[CANVAS] MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY

BRANCHES OF BOTANY
OUTLINE  Agricultural Science  Phenology
I Introduction
 Agronomy  Plant Anatomy
II L1: Introduction to Botany
A Branches of Botany  Agrostology  Plant Biochemistry
B Contributions of Early Botanists  Algology  Plant Biotechnology
C Plant Adaptation  Arboriculture  Plant Physiology
D Plants Adaptation (Classificatio)  Bacteriology  Plant Cell Biology
III L2: Botany as Pharmaceutical Science  Bryology  Plant Genetics
A Significance of Botany in Pharmacy
B DOH Top 10 Halamang Gamot  Dendrology  Plant Phatology
 Economic Botany  Plant Tissue Culture
 Ethnobotany  Pteridology
INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY  Horticulture  Plant Ecology
 Botany is one of the main branches of Biology (science of  Lichenology  Plant Reproduction
life) that focuses on the systematic and scientific study of  Mycology  Plant Taxonomy
plants.  Orchidology  Pomology
 Covers: plant anatomy and morphology, taxonomy,  Paleobotany  Rhodology
physiology, ecology, etc.  Palynology
 Plants as part of the ecosystem are important in balancing
nature and in keeping human lives. THEORIES OF THE ORIGIN OF LIFE, EVOLUTION
 Plants that possess chlorophyll, manufacture their own AND ADAPTATION
food and generates oxygen through the process of The earth is said to have come into existence 5 billion years
photosynthesis, in which sunlight is used to synthesize ago and life on earth came into existence only a billion years
nutrients from carbon dioxide and water. after that.
 Plants: source of food and metabolic energy needed by our Botany derives components from each of the four big ideas in
cells to perform work. biology:
 They are also vital to humans, it include woods and wood  Big Idea 1: The process of evolution drives the unity of life.
products, coal and petroleum are fossil substances of plant  Big Idea 2: Biological systems utilize free energy and
origin. molecular building blocks to grow, to reproduce, & to
maintain dynamic homeostasis.
BRANCHES OF BOTANY  Big Idea 3: Living systems store, retrieve, transmit, and
 Botany is a branch of science that deals with the study of respond to information essential to life processes.
plants and the processes occurring in a plant life.  Big Idea 4: Biological systems interact, and these systems
 Biology has many branches but the two most common and their interactions possess complex properties.
subjects are: Botany and Zoology. – A natural science. https://secure-
 Botany is a vast subject that includes all plant forms and the media.collegeboard.org/digitalServices/pdf/ap/10b_2727_AP_Biology_CF_WEB_
110128.pdf Click the link for more information.
processes related to them
Charles Darwin
WHAT ARE THE MAIN BRANCHES?  A British naturalist proposed the theory of biological
evolution by natural selection.
Table No. Branches of Biology  Defined evolution as “descent with modification,” the idea
BOTANY ZOOLOGY MICROBIOLOGY that species change over time, give rise to new species, and
plants animals microorganisms share common ancestors.
 Mycology  Entomology  Bacteriology  Suggested a mechanism for evolution: natural selection,
 Paleobotany  Ichtyology  Mycology “heritable traits that help organisms survive and reproduce
 Horticulture  Ornithology  Protozoology become more common in a population over time.”
 Bryology  Herpetology  Phycology
 Ethnobotany  Anatomy  Nematology Darwin's concept of natural selection was based on several
 Agronomy  Physiology  Immunology key observations:
These show a brief presentation of the branches of biology  Traits are often heritable.
leading to specifics of botany disciplines.  More offspring are produced than can survive.
 Offspring vary in their heritable traits.

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Based on these simple observations, Darwin concluded  Quinine, from cinchona bark (Cinchona succirubra Vahl
the following: and others), was first isolated by Pierre Joseph Pelletier and
Joseph Bienaime Caventou of France in 1820.
https://www.bioexplorer.net/latest-inventions-botany-2018.html/ Click the link for
 In a population, some individuals will have inherited traits more information.
that help them survive and reproduce
 Because the helpful traits are heritable, and because CONTRIBUTIONS OF EARLY BOTANIST
organisms with these traits leave more offspring, the traits Branches Definition Early Botanist &
will tend to become more common in the next generation. of Botany Contributions
 over generations, the population will become adapted to its Plant Study of Robert Hooke (1635- 1703)
environment Anatomy plant cell and
tissues - known today for his
identification of the cellular
structure of plants.
- "Micrographia: or some
Physiological Descriptions of
Minute Bodies" made by
published in 1665.
- It was the first important work
on microscopy, the study of
minute objects through a
microscope.
- Discovered cells in living
plant tissue used microscope
observation to discover plant
tissues.
DISCIPLINES OF BOTANY Marcello Malpighi (1628 -
 Plant Molecular Biology- study structure and function of 1694) & Nehemiah Grew
important biological molecule like proteins and nucleic acid (1628-1711)
 Plant Biochemistry- study of chemical interactions within
plant. - are considered to be the
 Plant Cell Biology- structure, function & life processes of founders of the study of plant
plants anatomy, for they examined in
1. Anatomy-plant cell & tissues detail the structure and
2. Morphology- structure (leaves, roots etc.), evolution & development of many plants.
development - Marcelo Malpighi, from Italy,
3. Physiology- processes (i.e. photosynthesis & mineral discovered various tissues in
nutrition) stems and roots.
 Plant Genetics- plant heredity & variation. Plant The study of J.B. van Helmont (1577-
 Plant Ecology- study of interrelationship among plants and Physiology plant form 1644)
between plants & their environment. and function
 Plant Systematics- evolutionary relationship among - A Flemish physician and
different plant group. chemist, who was the first to
 Plant Taxonomy- a sub discipline of systematics; deals demonstrate that plants do not
with description, naming & classification of plants. have the same nutritional
needs as animals.
 Paleobotany- study of the biology & the evolution of plants
- Plants absorb water as a
in the geologic past.
result of what we now know as
 Bryology- study of mosses & similar plants.
photosynthetic activity.
 Agronomy- study of field crops & soils.
Joseph Priestley 1733- 1804)
 Horticulture- ornamental plants and fruits & vegetable
crops - He discovered accidentally
 Forestry- deals with forest conservation & forest. that gases play a role in
 Economic Botany- plants with commercial importance. photosynthesis.
https://www.aboutbioscience.org/topics/botany/ Click the link for more information.
- A gas (oxygen) must be
PHARMACEUTICAL BOTANY
released by the plant that
 Medical Herbalism 17th century - a remedy is foxglove
supports combustion.
(Digitalis purpurea), reportedly used by an English
housewife to treat dropsy, and then more systematically by Plant The study Carolus Linnaeus (1707-
the physician William Withering (1741–1799). Taxonomy that 1778)
 Morphine from opium poppy (Papaver somniferum L., identifies,
Papaveraceae), which was first identified by Friedrich describes, - The Swedish botanist, owed
Wilhelm Sertürner of Germany 1804 and chemically names and for the present system of
characterized in 1817 as an alkaloid. classifies naming and classifying plants
 Salicin, from willow bark (Salix spp., Salicaceae), was plants. and animals by using generic
first isolated by Johannes Buchner in Germany. It was name (genus) and a specific
derivatized first (in 1838) by Rafaele Pirea (France) to yield name (species).
salicylic acid, and later (1899) by the Bayer company, to
yield acetylsalicylic acid, or aspirin.

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- In 1735 he published The - He is believed to have

System of Nature (Systema introduced the technique of
Naturae) that organized all acupuncture.
plants and animals from the - He was able to study
level of kingdoms all the way podophyllum, rhubarb,
down to species. ginseng, stramonium,
- In 1753 publication, The cinnamon bark and ephedra.
Genera of plants and Species Huang Di
Plantarum, marked the initial (2697–2597 BCE)
use of the nomenclature for all
flowering plants and ferns. - The Yellow Emperor -
Plant Study of the Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919) regarded as the founder of
Ecology interaction of Chinese civilization.
plants with - In 1866, a German scientist, - His Classic of Internal
one another coined the word “ecology”. Medicine is important in
and with understanding the basic ideas
their of traditional Chinese herbal
environment. science, acupuncture,
Ethnobotany The study of John William Harshberger moxibustion Yin and Yang, the
the (1869- 1929) Five Phases of Evolutive
traditional Change, and Meridian theory.
knowledge - US botanist, in 1895 he Louis Lewin (1850-1929)
and customs coined the term
of a people "ethnobotany". - German toxicologist first to
concerning study psychoactive plants
plants and systematically.
their - 1924 appeared his book
medicinal, “Phantastica Lewin's” most
religious and enduring task was to create a
other uses. system of classification of
psychoactive drugs and
Pedanius Dioscorides plants based on their action.
(40—90 AD) Plant Study of the Alexander Von Humboldt,
Geography geographic (1769 – 1859)
- 1st Century BCE. A Greek distribution
scholar, Pedanius Dioscorides of plant - He is often referred to as the
published 5 volumes of a book species and "father of phytogeography"
entitled “De Materia Medica” in their - He advocated a quantitative
78 AD, which described more influence on approach to phytogeography
than 600 medicinal plants with the earth’s that has characterized modern
their collection, storage and surface. plant geography.
uses. Genetics The study of
- To name few of his heredity Gregor Johann Mendel
contributions; he identified (1822 – 1884)
Genomics
aloe, belladonna, colchicum,
Study of
ergot, hyoscyamus, and opium.
genes and
Claudius Galen (Galenus) their - Performed classic
130–201 CE functions, experiments with pea plants.
and related
- Graeco-Roman medical techniques
doctor who summarized the
complex body of Graeco-
Roman pharmacy and
PLANT ADAPTATION
Adaptation refers to the process where the members of a
medicine, and his name
population become better suited to some feature of their
survived in the pharmaceutical
term ‘galenical'. environment through change in a characteristic that affects their
survival or reproduction.
Shen nong ben cao jing
(2700 BC)  are special features that allow a plant or animal to live in a
particular place or habitat.
- Shennong's Classic of o Derived from ‘Latin word “adaptore” which means “to
Materia Medica or the Shen- fit”
nung pen-tsao ching, which Place of Description Plants adapts in this
provides the earliest treatise of Adaptation environment
Chinese medicine theory Dessert • Very dry and often • Some plants, called
classical sources on Chinese hot succulents
traditional medicine including • rain often comes all • Some plants have
365 drugs, most of botanical at the same time. no leaves or small
origin.

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The rest of the year seasonal leaves that every day of the
is very dry. only grow after it rains year.
• Some plants have a Temperate • features minimal • features minimal
• lots of direct short life cycle, Rainforest seasonal fluctuation seasonal fluctuation
sunlight shining on germinating in of temperature: the of temperature: the
the plants. response to rain, winters are mild and winters are mild and
• soil is often sandy growing, flowering, the summers cool. the summers cool.
or rocky and unable and dying within one • receives a lot of • receives a lot of
to hold much water. year. These plants precipitation, precipitation,
• winds are often can evade drought. Condensation from Condensation from
strong, and dry out Leaves with hair or coastal fogs also add coastal fogs also add
plants. spines to the dampness. to the dampness.
• plants are exposed • Long root systems • the soil is poor in • the soil is poor in
to extreme spread out wide or go nutrients. nutrients.
temperatures and deep into the ground • Large evergreen • Large evergreen
drought conditions. to absorb water; trees, some reaching trees, some reaching
• plants must cope • Waxy coating on 300 feet in height, 300 feet in height, are
with extensive water stems and leaves, are the dominant the dominant plant
loss. Flowers that open at plant species species
night and usually Temperate • temperature varies • wildflowers grow on
slower growing plants. Deciduous from hot in the forest floor early in the
Temperate • Also called prairie, • During a fire, while Forest summer to below spring before trees
Grasslands feature with hot above-ground freezing in the winter. leaf-out and shade the
summers and cold portions of grasses • Rain is plentiful, forest floor
winters. may perish, the root • made up of layers • many trees are
• Rainfall is uncertain portions survive to of plants deciduous
and drought is sprout again / prairie • The tallest trees • Most deciduous
common. shrubs readily make up the forest trees have thin, broad,
• The soil is resprout after fire canopy lightweight leaves that
extremely rich in • trees have thick • Beneath the can capture a lot of
organic material due bark canopy, the sunlight
to the fact that the • Roots of prairie understory • when the weather
aboveground grasses extend deep • Below the gets cooler, the broad
portions of grasses into the ground understory is a shrub leaves cause too
die off annually, • extensive root layer. much water loss and
enriching the soil. systems • Carpeting the can be weighed down
• The area is well- • prairie grasses forest floor is the by too much snow,
suited to agriculture, have narrow leaves herb layer made up • trees have thick
and few original • Grasses grow from of wildflowers, bark to protect against
prairies survive near their base, not mosses,and ferns. cold winters
today. from tip • Fallen leaves,
• grasses are wind twigs, and dried
pollinated plants cover the
• Soft stems ground, decompose,
Tropical • Usually hot and it • drip tips and waxy and help add
Rainforest rains a lot surfaces nutrients to the
• Abundance of • buttresses and prop topsoil.
water problems: and stilt roots Taiga • Also known as • many trees are
• Harm to plants due • some plants climb boreal forests, evergreen
to growth of bacteria on others plants • the taiga is • many trees have
and fungi. • flowers on the forest dominated by needle-like leaves
• Risk of flooding. floor are designed to conifers and, most of which shape loses
Soil erosion and lure animal pollinators which are evergreen less water and sheds
rapid lost of nutrients due to no wind • The taiga has cold snow more easily than
from the soil. Rapid • smooth bark and winters and warm broad leaves
growth of plants smooth or waxy summers. • waxy coating on
• the tropical flowers speed the run • Some parts of the needles prevent
rainforest is very off of water taiga have a evaporation
thick, and not much plants have shallow permanently frozen • needles are dark in
sunlight is able to roots sub layer of soil color allowing more
penetrate to the • many bromeliads called permafrost. solar heat to be
forest floor. Ø are epiphytes (plants • The soil is acidic absorbed
However, the plants that live on other and mineral-poor. It • many trees have
at the top of the plants); is covered by a deep branches that droop
rainforest in the • epiphytic orchids layer of partially- downward to help
canopy, must be able have aerial roots decomposed conifer shed excess snow to
to survive 12 hours of needles. keep the branches
intense sunlight from breaking

