for developmental abnormalities
• also negative effects like addiction related behavior

Principle 3: Many Brain Circuits Are Crossed

• most brain inputs and outputs are contralateral, explains brain lesions and produced impaired
function
• neural connections link both sides, biggest connection corpus callosum
• four important exceptions: olfactory sensation, somatic, autonomic and enteric PNS connection

Principle 4: The CNS Functions on Multiple Levels

• each addition to CNS added new level of behavioral complexity without discarding previous levels
of control, new levels not autonomous but integrated into existing neural system
• as mammals evolved they developed increased capacity to represent world in cortex → new maps
related and integrated to old maps

Principle 5: The Brain is Symmetrical and Asymmetrical

• cortical asymmetry is essential for integrative tasks, language and body control among them
• language control typically on left side and spatial tasks on right side

Principle 6: Brain Systems are Organized Hierarchically and in Parallel

• hierarchical circuit in all regions concerned with particular functions (e.g. vision)
• functionally related brain structures are not always linked linearly, unconnected regions have widely
differing functions
• parallel circuits operate on two different processes running next to each other (e.g. perception o
shape and color in vision)
• brain subsystems organized into multiple parallel pathways but conscious experience always unified

Principle 7: Sensory and Motor Divisions Permeate the Nervous System

• Sensory and Motor Divisions in the SNS

• spinal nerves are either sensory of motor, some exclusively either one or two part nerves

• Sensory and Motor Divisions in the CNS

• midbrain functioning in orientation of body to stimuli → midbrain's colliculi in tectum is sensory
component and tegmentum is motor structure that participates in controlling various movements
• sensory nuclei also in lower thalamus structure and separate thalamic nuclei control movement
other nuclei neither sensory nor motor, rather integrative tasks (e.g. frontal lobe)
• in cortex divided in two ways
• separate sensory and motor cortical regions process particular set of sensory inputs, other
control fine movements of discrete body parts
• entire cortex organized around sensory and motor distinction, layer IV always receives sensory
inputs, layers V and VI always send motor outputs and layers I,II and III integrate sensory and
motor operations

Principle 8: The Brain Divides Sensory Input for Object Recognition and Motor Control

• visual information follows two parallel processing routes

• ventral stream (occipital to temporal lobe) for object identification → conscious, neural base for
memory
• dorsal stream (occipital to parietal lobe) to guide movement relative to objects → unconscious

→ unconscious and conscious processes underlies difference in cognitive functioning

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Principle 9: Brain Functions are Localized and Distributed

• different brain functions localized in specific brain regions

• functions like language and memory have distributed patten of function with different brain areas
involved
• damage to small brain regions produce specific symptoms
• Alzheimers disease
• degenerative brain disorder related to aging that first appears as progressive memory loss and
later develops into generalized dementia

Principle 10: The Nervous System works by Juxtaposing Excitation and Inhibition

• brain role both making movements and preventing movements

• brain uses both excitation (increased neural activity) to produce some action and inhibiting
(decreased neural activity) to prevent other actions
• brain injury or disease can change balance between both functions (e.g. swearing in Tourette
syndrome)
• some neurons excite others and different neurons inhibit others, both by neuronal communication
via specific neuron chemicals

Key Terms
Term Description

afferent nerves arriving in CNS structure

Alzheimers disease degenerative brain disorder related to age

autonomic nervous system part of the PNS that regulates internal organs and glands
basal ganglia subcortical forebrain nuclei, coordinates voluntary movement of limbs and
body, connected to thalamus and midbrain

brainstem central structure including hindbrain, midbrain, thalamus and hypothalamus,

responsible for most unconscious behavior

cerebral cortex nerve tissue composed of neurons, outer layer of forebrain

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) clear, salty solution that fill ventricles, circulates around brain and spinal
cord, beneath the arachnoid layer in subarachnoid space

corpus callosum band of white matter connecting the cerebral hemisphere

cranial nerve twelve nerve pairs, control sensory and motor functions

cytoarchitectonic map neocortex map based on organization, structure, cell distribution

dermatome body segment corresponding to segment of spinal cord

diencephalon between brain, integrates sensory and motor information

efferent nerves exiting CNS structure

enteric nervous system mesh of neurons in gut, controls gut, running from esophagus through colon

excitation increase in activity in neuron or brain area

forebrain evolutionary newest part of the brain, coordinates advanced cognitive

functions (thinking, planning, language) contains limbic system, basal
ganglia and neocortex

frontal lobe part of cerebral cortex, executive functions like decision-making lies anterior
to central sulcus and beneath frontal bone
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Terms Description

gray matter mostly cell bodies and blood vessels, collect or modify information

gyri (sing. gyrus) small protrusion or bump formed by folding of the cerebral cortex

hindbrain oldest part of brain, coordinates and controls movement

hypothalamus diencephalon structure contains many nuclei associated with temperature

regulating, eating, drinking and sexual behavior

inhibition decrease in activity in neuron or brain activity

law of Bell and Magendie principle that sensory fibers are dorsal and motor fibers are ventral

limbic system functional system controlling affective, motivated behavior, memory

meninges protective tissue (dura mater, arachnoid, pia mater) for brain & spinal cord

midbrain central part, contains neural circuits for hearing, seeing, orienting movement

neocortex outer layer (new bark) of forebrain, six layers gray matter, constructs reality

nerve large collection of axons running together outside of CNS

neuroplasticity potential for physical/chemical change to adapt to changing circumstances

nuclei (sing. nucleus) group of cells forming a cluster, functional grouping

occipital lobe part of cerebral cortex for visual info, lies at back, beneath occipital bone

orienting movement movement related to sensory input (e.g. turning head to sound source)

parasympathetic division part of ANS with calming or restoring functions (digest-and-rest)

parietal lobe part of cerebral cortex that directs movements toward a goal or performing
a task, posterior to central sulcus & beneath parietal bone at top of the brain

Parkinson disease disorder of motor system correlated to loss of substantia nigra (tremors…)

phenotypic plasticity individuals capacity to develop into more than one phenotype

reticular formation midbrain area with mixed nucleus and fiber pathways (netlike), associated
with sleep-wake behavior and behavioral arousal

somatic nervous system part of the PNS including cranial and spinal nerves

stroke sudden neurological symptoms as a result of interrupted blood flow

sulci (sing. sulcus) a groove in brain matter, most are in the neocortex or cerebellum

sympathetic division part of ANS with arousing functions (fight-or-flight)

tectum roof of midbrain (area above ventricle), functions are sensory processing
(visual and auditory) and production of orientating movement

tegmentum floor of midbrain, movement-related, species-specific, pain percep. function

temporal lobe part of the cerebral cortex for hearing, musical abilities & language, lies
below lateral fissure, beneath temporal bone at side of the skull

thalamus diencephalon structure, info integration and projection to appropriate area

Tourette syndrome disorder of basal ganglia with tics, involuntary vocalization & movement
tract large collection of axons running together inside of CNS

ventricle one of four cavities in brain that contain CSF to cushion brain, may be
responsible in maintaining brain metabolism

vertebrae the bones that form the spinal column

white matter areas of NS rich in fat-heated neural axons that connect brain cells
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