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Tundra • cold year-round --- • Tundra plants are PLANTS ADAPTATION (CLASSIFICATION)
it has short cool small (usually less In biology, an adaptation is a form of change that is
summers and long, than 12 inches tall) maintained by the natural selection process.
severe winters. and low-growing due  Adaptations allow an organism to be better suited to its
• has a permanently to lack of nutrients, present conditions and more likely to reproduce or
frozen sublayer of because being close reproduce more successfully.
soil called to the ground helps For plants, changes in environmental conditions could be
permafrost. keep the plants from caused by
• drainage is poor freezing, and because  for example, a decreased availability of water, or
due to the permafrost the roots cannot even an excess of water within its habitat.
and because of the penetrate the
cold, evaporation is permafrost. Classification Description Examples
slow. • Plants are dark in Aquatic plants, • Water-loving  gabi or taro
• The tundra color—some are even hydrophytes, plants (Colocasia
receives little red—this helps them or hydrophytic • May grow entirely esculenta),
precipitation, and is absorb solar heat. plants or partly  rice (Oryza sativa),
usually in the form of • Some plants are submerged, floating  water lily
snow or ice covered with hair on the water (Nymphaea spp.),
• Has long days which helps keep surface, or with their  lotus (Nelumbo
during the growing them warm roots anchored to nucifera)
season, sometimes • Some plants grow the ground in bakawan or
with 24 hours of in clumps to protect swamps or beside mangroves
daylight, and long one another from the bodies of water. (Rhizophora
nights during the wind and cold. mucronata)
winter. • Some plants have
Xerophytes • A plant which  Pineapple (Ananas
• There is little dish-like flowers that
needs very little comosus) and a
diversity of species. follow the sun,
water variety of cacti
Plant life is focusing more solar
dominated by heat on the center of Acidifuge or • Chalk-loving, lime-  The alfalfa
mosses, grasses, the flower, helping the calcicole plants loving and acid- (Medicago sativa),
and sedge plant stay warm escaping plants  blazing star
Plants in • underwater leaves • some plants have • Those that prefer (Chamaelirium
water and stems are air spaces in their calcareous or luteum)
flexible to move with stems to help hold the alkaline soils or
water currents plant up in the water soils with pH above
• submerged plants 7.0
lack strong water Calcifuge or • Chalk-escaping,  rhododendrons
transport system (in acidicole plants lime-hating, and azaleas
stems); instead water, acidophilous, acid-
nutrients, and loving, and acid soil
dissolved gases are plants
absorbed through the • Those that prefer
leaves directly from acidic soils or soils
the water having pH levels
• roots and root hairs below 7.0 but do not
reduced or absent; tolerate alkaline
roots only needed for (basic) or
anchorage, not for calcareous soils.
absorption of nutrients
and water Epiphytes or • Air plants and tree  family
epiphytic dwellers Bromeliaceae
• some plants have •They grow
leaves that float atop plants including the
aboveground on
the water, exposing another plant but they
ornamental
themselves to the are not parasitic. They bromyliads, and
sunlight usually need the host other orchid and
• in floating plants only for physical fern families.
chlorophyll is support, deriving their  strangler fig
nutrition from the air. (Ficus).
restricted to upper
• A hemiepiphyte, is a
surface of leaves (part plant which starts
that the sunlight will growing as an
hit) and the upper epiphyte but, as it
surface is waxy to matures, becomes
repel water rooted to the soil.
• some plants
produce seeds that
can float

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Halophytes or • Salt loving plants  nipa (Nypa Types of drugs derived from plants:
halophytic • It can tolerate fruticans),  Natural products or compounds isolated from nature
plants growing under  talisay (Terminalia  Herbal drugs derived from specific parts of a medicinal
saline conditions or catappa), plant
in excessively rich  bakawan  Nutraceuticals or ‘functional foods’
in salts. (Rhizophora
mucronata) and SIGNIFICANCE OF BOTANY IN PHARMACY
 Coconut (Cocos SOURCE: module & ppt in canvas
nucifera), Before our modern medicine relied on isolated, purified,
oftentimes synthetic chemical entities, plants were the primary
Heliophytes or • Sun-loving plants  mango (Mangifera source of medicines for most of the world's population. Here are
heliophytic • Are those that indica), some of the most important drugs produced and synthesized by
plants require for their  sugarcane plants:
optimum growth full (Saccharum
exposure to the sun officinarum), • Meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria) - aspirin (acetylsalicylic
 corn (Zea mays). acid was derived) which has an anti-inflammatory and analgesic
property
Lithophytes or • Sun-loving plants  mango (Mangifera • Willow (Salix) bark as a source of Salicin and derivatives
lithophytic • Are those that indica), (model for aspirin), use chronic and acute inflammatory
plants require for their  sugarcane conditions
optimum growth full (Saccharum  Salix spp. (salicacae)
exposure to the officinarum), • Purple Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) as a source of digoxin
sun.  corn (Zea mays). (treatment for cardiac problems)
 Where digitals glycoside was derived
Lithophytes or • Plants that grow  Orchids belonging  A dominant therapeutic agents in cardiovascular
lithophytic on rocks or in rocky to the medicine for more than 200 years.
plants terrain having scant genera Vanda, • Cinchona tree (Cinchona spp; Cinchona pubescens) - where
humus. They Ascocenda, Ascoc quinine was derived from the bark, it is used for the primary
absorb nutrients entrum, treatment for malaria in Eauropian culture.
from the air, rain, and Trudelia • Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia) as a source of taxol (treatment
and decaying for cancer)
organic matter. • Periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus) where vincristine and
vinblastine was isolated which is used as antitumor drug
Metallophytes • Metal-tolerant  Myristica laurifolia • Coffee (Coffea arabica) and tea (Camellia sinensis) as
plants sources of caffeine (stimulant)
• Plants adapted to • Morphine, from opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) – used
natural habitats with as an analgesic
toxic levels of
metals such as Ni,
Co, Cr and Mn.
Mesophytes or • Moist-loving plants  Rice, corn and
mesophytic • They can live in many fruit trees
plants moderate and vegetables
conditions, not
excessively dry but
Digitalis purpurea Cinchona bark Papaver somniferum Taxus brevifolia
not too wet.
Herbal remedies or phytomedicines derived from specific
Neutrophilus • Plants that can parts of a medicinal plant include:
plants or tolerate either
neutrophiles acidic or alkaline 1. Herb of St John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum) – depression
soils.  Herbs of its aerial parts
 Treatment for mood disorder
2. Leaves of Ginkgo biloba - used for cognitive deficiencies
such as anxiety
BOTANY AS PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCE  Used for cognitive deficiency (often in the elderly)
 Pharmacognosy was derived from Greek pharmakon,  Including impairment of memory and affective
‘remedy’, and gignosco, ‘knowledge’. symptoms such as anxxiety
3. Flower heads of chamomile (Chamomilla recutita) – used
 The science of biogenic or nature-derived
for mild gastrointestinal complaints and as an anti-inflammatory
pharmaceuticals and poisons.
agent
 It deals with all medicinal plants, including those yielding
4. Leaves and pods of senna (Cassia spp.) - Constipation
complex mixtures, which are used in the form of crude
Nutraceuticals or ‘functional foods’
herbs (comminuted herbal substance) or extracts
(phytotherapy), pure compounds such as morphine, and
foods having additional health benefits only in the context
of having preventive effects (nutraceuticals).

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Natural products or compounds isolated from nature:  Pansit-Pansitan (Peperomia pellucida) – Also known as
1. Taxol (Paclitaxel), from the bark pacific view (Taxus ulasimang bato
brevifiola), used as an anticancer treatment  Therapeutic use/s: treatment of arthritis and gout
2. Digoxin and other digitals glycosides, from foxglove (Digitals (antiurisemia).
spp.), used to treat heart failure.  Yerba Buena (Mentha arvensis)or Clinopodium douglasii –
3. Galanthamine from Galanthus and Leucojum species- usend commonly known as peppermint, is used in Philippine
in the management of cognitive disorders. herbal medicine as ure for headache, toothache, arthritis,
4. Morphine, from opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), used as and dysmenorrhea.
an analgesic.  Therapeuticcc use/s: Analgesic/antipyretic
SAMPUNG HALAMANG GAMOT BY DOH
Many foods are known to have beneficial effects on health. SOURCE: https://youtu.be/XUBkb3tlfjY (yt vid in canvas)
Examples include: Niyug-niyogan
 garlic, ginger, turmeric and many other herbs and spices  height can be up to 8 meters
 Anthocyanin- or flavonoid-containing plants such as  blooms in red color, rose, and white
bilberries, cocoa and red wine  seeds tastes like coconut
 Carotenoid- containing plants such as tomatoes, carrots  for “bulateng askaris”
and many other vegetables. Preparation: gumamit ng butong magulang, tuyo at kabubukas
lamang
DOH TOP 10 HALAMANG GAMOT Application: kainin ang buto 2 hours pagkatapos ng hapunan
 hindi gumaling sa unang take: ulitin ang pagtake katulad ng
The Philippines is one of the countries in Southeast Asia that dosage ng nakaraan.
uses halamang-gamot, or medicinal plants, as alternative Dosage:
remedies for common diseases.  Matanda: 8-10 seeds
 Medicines made from 10 DOH-approved Philippine  7-12 yrs old: 6-7 seeds
medicinal plants  6-8 yrs old 6-8 seeds
10 MEDICINAL PLANTS ENDORSED BY DOH  4-5 yrs old: 4-5 seeds
SOURCE: ppt in canvas
1. Akapulko Sambong
2. Ampalaya  height: high as 3 meters
3. Bawang  leaves contains heads
4. Bayabas
 mainam sa may manas at pantunaw ng bato
5. Lagundi
Preparation:
6. Niyog niyogan
 2 cups of water and 2 cups of its leaves
7. Sambong
8. Tsaang gubat  Boil for 15 minutes and don’t cover it while boiling.
9. Ulasimang bato/pansit pansitan  After, cool it down and strain it.
10. Yerba Buena Dosage: Kailangang dahon: sariwa
http://www.stuartxchange.com/index.html click the link for more  Matanda: 6 spoons
information about Philippine medicial plants.  7-12 yrs old: 3 spoons
Dosage: kailangang dahon: tuyo
 Akapulko (Cassia alata) – ringworm bush, schrub, and  Matanda: 4 spoons
“Acapulco” in English.  7-12 yrs old: 2 spoons
 Therapeutic use/s: antifungal Application:
 Ampalaya (Momordica charantia) – common names  Divide it into 3 servings and take it after breakfast, lunch,
include “bitter lemon” or “bitter ground” in English. and dinner.
 Therapeutic uses” lowering blood sugar and anti-
diabetes. Tsaang-gubat
 Bawang (Allium sativum) - common name in English is  Height: high as 5 meters
“Garlic”  Leaves are small, shiny, and has a bright green pigment.
 Therapeutic use/s: anti-cholesterol  Used for stomachache
 Bayabas (Psidium guavaja) – “Guava” in English. Preparation:
 Therapeutic use/s: orals/skin antiseptic  Wash the leaves and slice in small pieces
 Lagundi (Vitex negundo) - known as “5-leaved chaste tree”  Measure 2 cups of water and 2 cups of leaves
in English.  Boil it in low heat for 15 minutes without cover
 Therapeutic use/s: cough and asthma  Cool it down and strain
 Niyog-niyogan (Quisqualis indica) – a vine known as Dosage: kailangang dahon- sariwa
“Chinese honey suckle.”  Matanda: 4 spoons
 Therapeutic use/s: used to eliminate intestinal  7-12 yrs old: 2 spoons
parasites (antihelminthic) Dosage: kailangang dahon- tuyo
 Sambong (Blumea balsamifera) – English name: “Ngai  Matanda: 3 spoons
camphor or Blumera camphor”  7-12 yrs old: 1 and ½ spoon
 Therapeutic use/s: used to treat kidney stones or Application:
antiurolithiasis
 Divide it into 2 cups and drink it in every four hours.
 Tsaang Gubat (Carmona retusa) – English: “Wild tea”
 Therapeutic use/s: mouthwash

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Ulasimang Bato/Pansit-pansitan Bawang

 Heart shaped leaves  May mga butil na ginagamit pampalasa
 Makatas ang dahon  Has long leaves and namumulaklak
 Used to lessen the uric acid in blood  Can lessen cholesterol
 Para sa rayuma and joint pain Preparation:
Preparation:  Maaaring igisa o iihaw
 Wash the leaves  Maaari ding ibabad ng 30 minuto sa suka
 Prepare 1 and ½ tasang dahon  Maaari ding balian ng kumukulong tubig ng 15 minuto
 Divide into 3 and take it during lunch and dinner Application:
 Or maaaring ipakulo sa 1 and ½ tasang dahon sa 2 basong  Kumain ng 2 butil 3 beses sa isang araw at gawin
tubig pagkatapos kumain
 Boil in low heat for 15 minutes and don’t cover
 Cool it down and strain Bayabas
 Divide it into 3 and take it during morning, noon, and night  Height: can be 4-5 meters high
 Flowers: white
Yerba Buena  Namumunga ng bilog na ay maliliit na buto at kinakain ng
 Halamang gumagapang sariwa
 Has a minty smell  Panlinis ng sugat
 Ang gma tangkay ay may apat na kanto na kulay berde  Impeksyon ng bibig
 The leaves are thick, rough, and “kulubot”  Magang gilagid
 Used for Body Pain  Bulok na ngipin
Preparation: Preparation:
 Wash and slice  Wash and slice the leaves
 Measure 2 cups of leaves and 2 cups of water  Magpakulo gn 2 dakot na dahon sa 4 na basong tubig
 Boil in low heat for 15 minutes and don’t cover  Boil in low heat for 15 minutes and don’t cover
 Cool it down and strain  Cool it down and strain
Dosage: Kailangang dahon: sariwa Application:
 Matanda: 6 spoons  Ipanghugas ng nilagang tubig sa sugat 2 beses maghapon
 7-12 taon 3 spoons  Kung ipapangmumog, gamitin ng maligamgam
Dosage: Kailangang dahon: tuyo
 Matanda: 4 spoons Lagundi
 7-12 yrs old: 2 spoons  Balumbong na may 5 dahon
Applicatipon:  Heigh: 5 meters
 Divide into 3 and drink during morning, noon and night  Used for Hika, ubo, at lagnat
 Can be applied to the body part that is in pain Preparation:
 Wash leaves and slice
Akapulko  Measure 2 cups of water and 2 cups of leaves
 Height: Can be as high as 3 meters or higher  Boil in low heat for 15 minutes and don’t cover
 Its yellow flower can be seen at the end of the stem  Cool it down and strain
 Has small seeds that is inside of its long vessels Dosage: Kailangang dahon: sariwa
 Used for An-an, buni, alipunga, an galis aso  Matanda: 6 spoons
Preparation:  7-12 yrs old: 3 spoons
 Grind a right amount of fresh leaves  2-6 yrs old 1 & ½ spoon
 Can ab boiled sa 1 tasang dahon in a 2 tasang tubig Dosage: Kailangang dahon: tuyo
 Boil it for 15 minutes or until it lessen into 1 tasa  Matanda: 4 spoons
Application:  7-12 yrs old 2 spoons
 Ipahid ang katas sa apektadong balat  2-6 yrs old: 1 spoon
 Apply it for 1-2 times (maghapon) Application:
 Can be used to wash the affected skin 1-2 times For cough and asthma;
(maghapon)  Divide it into 3 cups and drink during morning, noon, and
night
Ampalaya For fever;
 Baging na namumulaklak at namumunga  Drink every 4 hours
 The leaves can be eaten as vegetable
 Used for diabetes
Preparation: Reference:
 Wash and slice the leaves
 Measure 6 spoons of leaves and 2 cups of water Modules in canvas
 Boil in low heat for 15 minutes and don’t cover Powerpoint in canvas
 Cool it down and strain Links in canvas
Application: + additional infos with links indicated on topics
 Drink 1/3 tasa 3 times (maghapon)
 Drink 30 minutes before eating
 Ang murang dahon ay maaaring pasingawan at kainin
 ½ cup and 2 times (maghapon)

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 [CANVAS] MODULE 2: PLANTS
OUTLINE
I L1: The Plant Cell
A Plant Cell Structure
B Plant Growth and Division of the Cell
II L2: Plant Histology
A Tissue System
B Primary Growth of Plants
PLANT CELL STRUCTURE
 The single cells that make up the most basic organisms to
the trillions of cells that constitute the complex structure
of the human body, each and every living being on Earth is
comprised of cells.
 Cells are the basic units of the structure and
function of living things. They are the smallest
units that can carry out the processes of life.
 This idea, part of the cell theory, is one of the central tenants
of biology. Initially discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665,
the cell has a rich and interesting history that has ultimately
given way to many of today’s scientific advancements.
 He was the first person to use the word “cell” to identify
microscopic structures when he was describing cork.
 Hooke was one of the earliest scientists to study
living things under a microscope. The
microscopes of his day were not very strong, but
Hooke was still able to make an important
discovery. When he looked at a thin slice of cork
under his microscope, he was surprised to see
what looked like a honeycomb. Hooke made the
drawing in the figure below to show what he saw.
As you can see, the cork was made up of many
tiny units, which Hooke called cells.
Robert Hooke sketched these cork cells as they appeared under
a simple light microscope.
The cell theory states that:
 all biological organisms are composed of cells
 cells are the unit of life
 all life comes from pre-existing life
CELLS AND TISSUES
MORE INFROMATION
Source:
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Human_Biology/Book%3A_Human_Biology_(Wakim_an
d_Grewal)/05%3A_Cells/5.02%3A_Discovery_of_Cells_and_Cell_Theory
1660s
 The microscope opened up an amazing new world — the
world of life at the level of the cell. As microscopes
continued to improve, more discoveries were made about
the cells of living things.
 However, by the late 1800s, light microscopes had reached
their limit. Objects much smaller than cells, including the
structures inside cells, were too small to be seen with even
the strongest light microscope.
1950s
 A new type of the microscope was invented. Called the
electron microscope.
 it used a beam of electrons instead of light to
observe extremely small objects.
 With an electron microscope, scientists could finally see the
tiny structures inside cells. In fact, they could even see
individual molecules and atoms.
 With the electron microscope, many more cell discoveries
were made. shows how the cell structures called organelles
appear when scanned by an electron microscope.
Shows how the cell structures called organelles appear when
scanned by an electron microscope.
DEVELOPERS OF CELL THEORY
1838
 Matthias Schleiden – stated all plants composed of cells
1839
 Theodor Schwann – stated all animals also composed of
cells – thus claimed all living things composed of cells.
1858
 Rudolf Virchow – all cells come from preexisting cells.
There are three parts to this theory.
 The first part states that all organisms are made of cells.
 The second part states that cells are the basic units of life.
 These parts were based on a conclusion made by
Schwann and Matthias Schleiden in 1838, after
comparing their observations of plant and animal cells.
 The third part, which asserts that cells come from
preexisting cells that have multiplied, was described by
Rudolf Virchow in 1858, when he stated omnis cellula e
cellula (all cells come from cells).
1
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Cytology is the study of the structure and the function of cells. Below is the tabulated differences and similarities of animal cell
Cells are the simplest unit of matter that is living. to plant cell.
Plant Cell Animal Cell
The two primary kinds of cells are Have plastids (e.g. Do not have plastids
(1) Eukaryotic cells - have a true nucleus containing DNA. Ex. chloroplast)
fungi, plants, and animals Have a cell wall (cellulose) Do not have a cell wall
(2) Prokaryotic cells, which have no true nucleus. In Have a large central vacuole Have small temporary
prokaryotic cells, the DNA is coiled up in a region called the vacuoles (if any)
nucleoid. Ex. bacteria Store excess glucose as Store excess glucose as
starch glycogen
Have plasmodesmata Do not have plasmodesmata
Do not have centrioles Have centrioles
Do not have cholesterol in Have cholesterol in cell
cell membrane membrane
Generally hae a fixed, Generally have an
regular shape amorphous shape

PLANT CELL (CELL STRUCTURE &

COMMUNICATION
SOURCE: powerpoint in canvas

Plant cell is the basic building block of plant life, and they carry
out all of the functions necessary for survival. They are
eukaryotic cells, which have a true nucleus along with
specialized structures called organelles that carry out different
functions. A plant cell has the following basic parts:

 Cell wall. The outermost part of the plant cell.

 Cytoplasm. It is a jelly-like fluid that is made up of
mostly water and salt.
 Cytoskeleton. The “framework”, Helps maintain the
cell shape, motility and internal movement. CELL SIZE
 Microtubules. Large tubular structures composed
of the protein tubulin.
 Endoplasmic reticulum.
 Rough ER – ribosomes are attached. Proteins are
synthesized here.
 Smooth ER – ribosomes aren’t attached. Lipids
and Phospholipids are synthesized.
 Mitochondria. “Powerhouse of the cell”
 Chloroplasts. Green plastids known as chloroplast
contains chlorophyll and carotenoid
 Golgi boies. “dictyosomes” “Packaging of proteins”
areas, transport of substances to and from the cell.
 Cell membrane. Selectively permeable which
regulates the entrance and exit of substances in a cell
 Plasmodesma, plasmodesmata (pl.) Holes all over
the cell wall which allows the nutrients to enter the cell
and also allows the waste to exit the cell.
 Nucleus. Structure that stores DNA and acts as a cell's
command center.
 Nucleolus. Its primary function is to assemble
ribosomes, is the largest structure in the cell nucleus.
 Vacuole. Useful for maintaining cell structure and
water balance and used for the storage of waste and
food
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=URUJD5NEXC8&t=13s click for
more information

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THE CELL WALL Middle Lamella

The plant cell wall is multi-layered and consists of up to three  is a layer which cements (binds) the primary cell walls of
sections. two adjoining plant cells together.
 Middle lamella  The middle lamella is made up of calcium and magnesium
 Primary cell wall pectates.
 Secondary cell wall  In a mature plant cell it is the outermost layer of cell wall.
Components of the cell wall  It is also involved in cell to cell communication by forming
 Cellulose plasmodesmata between cells.
 hemicellulose Primary Wall
 Pectin  is the cellulose-containing layer laid down by cells that are
dividing and growing.
 glycoprotein
 To allow for cell wall expansion during growth, primary walls
are thinner and less rigid than those of cells that have
stopped growing.
Secondary Cell Wall
 are synthesized in specialized cells, such as tracheary
elements and fibers, and their remarkable strength and
rigidity provide strong mechanical support to the cells and
the plant body.
 The main components of secondary walls are cellulose,
xylan, glucomannan and lignin.
 Secondary walls are mainly found in tracheary elements
(tracheids in seedless vascular plants and gymnosperms
and vessels in angiosperms) and fibers in the primary
xylem and the secondary xylem (wood)
Plasmodesmata (PD)
 (singular, plasmodesma)
 are small channels that directly connect the cytoplasm of
neighboring plant cells to each other, establishing living
PLANT CELL WALL FUNCTION bridges between cells.
A major role of the cell wall is to form a framework for the cell  are intercellular channels that span the plant cell wall and
to prevent over expansion. Additional functions of the cell wall serve as cytoplasmic bridges to facilitate efficient
include: exchange of signaling molecules between neighboring
 Support cells.
 Withstand turgor pressure: Cellulose
 Regulate growth  is the main substance found in plant cell walls and helps the
 Regulate diffusion plant to remain stiff and strong.
 Communication  Plant cell walls are primarily made of cellulose, which is
 Protection the most abundant macromolecule on Earth.
 Storage  Cellulose fibers are long, linear polymers of hundreds of
glucose molecules. These fibers aggregate into bundles of
The cell wall appears as the thin layer between the cells about 40, which are called microfibrils.
 Its building block glucose is a direct product of
photosynthesis that captures carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere.
 polysaccharide containing repeated unbranched β (1-4)
D-glucose units, is synthesized at the plasma membrane by
the cellulose synthase complex (CSC) from bacteria to
plants.
Hemicellulose
 are polysaccharides in plant cell walls that have beta-(1--
>4)-linked backbones with an equatorial configuration
 Polysaccharides generally perform one of two
functions: energy storage or structural support
 branched polymer of pentose and hexose sugars
 The most important biological role of hemicelluloses is their
contribution to strengthening the cell wall by interaction with
cellulose and, in some walls, with lignin.
 Lignin- is a class of complex organic polymers
that form key structural materials in the support
tissues of most plants. Lignins are particularly
important in the formation of cell walls, especially
in wood and bark, because they lend rigidity and
do not rot easily.

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Plasma Membrane CELLULAR COMPONENTS

 is a structure of the plant cell that forms a semipermeable,
or selective, barrier between the interior of the cell and the Each organelle within the protoplast has a primary function
external environment;  Plasma membrane
 they also function in transport of molecules into and out of  Nucleus
the cell.  Endoplasmic reticulum
Pectin
 Ribosomes
 is a component of the cell walls of plants that is composed
 Dictyosomes
of acidic sugar-containing backbones with neutral sugar-
 Plastids
containing side chains.
 Mitochondria
 It functions in cell adhesion and wall hydration, and pectin
crosslinking influences wall porosity and plant  Vacoules
morphogenesis.  Cytoskeleton
 pectin matrix provides an environment for the deposition,
slippage and extension of the cellulose-matrix network and
is the major adhesive material .

Glycoprotein
 often function in cell-to-cell adhesion, especially in
organisms (animals) that lack rigid cell walls.
 In addition, the carbohydrate portion of glycoproteins is
often the key factor in cellular recognition.

BRIDGE BETWEEN PLANT CELLS

Plasmodesmata

PLASMA MEMBRANE
 Outer boundary of the living part of the cell
 Regulates the movement of substances in and out of the
cell
 Involved in the production and assembly of the cellulose of
Primary plasmodesmata are formed while the cell wall and the cell wall
endoplasmic reticulum are formed as well; secondary  Flexible membrane made up of phospholipids
plasmodesmata are formed afterward. Secondary
plasmodesmata are more complex and may have different
functional properties in terms of the size and nature of the
molecules able to pass through.
 Plasmodesmata form during cell division of plant
development. They form when parts of the smooth
endoplasmic reticulum from the parent cells become
trapped in the newly formed plant cell wall.
 Plasmodesmata is a thin channel through plant cells that
allows them to communicate.
 are intercellular organelles found only in plant and algal
cells. (The animal cell "equivalent" is called the gap
junction.)
The plasma membrane has several functions
 The plasmodesmata consist of pores, or channels, lying 1. It mediates the transport of substances into and out of the
between individual plant cells, and connect the symplastic protoplasm
space in the plant. They can also be termed as "bridges"
2. It coordinates the synthesis and assembly of cellulose
between two plant cells. microfibrils
 The plasmodesmata separate the outer cell membranes of 3. It relays hormonal and environmental signals involved in the
the plant cells. The actual air space separating the cells is control of cell growth and differentiation
called the desmotubule.
 The desmotubule possesses a rigid membrane According to the accepted current theory, known as the fluid
that runs the length of the plasmodesma. mosaic model, the plasma membrane is composed of a double
 Cytoplasm lies between the cell membrane and the layer (bilayer) of lipids, oily substances found in all cells
desmotubule.
 The entire plasmodesma is covered with the smooth
endoplasmic reticulum of the connected cells.

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RIBOSOMES
 Ribosomes are a cell structure that makes protein.
 Protein is needed for many cell functions such as repairing
damage or directing chemical processes.
 Ribosomes can be found floating within the cytoplasm or
attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.

https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/plasmamembrane/plasmamembrane.html click
for more information
NUCLEUS

Contains the DNA which provides original information for the

cell’s needs
 Contributes to growth
 Differentiation
 Other activities
 Hereditary

DICTYOSOMES
Collecting packaging and delivery center.
 Modification of carbohydrates attached to proteins that
were synthesized in the ER.
 It is where complex polysaccharide are assembled and
collected in small vesicles-migrate outside the cell and
secrete contents (floral nectars, essential oils, cell wall
polysaccharide).
 Further modification of enzymes needed for packaging of
proteins after synthesis in the ER.

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)

Facilitates cellular communication and channeling of materials
 Primary site of synthesis of membrane for other organelles
and modification of proteins occurs in ER.
 Synthesis of enzymes for cell respiration
 Rough ER –with ribosomes, synthesis, secretion
and storage of proteins
 Smooth ER –few ribosomes associated with lipid
secretion

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PLASTIDS
 Primarily involved in the manufacture and storage of food.
 They are therefore involved in such processes as
photosynthesis, synthesis of amino acids and lipids as well
as storage of various materials among a few other
functions.
MICROBES
 Small, spherical organelles that contain specialized
enzymes and are bounded by a single membrane.
 Peroxisomes –contains enzymes allowing plants
to endure hot conditions
 Glyoxisomes –contain enzymes that aid in the
conversion of fats into carbohydrates (eg. seed
germination)

VACUOLES

Parts involved in photosynthesis:

 Grana – stack of coins
 Thykaloids– contain chlorophyll
 Stroma– liquid portion, contains enzymes for
photosynthesis, DNA that encodes production of protein for
photosynthesis, RNA and ribosomes that facilitate protein
synthesis.
OTHER PLASTIDS:
 Chromoplasts -yellow, orange or red in color due to the
presence of carotenoid pigments.
 Leucoplast –colorlessplastids
 Amyoplasts–synthesize starch  Maintains cell pressure and pH and storage of cell
 Elaioplast–synthesize oil metabolites and waste products.
 Tonoplast– vacuolar membrane
 Cell sap – watery fluid inside the vacuole w/c
maintains pressure within the cell. Contain
anthocyanin (water soluble pigment) that is
responsible for the red, blue and purple color of
flower and some leaves
CYTOSKELETON
 Involved in the movement within the cell and in cell’s
architecture. Made up of 2 kinds of fiber:
 Microtubule –involved in cell division, movement
of organelles and vesicles.
 Microfilaments –play a role in cytoplasmic
streaming (cyclosis)
 A system of protein filaments and structure
MITOCHONDRIA  Provides supports & organization
The powerhouse of the cell because it is within the mitochondria  Involved in movement
that energy is released from organic molecules by the process
of cellular respiration

Matrix fluid filled with DNA, RNA, proteins and dissolved substances.

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GROWTH AND DIVISION OF THE CELL

 Cell division is the process in which one cell, called the

parent cell, divides to form two new cells, referred to as
daughter cells.
 Cell division is simpler in prokaryotes than eukaryotes
because prokaryotic cells themselves are simpler.
 Prokaryotic cells have a single circular chromosome,
no nucleus, and few other organelles. Eukaryotic cells, in
contrast, have multiple chromosomes contained within a
nucleus.

Both mitosis and meiosis result in eukaryotic cells dividing.

The primary difference is the differing goals of each process.

 The goal of mitosis is to produce two daughter cells that

are genetically identical to the parent cell, meaning the new
cells have exactly the same DNA as the parent cell.
 Meiosis consists of two successive divisions, each of
which is divided into four phases.
 The first meiotic division is similar to mitosis and the second
meiotic division is the "reduction" stage.
 The process takes the form of one DNA replication followed
by two successive nuclear and cellular divisions (Meiosis I
and Meiosis II).
 As in mitosis, meiosis is preceded by a process of DNA
replication that converts each chromosome into two sister
chromatids.
Stages of Mitosis Cell division
 Prophase--nuclear envelope breakdown,
chromosome condensation, spindle formation.
 Metaphase--chromosomes are lined up precisely on
the metaphase plate, or middle of the cell.
 Anaphase--spindle pulls sister chromatids apart.
 Telophase--chromatids begin to decondense and
become chromatin. Spindle disappears.
 Cytokinesis--divide cell and organelles. Actin ring, or
cleavage furrow splits cell.
The cell cycle is a four-stage process in which the cell increases
in size (gap 1, or G1, stage), copies its DNA (synthesis, or S,
stage), prepares to divide (gap 2, or G2, stage), and divides
(mitosis, or M, stage). The stages G1, S, and G2 make up
interphase, which accounts for the span between cell divisions.
Interphase
 The longest period of the cell cycle where cells are not
dividing. It is the time where physiological actions takes
place.
3 Periods of Interphase
 Gap (growth) 1, G1 – lengthy, occurs after nucleus
division, cells increase in size and RNA, ribosomes are
produced.
 Synthesis, S - DNA replication takes place
 Gap (growth) 2, G2 –mitochondria and other organelles
divide amdmicrotubules are produced. Coiling and
condensation of chromosomes begins.
PHASE MITOSIS
Mitosis
 Division of the nucleus where a single cell divides producing
2 new cells (daughter cells).
 It ensures daughter cells have precisely equal amounts of
DNA and chromosomes as the parent cell.

Cytokinesis
 Division of other cell aside from the nucleus, which follows
mitosis.

CELL CYCLE
A cell cycle is a series of events that takes place in a cell as it
grows and divides. A cell spends most of its time in what is called
interphase, and during this time it grows, replicates its
chromosomes, and prepares for cell division. The cell then
leaves interphase, undergoes mitosis, and completes its
division.

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PROPHASE TELOPHASE
 Chromatin condenses into chromosomes where 2 stranded  Daughter chromosomes surrounded by reformed nuclear
nature (chromatids becomes apparent, w/ centromere envelope. Then become thinner and longer.
 Nuclear envelope dissociates  Nucleoli reappear
 Nucleolus disintegrates  Spindle fiber disintegrate and become microtubules (short
 Chromosomes condense and become visible fibers, phragmoplast)
 Spindle fibers emerge from the centrosomes  Cell plate form
 Nuclear envelope breaks down  Chromosomes arrive at opposite poles and begin to
 Nucleolus disappears decondense
 Nuclear envelope material surrounds each set of
chromosomes.
 The mitotic spindle breaks down.
Nucleolus reappear
Chromoso
mes uncoil
to
chromatin
Spindle fiber
disintegrate

Nuclear
Spindle fibers with microtubules develops by the end of Two identical envelope
daughter nucleic reform
prophase
form
METAPHASE  Production of vesicles w/ materials for the cell wall and cell
 The chromosomes become aligned so that their membranes by the dictyosomes
centromeres are in plane in the center of the cell.  Cell plate –fused microtubules
 The alignment of the chromosomes in a circle midway  Carbohydrates in the vesicle becomes primary cell walls
between two poles around the circumference of the spindle. and middle lamella, shared by 2 new daughter cells
This form an invisible circular plate where spindle fibers are The key difference between daughter cells resulting from mitosis
attached to the chromosomes. and meiosis is that: after meiosis, cells are haploid while in
 Chromosomes continue to condense mitosis, cells produced are in diploid. The four daughter cells of
 Kinetochores appear at the centromeres meiosis contain 23 chromosomes.
 Mitotic spindle microtubules attach to kinetochores
 Centrosomes move toward opposite poles

Centromeres separate lengthwise at the end of metaphase.

ANAPHASE
 The sister chromatids of each chromosome separate and
moving to opposite poles, called daughter chromosomes,
due to the shortening of the spindle fibers.
 Mitotic spindle is fully developed, centrosomes are at
opposite poles of the cell
 Chromosomes are lined up at the metaphase plate
 Each sister chromatid is attached to a spindle fiber
originating from opposite poles.
Stages of Meiosis:
1. Prophase I - the chromosomes condense, and the nuclear
envelope breaks down; crossing- over occurs
2. Metaphase I - pairs of homologous chromosomes move to
the equator of the cell
3. Anaphase I - homologous chromosomes move to opposite
poles of the cell
4. Telophase I and Cytokinesis - Chromosomes gather at the
poles of the cells then cytoplasm divides.
5. Prophase II - A new spindle forms around the chromosomes.
6. Metaphase II - chromosomes line up at the equator
7. Anaphase II - centromeres divides. Chromatids move to
opposite poles of the cell
8. Telophase II and Cytokinesis - A nuclear envelope forms
around each set of chromosomes. The cytoplasm divides.

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Watch the video below to easily understand meiosis:  Collenchyma – It is composed of elongated cells
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p0TfJaoTi9U&t=11s and have thick cell walls and no intercellular
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zrKdz93WlVk&feature space. Its main function is to provide support for
=emb_logo growing tissues, like stem.
 Sclerenchyma – it is composed of narrow dead
TISSUE SYSTEM thick walled cells and function to provide
Histology is the study of tissues and cells under a support for the plant.
microscope.
 It originated from the Greek work – histos (tissues) and
logia (study of).
 Plants do have a higher level of structure called plant tissue
systems.
 A plant tissue is a group of cells, usually of the same shape
and structure, which form a collective system for a given
task.
 A plant tissue system can be defined as a functional unit,
which connects all organs of a plant.
 The tissues of a plant are organized into three tissue
systems: the dermal tissue system, the ground tissue Below is the tabulated descriptions of tissue systems:
system, and the vascular tissue system.
1. Dermal tissues
 The epidermis is a dermal tissue that is usually a single
layer of cells covering the younger parts of a plant.
 It secretes a waxy layer called the cuticle that inhibits
water loss. It functions to protect the soft tissues of plants,
guard the plant from injury and water loss, and controls
interactions with the plants' surroundings.
 Dermal tissue is the source of the periderm, a protective
tissue that replaces the epidermis when the secondary
growth displaces, and ultimately destroys, the epidermis of
the primary plant body. During abcission, injury, or invasion
of microbes, periderm is formed to protect the plant by
formation of extra layer. These provide fortification to the
plant. They include the cork and epidermis.
 Epidermis – It is a layer of cell that makes up
making up an outer casing of all the structures in
the plant. The stomata perforate the epidermis at
certain places. The stomata help in loss of water
and gaseous exchange. 3. Vascular tissue
 Cork – This is the external protective tissue which Composed of xylem and phloem, which function in the transport
substitutes the epidermal cells in mature stems of water and dissolved substances. Its main function is to
and roots. Cork cells are lifeless and lack transport material between the root and the shoot of the plant.
intercellular gaps. Their cell walls are coagulated
by suberin which makes them impervious to gas  Xylem – It functions as the main water-conducting tissue of
and Water Molecules. vascular plants which arise from individual cylindrical cells
oriented end to end. At maturity the end walls of these cells
dissolve away and the cytoplasmic contents die.

2. Ground tissue
 These tissues are involved in photosynthesis, storage,
regeneration, support, and protection.
The three types of ground tissue include: parenchyma,  Phloem – Its main function is to transport sugar. The main
collenchyma, and sclerenchyma. components of phloem are:
 Parenchyma - Parenchyma cells are the majority  a. sieve elements – perforated walls which
of cells in a plant. They have thin cell walls and allows cytoplasmic connections between
large vacuoles, and are most abundant of all the vertically-stacked cells and have no nucleus and
cells. It has intercellular space is found and its only a sparse collection of other organelles
main function is to perform photosynthesis and  b. companion cells – it provides energy.
store protein and starch.

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PERMANENT TISSUES
 Those cells which have lost their ability to distribute but are
specialized to offer elasticity, flexibility and strength to
the plant. These tissues can be additionally categorized
into:
1. Simple Permanent Tissue: They can be classified
into sclerenchyma, collenchyma and parenchyma
based on their purpose.
2. Complex Permanent Tissue: These tissues include of
phloem and xylem. Xylem is valuable for the
transportation of water and solvable constituents.
Xylem is made up of xylem parenchyma, fibers,
vessels and tracheids. Phloem is valuable in the
transportation of food particles. Phloem consists of
phloem parenchyma, phloem fibers, companion cells,
sieve cells and sieve tubes.

PLANT HISTOLOGY: TISSUES AND PRIMARY

To fully understand plant histology, please watch this video. GROWTH
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9NCvTNcS2lU&t=3s Source: ppt in canvas

Plant organs are made up of TISSUES.

PRIMARY GROWTH OF PLANTS  Tissues are group of cells performing a similar function.
 Tissues are classified based to its structure, origin or
MERISTEMATIC TISSUES function.
 Plant tissues originated in meristems.
 These are composed of three regions where cell divisions
produce plant growth.
 These tissues have the capability to develop by swift
division. They assist in the major growth of the
vegetation. Growth in length and growth in diameter of the
plant are carried about by these cells.
 The Meristematic cells are cubical, living cells with a big
nucleus. These cells are meticulously crammed with no
intercellular spaces. Depending on the section where the
meristematic tissues are existing, they are categorized as
meristems intercalary, lateral and apical.

1. Apical meristem is existent at the growing tips or

apical of stems and roots. Apical meristem upsurges
the length of the plant. It is responsible for primary
growth.
1. Lateral meristem is existent in the radial portion of the
stem or root. Lateral meristem upsurges the thickness
or width of the plant. It is responsible for secondary
growth.
2. Intercalary meristem is found at the internodes or at
the base of the leaves. Intercalary meristem upsurges
the size of the internode. Responsible for the re-
growth of a plant.

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REMEMBER APICAL MERISTEMS

Three basic tissue patterns:  meristematic tissues found at, or near the tips of roots and
1. Woody dicots shoots and increase their length as it produce new cells.
2. Herbaceous dicots Type of growth → primary growth
3. Monocots

Meristematic Tissues LATERAL MERISTEMS

 Are found in the growing regions of the plant.  Produce secondary tissues- secondary growth, produce
 For ex. – root tip & stem tip. tissues that increase the girth, width or thickness of the
 Cells of this tissue tend to divide continuously. roots and stem. Includes cork and vascular cambium.
 are found in all woody plants and in some herbaceous ones.
These tissues are of three types:
Apical Meristematic tissue
 tissues found at, or near the tips of roots and shoots and
increase their length
 They help in the growth of the root system as well as the
shoot system.
 The various cell divisions along with the cellular
enlargement help in the growth of the stem above the
ground and the growth of the root below the ground.
Lateral Meristematic tissue
 produce tissues that increase the girth of roots and stems.
 The lateral meristems are present on the lateral side of the
stem and root of a plant.
 These meristems help in increasing the thickness of the
plants.
 The vascular cambium and the cork cambium are good
examples of a lateral meristematic tissue.
Intercalary Meristematic tissue
 develop at intervals along stems or leaf attachment areas
(nodes), in which their tissues add
to stem length.
 The intercalary meristems are located at the internodes or
the base of the leaves.
 The intercalary meristems help in increasing the length of
the internode.
 This is usually seen in monocotyledonous plants.

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INTERCALARY MERISTEMS PARENCHYMA TISSUES

 Found in the vicinity of the nodes and develop at intervals  parenchyma cells
along stems where it adds to the length of the stem.  most abundant cell type
 Grass have no lateral meristems but they have apical and  thin and pliable walls
intercalary meristems (around nodes).
 have large vacuoles that may contain starch grains, oils,
tannins, etc.
 Cells have spaces between them

Aerenchyma –parenchymal tissues with extensive connected

air spaces.
Chlorenchyma – w/ chloroplast that functions for
photosynthesis while those w/o, functions mainly for food
storage.
Transfer cells – parenchyma cells that develop irregular
extensions of the inner wall that increase the plasma
membrane.
COLLENCHYMA TISSUES
 Occurs beneath the epidermis of stem and near the
vascular tissues.
 It makes the strings on celery that get stuck in our teeth.
 Walls are pliable and strong
 Remain alive in maturity
 Walls are thicker and uneven than parenchyma to extra
primary walls
TISSUES PRODUCED BY MERISTEMS
SCLERENCHYMA TISSUES
SIMPLE TISSUES  Dead at maturity and function in support
 Parenchyma - Its primary functions are photosynthesis, Sclereids
storage of food particles, and repairing of tissues, etc. • Gives gritty texture to cell wall (stone cells) such in pears,
 Collenchyma - providing additional support to withstand hardness of nutshell and pits of peaches and other stone
forces of nature. fruits.
 Sclerenchyma - function of providing structural support in Fibers
plants. • Longer than wide
COMPLEX TISSUES • They are like long elastic cables
 Xylem - transports and stores water and water-soluble • Have lumen or cavity at the center
nutrients in vascular plants.
 Phloem - is responsible for transporting sugars, proteins,
and other organic molecules in plants.

COMPLEX TISSUES
Composed of 2 or more kinds of cells.
Examples:
• Xylem
• Phloem
• Epidermis (cover all plant organs)
• Periderm

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XYLEM
 Conducting sclerenchyma
 A component of the plumbing and
storage system of plants
 Chief conducting tissue for water
and minerals absorbed by roots
 Complexed with combination of
parenchyma cells, fibers, vessels,
tracheids and ray cells

Root hair
 tubular extentions found in the epidermal cells of roots.
 Absorptive surface
Two conducting cells (upward conduction):
1. Vessel – long tubes made up of cells called vessel elements.
2. Tracheids –tapered at each end, ends overlapping with other
tracheids and with pits (allows only water) present in cone
bearing trees and other non-flowering plants
 Ray cells – allows lateral conduction

Trichomes – epidermal hairs in aboveground portion of plants.

Guard cell – epidermal cells that borders the stomata

PHLOEM
Conducts dissolved food materials from photosynthesis, has 2
types cells w/o secondary walls:
• Sieve tube members or sieve tube elements with companion Guard cells (swollen) Guard cells (shrunken)
cells, laid end to end forming sieve tubes. Have sieve plates PERIDERM
----With cytoplasm conducting the food  It replaces the epidermis when it is sloughed off and after
 Callose (polymer) – forms callus plugs in sieve the cork cambium produce new tissues.
plates preventing leaking of contents.  Cork secrete suberin.
 Cork cambium forms pockets of loosely arranged
parenchyma cells protruding at the surface of periderm
forming lenticels (gas exchange).

EPIDERMIS
 outermost layer of young plants
Cutin forms the cuticle which is important for: SECRETORY CELLS AND TISSUES
 Prevent lost of water in plants Secretory cells and tissues Derived from parenchyma, secretes:
 Resistant to bacteria and other disease causing • Nectar in flowers
organisms • Oils in leaves
 Protection from herbicide • Mucilage in sundews and other insect trapping plants
Commercial production of: carnauba wax (palm), • Latex
polishes, bayberry candles (fruits and except for • Resins
velamen roots eg. orhid and in leaves of wax myrtle. • Opium
• Rubber

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 [CANVAS] MODULE 3: PLANT ORGANOGRAPHY: ROOTS AND PLANT PROCESSES

 Fibrous root absorbs water and nutrients quickly and helps

OUTLINE prevent soil erosion as they anchor plants to the top layers
I L1: ROOTS of soil. Ex. Grass
A Morphology and Anatomy (External and Internal
structures)
B. Taproot
B Primary and Secondary structures
C Primary and Secondary growth  Central main axis
D Mechanism of Water and Nutrient absorption  Formed by prolongation of radicle of the embryo
E Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological importance of the  In dicot plants, the primary root grows longer and thicker
roots than the secondary roots.
II L2: Plant transport and other processes  It anchors the plant deeply, helping to prevent the wind from
A Plant transport
B Transport Processes
blowing them over.
C Other Transport Processes  Taproot has modified root for food storage and has high
drought tolerance. Ex. Raddish

ROOTS

Typical organs of plant are:

 stems (axial aerial organs with continuous growth)
 leaves (flat lateral organ with restricted growth)
 roots (axial soil organ modified for absorption)
 floral units which are elements of the generative system
such as a pine cone or any flower
Root hairs
Differences in the structure of stems and roots occur between
 Small hair like outgrowth present on tips of lateral roots and
two major groups of flowering plants, the monocots and the
main axis
dicots, and also between herbaceous plants that show only
 Exogenous organs
primary growth and woody plants that show secondary growth.
 Found in mesophytes and Xerophytes
 Absent in hydrophytes
 Roots anchor a plant into the soil, helping it withstand the
push of wind and water.
Free floating Hydrophytes, root pockets are present
 It grows through the soil, absorbing the water and minerals
plants need and transporting them upward into the shoot
Root cap
through vascular tissue.
 Protective layer present around root tip
 Plant roots also form very important relationships with soil
 Made up of dead tissue called CALYPTROGEN. Also
fungi and bacteria that help plants grow.
called CALYPTRA
 Well developed in mesophytes and xerophytes a structure
MORPHOLOGY AND ANATOMY
exclusive to roots and unlike any other plant structure.
Roots
 continuously replaced because it gets damaged easily as
 is a part of a vascular plant that normally grows
the root pushes through soil.
underground.
 PRIMARY FUNCTIONS: anchorage of the plant,  Behind the root cap, within the first centimeter or so, the
root tip
absorption of water and dissolved minerals and
conduction of these to the stem, and storage of  thimble-shaped mass of cells that covers the apex of the
reserve foods. root thus protects the growing root tip
 The root differs from the stem mainly by lacking leaf scars
and buds, having a root cap, and having branches that PRIMARY AND SECONDARY STRUCTURES
originate from internal tissue rather than from buds.
Roots are important organs in all vascular plants.
TWO MAIN TYPES OF ROOT SYSTEM
Most vascular plants have two types of roots: primary roots that
grow downward and secondary roots that branch out to the
A. Fibrous root system side.
 Bunch of new roots are produced from the base of the stem 1. Primary root – first root of a plant, originating in the embryo.
as fibers
 Monocots tend to have “fibrous roots” that web off in many 2. Secondary roots – produced on the primary root
directions.
 These fibrous roots occupy the upper level of the soil in 3. Tertiary roots – grow in various directions and help in fixing
comparison to dicot root. the plant firmly into the soil.

1
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PRIMARY AND SECONDARY GROWTH
PRIMARY GROWTH
 begins with seed germination
 When the plant embryo emerges from the seed, the radicle
of the embryo forms the root system.
 tip of the root is protected by the root cap
 a structure exclusive to roots and unlike any other plant
structure.
 continuously replaced because it gets damaged easily as
the root pushes through soil.
 Behind the root cap, within the first centimeter or so, the
root tip
Behind the root cap, within the first centimeter or so, the root tip
can be divided into FOUR REGIONS namely:
1. Root cap - thimble-shaped mass of cells that covers the apex
of the root thus protects the growing root tip.
 to protect the delicate cells behind the cap as it
pushes through the soil.
 a protection from mechanical injury.
2. Meristematic region - the location of cell division.
 In this region, the cells become longer and
broader.
 It is a small region at the tip of a root in which all
cells are capable of repeated division and from
which all primary root tissues are derived.
3. Region/Area of elongation - is the area of root lengthening.
The cell produced from the meristematic region grow in the
elongation region.
4. Region/Area of maturation - this is where the cells that grew
in the elongation region fully develop and become adult cells.
 This is where the root hairs are visible.
MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO
Secondary growth
 occurs in many roots and usually results in the
thickening of the root diameter by the addition of
vascular tissue
 Initiation of secondary growth occurs when cells in the
residual procambium and parts of the pericycle begin
to make divisions
Plants may also have:
Lateral roots
 branch from the main tap root
 display their own primary growth, continually adding
length to the lateral root
 Produced from main axis in acropetal succession
 Formed from inner region the main axis (pericycle)
 Produced obliquely in all directions from tap root in
acropetal succession
 Most commonly found on Dicotyledons
 originate from meristematic tissue in the pericycle
 outermost cell layer in the vascular cylinder in the
center of the root
 a layer of cells that gives rise to branch roots.
Vascular cylinder
 interior to the endodermis
 is surrounded by the pericycle, a layer of cells that
gives rise to branch roots
Conductive tissues (of the vascular cylinder)
 usually arranged in a star-shaped pattern
Xylem tissue
 carries water and dissolved minerals, comprises the
core of the star
Phloem tissue
 carries food
 located in small groups between the points of the star
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MODIFIED ROOTS contractile part of the root

may lose as much as 2/3
There are many different types of specialized roots, and listed of its length within a few
below are the most common root modifications. weeks as stored food is
Root Description Examples used and the cortex
modification collapses.

Food storage roots are enlarged and Carrots, beets, Buttress roots Large roots on all sides Fig tree and
store large quantities of turnips of a tall or shallowly other tropical
starch and other (Brassica rapa), rooted tree. It provides trees
carbohydrates, which sweet potatoes, support and stability to a
may later be used for yams, tree.
extensive growth. hemlocks,
dandelions, Parasitic roots Plants without Mistletoe,
radish chlorophyll become orchids
(Raphanus dependent on
sativus L. var chlorophyll-bearing
longipinnatus) plants for nutrition. They
parasitize their host
Water storage plants that grow in arid pumpkin, plants via peglike
roots regions are known for manroots projections called
growing structures used (Marah haustoria, which develop
to retain water & used oreganus), along the stem in contact
these water supply when calabazilla with the host.
the supply in the soil is (Cucurbita
inadequate. perennis), Symbiotic roots Mycorrhizae form a Peanuts, pea,
watermelon mutualistic association beans, legumes
(Citrullus with plant roots.
lanatus)
Root+ fungi =
Propagative roots produces adventitious cherries, apple, mychorrhiza (better
buds along the roots that pear, rice-paper absorption of
grow near the surface of plant phosphorus from the
the ground. The buds (Tetrapanax soil)
develop into aerial stems papyrifera),
(suckers). The rooted tree-of-heaven, Root + bacteria =
suckers can be weeds such as rhizobia (nitrogen
separated from the hoarseradish, fixation, convert n2 to
original root & grow Canada thistle nh3 to use by plant for
individually. protein synthesis)

Pneumatophores Breathing roots to help Mangrove trees SPECIALIZED ROOTS

plants that grow in very
wet areas like swamps
get enough oxygen.
These roots act like
snorkel tubes for plants,
rising up above the
surface of the water so
that the plant can get
oxygen.
Orchids produce
Aerial Roots and
Photosynthetic velamen roots, corn
roots plants have prop roots,
ivies have adventitious
roots and vanilla orchids
even have
photosynthetic roots.
They can facilitate
climbing and support to
the plant.
Contractile roots Function: it pulls the
plant deeper into the soil
by expanding radially
and contracting
longitudinally. The
(Avicennia SOURCE: PPT IN CANVAS
nitida)
Specialized Roots
 Food-storage roots
 Water-storage roots
 Propagative roots
 Pneumatophores
 Aerial roots
 Contractile roots
Orchids, corn,
ivies, vanilla  Buttress roots
orchids  Parasitic roots
FOOD –STORAGE ROOTS
 Roots that are enlarged and store large quantities of starch
and other carbohydrates., which will be used for extensive
growth
Examples:
 sweet potatoes and yams
 Hemlock, dandelions and salsify
Lily, dandelion,  Carrots, beets, turnips and radishes
hyacinth
(Hyacinthus
orientalis)

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WATER-STORAGE ROOTS Propagative roots

 Grow in arid regions or no rain
Example:
 Pumpkin family (Cucurbitaceae)
 Manroots (Marah) –30 kgs
 Calabazilla (Cucurbita perennis) –72 kgs
PROPAGATIVE ROOTS
 Adventitious buds
 buds appearing other than the stems
 they grow from rootsSuckers
 buds that develop into aerial stems, have
additional rootlets in their bases. Ex cherries,
apples, pears
Examples:
 Rice-paper plants (Tetrapanax papyrifera) tree-of-heaven
(Ailanthus altissima)
 Horseradish (Rorippa armoracia) and Canada thistle
(Cirsium arvense)
PNEUMATOPHORES
 Special spongy roots, which extend above the water’s
surface and enhance gas exchange b/n the atmosphere
and the subsurface roots to w/c they are connected
Examples:
 Black mangrove (Avicennia nitida) and yellow
water weed (Ludwigia repens)
 Bald cypress (Taxodium distichum)
AERIAL ROOTS
 A root that develops from a location on a plant above the
surface of the earth or water, as from a stem.
 Example:
 Velamen roots of orchids
 Prop roots of corn and mangroves
 Banyan trees
 Adventitious roots of ivies
 Photosynthetic roots of orchids (vanilla orchids)
CONTRACTILE ROOTS
 Plants are pulled deeper into the soil, as the root contracts
→ when stored food is used, collapsing the cortex
Example:
 Lily bulbs
 Dandelions
BUTTRESS ROOTS
 Provide great stability for tropical trees in shallow soil
PARASITIC ROOTS
 Dodders, broomrapes and pinedrop are plants that
depends on chlorophyll-bearing plants for their nutrition.
 They have haustoria–peglike projections which develop
along the stem in contact with the host.
 Epiparasite –parasite of fungi; myco-heterotroph –plants
obtain carbon from fungus
 Roots that develop suckers
Myco-heterotroph
 Describes plant that obtains carbon from fungi
MYCORRHIZAE
 Fungus of fungi with plant roots, where both the fungus and
the roots benefit and are dependent upon the association
for survival (mutualistic)
 Essential to normal growth and development of forest trees
and herbaceous plants.
 Facilitate the uptake of water and inorganic ions.
 Better absorption of phosphorous
 Sugar and amino acids are provided to fungus by the plant
Ectotrophic
 a thin, encrusting layer formed by hyphae on the root
surface found in pines and oaks.
Endotrophic
 hyphae invade the cell and the mantle is not present, found
in woody and herbaceous plants
ROOT NODULES
 Small swelling found in the roots of leguminous plants such
as peas, beans, alfalfa, that is formed by their association
with soil bacteria
Rhizobium bacteria –nitrogen fixing bacteria
MECHANISM OF WATER AND NUTRIENT
ABSORPTION
The primary tissues of the root are;
 from outermost to innermost;
 the epidermis,
 the cortex
 the vascular cylinder.
Epidermis
 composed of thin-walled cells and is usually only one
cell layer thick.
 The absorption of water and dissolved minerals occurs
through the epidermis, a process greatly enhanced in
most land plants by the presence of root hairs—
slender, tubular extensions of the epidermal cell wall
that are found only in the region of maturation.

Example:
 Indian warrior and mistletoe
 Indian pipe

Pneumatophores
 Specialized roots of plant in water that lacks oxygen

Prop roots
 Specialized roots produced toward the base of the stem to
support plants in high winds

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The absorption of water is chiefly via osmosis, which occurs
because:
1. water is present in higher concentrations in the soil than
within the epidermal cells (where it contains salts,
sugars, and other dissolved organic products) and
2. the membrane of the epidermal cells is permeable to
water but not too many of the substances dissolved in
the internal fluid.
These conditions create an osmotic gradient, whereby water
flows into the epidermal cells. This flow exerts a force, called
root pressure, that helps drive the water through the roots.
Root pressure is partially responsible for the rise of water in
plants, but it cannot alone account for the transport of water to
the top of tall trees.
PHARMACEUTICAL AND PHARMACOLOGICAL
IMPORTANCE OF THE ROOTS
Different parts of the plant or plant as a whole has served as the
source of bioactive compounds for purpose of investigation and
research, as well as for commercial drug production.
Roots of the plant
• hold various active pharmaceutical constituents which
display curative possibilities for many human ailments.
The vast diversity of plants gives a promising journey ahead in
quest for knowledge and cure for many diseases
HERBAL DRUGS OBTAINED FROM ROOTS AND
UNDERGROUND PARTS…
GABI - Colocasia esculenta
 Tubers yield amino acids.
 Tubers are digestive, laxative, diuretic, lactagogue,
and styptic.
MAKAHIYA - Mimosa pudica
 Roots yield flavonoids, phytosterol, alkaloids, amino
acids, tannins, glycoside, fatty acids.Roots are bitter,
astringent, acrid, alexipharmic, antispasmodic,
aphrodisiac, constipating, cooling, diuretic, emetic,
febrifuge, resolvent, vulnerary.
MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO
ANIS (licorice)- Glycyrrhiza glabra
 Roots yield starches (30%), pectins, simple sugars,
gums, mucilage (rhizome), polysaccharides, amino
acids, triterpenesaponin, flavonoids.
 Sweet root is said to contain a glycyrrhizin, a
saponinglycoside, that is roughly 50 times sweeter
than cane sugar.
 Demulcent, emollient, expectorant, anti-inflammatory,
antispasmodic, alterative, diuretic and laxative.
BIGA - Alocasia macrorrhizos
 Rhizomes contain phytosterols, alkaloids, glucose and
fructose. Rootstock considered laxative, diuretic
BAYABANG - Nephrolepis cordifolia
 Tubers were found to contain high amounts of
moisture, fat, carbohydrate, and calcium; protein was
maximum in the rhizome part
BEGONIA - Begonia coccinea
 Roots of the juice used for conjunctivitis
 tuberous roots and fruits are anodyne,
antiphlogisticand antispasmodic
SPIDER PLANT - Chlorophytumc omosum
 Root tubers have yielded sapogenins and saponins.
 Studies have suggest antitumor, antiproliferative,
indoor air-purifying, phytoremediative, burn wound
healing properties.
KOGON - Imperata cylindrical
 Considered antifebrile, anthelmintic, antibacterial,
diuretic, febrifuge, restorative, styptic, tonic
TALAHIB - Saccharum spontaneum
 Various root extracts yielded terpenoids, steroids,
glycosides, tannins, flavonoids, carbohydratesroots
are considered sweet, astringent, emollient,
refrigerant, diuretic, lithotriptic, purgative, tonic,
aphrodisiac
PLANT TRANSPORT AND OTHER RELATED
PROCESSES
INTRODUCTION
 Transportation in plants mean the carrying of substances
absorbed or made by photosynthesis into the different
body parts.
 Water and minerals in plants are being transported by two
of the conducting systems, xylem and phloem.
The mechanisms involved in the transport process maybe by
diffusion or osmosis.
AUTHOR: MODULES IN CANVAS FOR THIS COURSE 5
 [BSP1A] Canvas- Module 3

PLANT TRANSPORT PLANT TRANSPORT SYSTEM

 Xylem and phloem: Plants have tissues to transport water,
nutrients and minerals
 Xylem transports water and mineral salts from the roots
up to other parts of the plant
 Phloem transports sucrose and amino acids between the
leaves and other parts of the plant.

Tissue What is moved? Process

Xylem Water & Minerals Transportation
stream
Phloem Sucrose & Amino Translocation
Acids

Xylem
Mature xylem consists of elongated dead cells, arranged end to
end to form continuous vessels (tubes).
Mature xylem vessels:
 contain no cytoplasm
 are impermeable to water
 have tough walls containing a woody material
called lignin
Phloem
 consists of living cells arranged end to end.
 Unlike xylem, phloem vessels contain cytoplasm, and this
goes through holes from one cell to the next.
 transports sucrose and amino acids up and down the
plant. This is called translocation.
 this happens between where these substances
are made (the sources) and where they are used
or stored (the sinks).
This means, for example, that sucrose is transported:
 from sources in the root to sinks in the leaves in
spring time
 from sources in the leaves to sinks in the root in
the summer
Applied chemicals, such as pesticides, also move through the
plant by translocation.

MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO AUTHOR: MODULES IN CANVAS FOR THIS COURSE 6

 [BSP1A] Canvas- Module 3
PLANT WATER TRANSPORT
Source: ppt in canvas
Molecular movement –molecules and ions are constantly in
random motion. Brownian movement is the result of the
bombardment of the visible particles by water molecules.
Diffusion is the movement of particles from a region of
higher concentration to a region of lower concentration
until a state of equilibrium is reached.
 bulk flow: overall movement of water in response
to differences in the potential energy of water.
 water potential: difference in water energy
between two regions containing water.
Think of the control of
 water behind a dam
 water in your bladder
 As you should already know, water (like any other
substance) always moves from an area of relatively high-
water potential to an area of relatively low water potential.
 Water potential is usually measured in units of the pressure
needed to stop water movement, or hydrostatic pressure.
Factors affecting the rate of diffusion: pressure, temperature,
density of the medium.
Recall:
 Any liquid dissolving a substance is known as a solvent
 Any substance dissolved in a solvent is known as a
solute.
Water, being a polar substance, is an excellent solvent for polar
(hydrophilic) solids. In solution, water molecules cluster
around a polar solute molecule, creating a hydration shell:
A few more definitions to recall:
 A hypotonic (= hypoosmotic) solution is one which has
relatively more water molecules (and fewer solutes)
than a solution to which it is being compared.
 A hypertonic (= hyperosmotic) solution is one which
has relatively fewer water molecules (and more
solutes) than a solution to which it is being compared.
 Two or more isotonic (=isoosmotic) solutions have
equal concentrations of solutes.
Osmosis–the diffusion of water through a semipermeable
membrane from a region where an aqueous solution is more
diluted to a region where an aqueous solution is less
diluted (more concentrated). Osmosis stops if the concentration
on both sides of the membrane are equal.
 Osmosis is the primary means by which water enters
plants from their surrounding environment.
MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO
Osmotic potential is a measure of the potential of water to
move from one cell to another as influenced by solute
concentration, osmotic pressure is the pressure required to
prevent osmosis.
Dialysis is the movement of solute molecules from an area of
relatively high concentration to an area of relatively low
concentration across a selectively permeable membrane.
Water molecules are highly cohesive (they stick together) and
adhesive (they stick to other polar substances).
Osmotic pressure is a measure of the tendency of a solution
to take up water molecules when separated from pure
water by a selectively permeable membrane.
In living cells, the plasma membrane serves as the selectively
permeable membrane.
Turgid –cell becomes firm because of water gain through
osmosis.
Turgor pressure –develops against the walls as a result of
water entering the vacuole of the cell. This pressure is heard
when a celery stick or the leaf of a young head of lettuce is bitten.
A plant cell in a very hypertonic solution, left long enough, may
lose so much internal water (via osmosis) that it becomes
plasmolyzed (i.e., torn away from the cell wall) beyond repair.
In an isoosmotic solution, a plant cell is somewhat flaccid (i.e.,
it’s walls have a bit of “give” and "bounce").
In a hypoosmotic solution, a plant cell will take up water and
become turgid. (If the solution is too hypoosmotic, the cell may
rupture).
As long as the plasma membrane is intact, the turgor pressure
of a cell is equal and opposite to the wall pressure. This is the
main source of structural support in herbaceous plants)
Thus,
Plasmolysis–the loss of water through osmosis that is
accompanied by the shrinkage of protoplasm away from the cell
wall.
Imbibition–results in the swelling of tissues to several times
their original volume, whether they are alive or dead. It is the
initial step in the germination of seeds.4
Water and Its Movement through the Plant
 Plants imbibe (take up) and transpire (release via the
stomata) more water than animals do, as they have
more-circulation system. About 90% of all water
entering the roots leaves the leaves via the stomates
(transpiration) without ever taking part in metabolism.
 A single plant can transpire about 60L of water in a
single growing season.
 A typical corn field of about 60,000 plants per hectare
can transpire nearly 4,000,000L of water per hectare in
a single growing season.
 Unless this transpired water is constantly replaced,
these plants will die. But replaced it is!
 Water movement is due to differences in potential
between soil, root, stem, leaf and atmosphere.
 Under normal circumstances, the water potential in
soil is higher than that in root cell cytosol, resulting in
water flowing to follow the potential gradient. This is
AUTHOR: MODULES IN CANVAS FOR THIS COURSE 7
 [BSP1A] Canvas- Module 3
known as bulk flow, and it is the primary force driving
water through xylem.
 The aqueous solution of dissolved minerals in the
xylem is known as xylem sap.
 Bulk flow is much faster than diffusion or osmosis,
reaching a rate of 15-45 m/hour, depending on
environmental conditions and the size of the xylem
lumen.
 Xylem raises water up to 350 feet above the ground in
some of the largest trees on earth.
Uses of water in plants:
 Water is needed for plant’s enzyme actions and other
chemical activities in the cells
 Water is used in the process of
photosynthesis
 To keep the mesophyll surfaces moist to keep stomata
open and allow passage of carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis.
 Water is also needed for cell turgor, which gives rigidity
to herbaceous plants.
PUSHING XYLEM SAP: ROOT PRESSURE
Water enters the root because the water potential of the root
tissues is almost always lower than that of the soil, with its high
dissolved mineral content.
Water entering the stele may travel via one of the three routes
we already have defined:
 apo plastic route-soil solution is taken up by the
hydrophilic walls of the root hairs, which provide
access to the apoplast (continuum formed by the
cell walls). Water and minerals diffuse into the cortex
along the matrix of cell walls.
 symplastic route-minerals and water cross the plasma
membranes of root hair cells and enter the symplast
(continuum of cytoplasm formed via plasmodesmata)
 transmembrane (tonoplast) route-some water and
minerals traveling along the apoplast are actively
transported into the protoplasts of epidermal and
cortical cells, and then move inward via the symplast
Casparian strips in the endodermis block interstitial entry of
water and minerals into the stele. Only solutions already in the
symplast or entering it via the plasma membrane of the
endodermal cells can get into the xylem.
MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO
Endodermal and living cells in the stele discharge water and
minerals into their apoplast. The xylem vessels then transport
the apoplastic water and minerals upward into the shoot system.
At night...
 stomata are usually closed
 endodermis prevents "leakage" of ions out of the stele
into other tissues
 the resulting decrease in water potential in the stele
(due to the accumulation of ions) means that water will
continue to follow the potential gradient in to the stele.
 the resulting flow of water from the cortex into the stele
is known as root pressure: xylem sap being pushed up
the xylem because of
 Root pressure, exerted from below, is positive
pressure potential, since potential increases as one
moves up the stem.
 Root pressure is sufficient to lift water no more than a
few feet above the ground, which doesn't account for
the ability of large trees to get water to their very tips.
Guttation
 In a small plant, root pressure could result in potentially
harmful water pressure build up at night, when stomata
are closed.
 Many herbaceous plants have special openings
on the leaf margins called hydathodes. These
allow root pressure water to escape, forming lovely
little “beads” of "dew" overnight, and preventing cell
rupture due to too much water pressure. This
process is known as guttation, and its results are
generally observable only in the early morning, when
humidity is relatively high.
Pulling Xylem Sap: Shoot Tension
Plants can move water not only from below, via positive
pressure, but also by “pulling” from above via negative pressure
potential: in this case, potential decreases as one moves up
the stem. This occurs via transpiration.
 The air spaces inside spongy mesophyll are quite
humid, as they are constantly in contact with moist cell
 On typical, non-rainy days, the water potential of
the atmosphere is far lower (more negative) than that
of the spaces inside the mesophyll.
 This means that water will want to travel out of the
stomata to the area of relatively low water potential.
 As one moves down the plant, water potential
increases. Here’s a hypothetical array of water
potentials in a soil and plant system:
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 [BSP1A] Canvas- Module 3
Water follows the potential gradient from soil to atmosphere, and
is pulled together by the cohesiveness and adhesiveness of the
molecules themselves. The negative pressure in the xylem
tubes generated this way is known as shoot tension.
 Water diffuses from the xylem into the spaces
inside the spongy mesophyll--> stomata--
>atmosphere.
REGULATION OF TRANSPIRATION
Stomatal apparatus: guard cells and an opening called stoma
(stomata) –regulates transpiration and gas exchange.
Closed stomata –turgor pressure is low and when water and
potassium ions leave the guard cells
Opened stomata –turgor pressure is high and when water and
potassium ions enter the guard cells
Abscisic acid –hormones produced in leaves that is subject to
water stress which causes membrane leakages that leads to
potassium ions loss leading to shrinking of guard cells, then
closing of stomata.
 Stomata of most plants are open during the day and
close at night. While deserts plants have stomata the
are open only at night to conserve water, thus they
have a special form of photosynthesis called CAM that
uses the carbon dioxide released from organic acids
that are stored during night time.
 Stomatal crypts –found in leaves of desert plants and
in pine trees where the stomata recessed below the
surface of the leaf in small chambers (stomatal crypts)
that is also filled with epidermal hairs to prevent water
loss.
Transport of Food Substances (Organic Solutes) in Aqueous
Solution Through Phloem
Phloem –where translocation or transportation of food
substance in solution (through water) occurs.
Unlike movement of xylem sap, movement of phloem
sap requires energy expenditure on the part of the plant.
MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO
Recall that substances have three different means by which they
can cross a plasma membrane:
 diffusion-passive transport; molecules simply move
across the membrane following the potential gradient.
 Facilitated diffusion-also passive; substances must
pass through a protein "filter" in the membrane, though
they are still following the potential gradient.
 active transport-the cell uses energy (stored and
“delivered” by ATP, adenosine triphosphate) to pump
cells into or out of the collagist gradient. Active
Transport-plants absorb and retain particles against
diffusion gradient or from low concentration to high
concentration movement through the use of energy
(from ATP) and involvement of an enzyme
complex that controls proton pump.
The proton pump:
 Left to their own devices, protons will travel from areas
of high to low potential until they reach equilibrium, with
equal concentration of protons on either side of a
membrane.
 living cells can hydrolyze ATP and use the energy thus
released to transport protons out of the cytoplasm,
through the plasma membrane and into the
extracellular spaces against the proton potential
gradient.
 The enzymatic machinery and the process itself are
known as the proton pump.
Phloem sap is a thick, aqueous solution containing up to
30% sugars (sucrose), amino acids, hormones etc. (In contrast,
xylem sap is relatively thin and watery, containing mostly
dissolved inorganics)
Plants need to mobilize stored carbohydrates in order to
perform cellular work via cellular respiration:
 convert starches/stored carbs into simple sugars
 load simple sugar (usually sucrose) into phloem
 transport sugar to wherever it needs to go
Pressure flow (mass flow) hypothesis –theory for movement of
substances in the phloem. According to this theory, food
substances in solution (organic solutes) flow from a source,
where water enters by osmosis (ex food-producing tissue such
as the cortex of the root, or food producing tissue, such as the
mesophyll tissue of a leaf.
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 [BSP1A] Canvas- Module 3
TRANSPORT PROCESSES
All plants need water
Root Hairs:
 Water absorption is carried out by these
 Narrow walled hairs greatly increase the area which
water absorption takes place
Water and minerals enter the root by two pathways:
 Apple plastic pathways
 Water and mineral move from cell to cell through
spaces between cell wall
 Symplastic pathway
 Water and minerals move across the cytoplasm
and reaches the xylem
Xylem vessels
 Long narrow hollow tubes
 Has no living material
 Transports water and soluble mineral nutrients from
the roots to other parts of the plants transpiration
 Water enters plant through epidermal cells of the roots
then travels to xylem
 Water is pulled from the roots (high potential) to leaves
(low potential)
 Water potential drives movement of water using
osmosis gravity and surface tension of water, and
increases when symporter pumps in plasma
membrane allowing protons to pass into the cell
travelling down their concentration gradient
 Pumps couple the transport of protons
 Arrangement of tissues, function of cell and water
potential determines the water’s direction through plant
with transport of minerals and other solutes into cell
 Water follows into the cell driven by osmosis
 Presence of aquaporin channels in membrane
enhances osmosis allowing bulk flow of water from the
soil into roots
 Begins in leaves, arrangement of cells and structure on
leaves facilitate the movement of gasses and water
into and out of the leaf
 Water passes through xylem
Adhesion
 Attraction of water molecules to a surface such as wall
of xylem
Cohesion
 Hydrogen bonding between water molecules
Adhesion and cohesion allow water to move through the xylem
in continuous stream from roots to stem to replace water lost
from leaves (stomata)
 95% of the water absorbed is lost to the stomata -
present in leaves
 Number of stomata is more on the lower surface of
leaves
 If it happens whole day- great loss of water
 Process is controlled by the stomata opening and
closing mechanism during daytime water, enters into
the guard cells along with the potassium ions
o Brings change in the shape of guard
cells
MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO
Stoma opens during the night
 Potassium ions and water molecules leave the
guard cells
 Turgidity increases and stoma closes
 Main sites of gaseous exchange in plants
Leaves
 Makes use of water and the carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis
 Glucose formed during the photosynthesis is
transported to the other parts of body through phloem
cells
 Leaf- has several layers of specialized cells
 Upper epidermis- one cell layer thick and provides
protective covering
 Below layer is….
 Mesophyll tissue cells
 In the palisade mesophyll layer are sites
for photosynthesis and secretion
 Storage of food and water
Spongey mesophyll layer
 Has looser arrangement of cells where spaces
between cells aid in gas exchange and passage of
water vapor from leaves
 Has vascular tissue consisting of xylem and
phloem specialized for the transport of water and
nutrients throughout the plant
Flowing tissues
 Consist of less specialized and nucleate parenchyma
cells, sieve tube cells, and companion cells
Transports of food in fluid can be up or down to reach all points
of the plant
Transportation of plants is the function of xylem and phloem
cells.
Tree to maintain health and photosynthesis- water and mineral
need to go throughout the tree
Lower epidermal tissue
 Stomata is found
 Microscopic openings flanked by guard cells
Phloem
 Transports carbohydrates and amino acids produced
in leaves to cells in roots and stems where they’re used
and stored
 Conduction in Phloem
 Carried out by 2 elongated cells- sieve cells and
sieve-tube members, both have clusters of pores
known as sieve areas- abundant of overlapping
ends of cells
Most angiosperms have sieve-tube members
PROCESS OF TRANSLOCATION: These structures help
movement of carbohydrates like sucrose that are manufactured
in leaves and carried in phloem throughout the plant
 Turgor pressure increases in the sieve tube members
as sucrose from surrounding cell is brought to phloem
through active transport
 Then water enters phloem from xylem by osmosis –
drives the transport of carbohydrates in phloem
 Water movement in vessels is one way
 Transport in sieve tube members can go both
directions
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 [BSP1A] Canvas- Module 3
WATER POTENTIAL
 Important driver in xylem and phloem transport
Only phloem transport utilizes both active and passive transport
In short: nutrients are spread through transpiration, water
potential, and translocation
OTHER TRANSPORT PROCESSES
Diffusion
 Movement of gases
 No energy is need because molecules can slide down
the concentration gradient
 Moves down concentration gradient from high
concentration to low concentration
 Ex is slide
Osmosis
 Movement of water
Both can easily move to high concentration to low concentration
1. Active transport
 Active and work has to be done
 Moves molecules from low concentration to high
concentration against concentration gradient
 Opposite of diffusion and osmosis because it is not
natural direction
 Ex is climbing a ladder
 Energy is required to work because they’re joining the
crowd
 ATP is needed
 Carried out by protein carriers within the cell
membrane and have a specific binding site for the
exact molecule they’re transporting
 Substance binds to protein carrier on low concentrating
side
 Using energy from respiration- protein carrier releases
the substance on other side of cell membrane (high
concentration)
 Allows cells to absorb substances from dilute solutions
such as root hair cells taking in mineral ions on soil
 Glucose, sodium ions- carry out active transport
o Often have lots of mitochondria to give energy
they need
2. Facilitated diffusion
Process:
 Special carrier protein with central channel acts as
selective corridor which helps molecules move across
the membrane
 Forms protein channel bind only to specific
molecule like particular sugar or amino acid
 Once molecule binds to carrier protein, protein will
help/facilitate the diffusion by changing shape and
moving molecule down to concentration gradient
through membrane to cell where it’s released
Meaning:
 Similar to simple diffusion, both involve movement of
molecule down their concentration gradient –
movement is carried out without energy
 Movement of molecules- Will take place with help of
special protein carrier in membrane
 Can occur on both directions depending on
concentration gradient
MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO
 Higher concentration (in molecule inside the cell)-
same carrier protein would transport molecule out of
cell
3. Ion pumps
 Proteins that conduct active transport that uses ATP is
called PUMPS
o Forces molecule / ions to move an area of low
concentration to high concentration aka as
against concentration gradient
 Another example of active transport: Sodium-
potassium pump
o Moves sodium ions (Na+) out of cell and
potassium ions (K+) into cell
o Has binding sites with3 sodium and 2
potassium ions
o After 3 sodium ions are positioned in carrier
protein, ATP molecule is split, releasing
phosphate
*phosphate binds to exterior of carrier protein causing protein to
change shape
 As protein changes shape, 3 sodium ions are released
to other side of the membrane
 Then 2 potassium ions position within carrier protein
causing to undergo another change in shape
 Phosphate molecule is released
 Carrier protein expels potassium ions into cell
 Carrier then resumes to initial shape, completing the
cycle
Every 3 sodium ions leaving cell, 2 potassium ions enter- both
have positive charge
 This unequal movement causes gradient to develop
across the plasma membrane of cell
 Number of cellular process including generation of
nerve impulses use this electrical gradient
1. Endocytosis and Exocytosis
Substances taken by single-celled organisms are often particles
or large polar molecules that cannot cross the hydrophobic
plasma membrane
Many single-celled eukaryotes employ endocytosis to ingest
such food particles
ENDOCYTOSIS Process:
 Extends outward and surrounds food particle
Cells use 3 major types of endocytosis
 Phagocytosis
 if material is particulate like bacterium or fragment
of organic matter
 Pinocytosis
 If takes in liquid
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis
 specific molecules such as low density
lipoproteins, LDL- often transported into
eukaryotic cells through receptor-mediated
endocytosis
AUTHOR: MODULES IN CANVAS FOR THIS COURSE 11
 [CANVAS] MODULE 4: PLANT ORGANOGRAPHY: STEMS AND LEAVES

Stems exhibit varied forms, ranging from ropelike vines to

OUTLINE massive tree trunks.
I L1: STEM Stems are either
A Morphology and Anatomy (External and Internal  herbaceous (consisting of soft, nonwoody tissues)
structures)
B Primary and Secondary growth  or woody (with extensive hard tissues of wood and bark).
C Herbaceous Dicot and Monocot Stems Most stems are circular in cross section, although a few,
D Woody Stem such as mint stems, are square.
E Stem Modification
F Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Importance of the Although stems exhibit great variation in structure and growth,
Stem they all have buds.
II L2: LEAVES
A Morphology and Anatomy (External and internal Terminal buds
structures)
B Internal structures  At the tip of a stem
C Leaf functions  When a terminal bud is dormant (that is, unopened and not
D Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Importance of the actively growing), it is covered and protected by an outer
leaves protective layer of bud scales, which are modified leaves.
E Modified leaves
Axillary buds
 also called lateral buds
LESSON 1: STEM  develop above the leaf scars.
 found in the axils
This module tackles the origin and development of  the upper angles between leaves and the stem to
stems, their structures such as the apical meristem and the which they are attached.
tissues derived from it, including leaf gaps, cambia, secondary When terminal and axillary buds grow, they form stems that
tissues, and lenticels are included. This would also cover the bear leaves and/or flowers
distinction between herbaceous and woody dicot stems and
monocot stems. Annual rings, rays, heartwood and sapwood, Node
resin canals, bark, laticifers, and vascular bundles would also be  The area on a stem where each leaf is attached
discussed. Internode
 the region of a stem between two successive nodes
MORPHOLOGY AND ANATOMY (EXTERNAL AND
INTERNAL STRUCTURES) A woody twig of a deciduous tree (a tree that sheds its leaves
annually) can provide a model of stem structures.
Stems perform four main functions in plants: Bud scales
1. Support  cover the terminal bud and protect its delicate tip during
 Stems of most species support leaves and reproductive dormancy.
structures. The upright position of most stems and the  When the bud resumes growth, the bud scales fall
arrangement of leaves on them enable each leaf to absorb off, leaving bud scale scars on the stem where
maximum light for use in photosynthesis. Reproductive they were attached.
structures (flowers and fruits) are located on stems in areas
accessible for insects, birds, and air currents, which transfer Woody twigs of
pollen from flower to flower and help disperse seeds and temperate plants
fruits. form terminal buds
2. Conduction once a year, at the
 Like roots, stems contain vascular tissue (xylem and end of the growing
phloem). Xylem conducts water and minerals. Phloem season.
conducts the sugars created during photosynthesis. Stem  Therefore, the
also serve as conduits for moving water, minerals, and food number of groups
throughout the plant. of terminal bud
3. Growth scale scars on a
 During the growing season, cell division and elongation are twig reveals its
occurring in both the apical and lateral meristems of dicots. age.
This results in plant growth. The same things are occurring  Number of
in the intercalary meristems of monocots. terminal bud scale
4. Storage scars= its age
 Stems are sometimes modified to store food and (or) water.
Plants that store large amounts of water in their stems or In the image= 3 yrs
leaves are called succulents old

1
 [BSP1A] Canvas- Module 4
Leaf scar
 shows where a leaf was attached on the stem,
 the vascular (conducting) tissue that extends
from the stem out into the leaf forms bundle scars
within the leaf scar
A bark of a woody twig has:
Lenticles
 sites of loosely arranged cells that allow gas exchange to
occur.
 look like tiny marks, or specks, on the bark of a twig and are
often used as an aid in identifying the plant.
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY GROWTH
Shoot Apical Meristem (SAM)
 composed of dividing cells.
 It is responsible for the initiation of new leaves and buds
and for making the three primary meristems:
 protoderm,
 ground meristem, and
 procambium.
 dormant before the growing season begins.
 It is protected by bud scales of the bud by leaf primordia
(singular: primordium)
 tiny embryonic leaves that will develop into mature
leaves after the bud scales drop off and growth
begins.
The apical meristem in the embryonic stem of a seed is also
dormant until the seed begins to germinate.
Protoderm to Epidermis
 When a bud begins to expand or a seed germinates, the
cells of the apical meristem undergo mitosis, and soon three
primary meristems develop from it. The outermost of these
primary meristems, the protoderm, gives rise to the
epidermis. Although there are exceptions, the epidermis is
typically one cell thick and usually becomes coated with a
thin, waxy, protective layer, the cuticle.
Procambium to Primary Xylem and Phloem
 A cylinder of strands constituting the procambium appears
to the interior of the protoderm. (The procambium produces
water-conducting primary xylem cells and primary
phloem cells that have several functions, including the
conduction of food.)
MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO
Ground Meristem to Pith and Cortex
 The remainder of the meristematic tissue, called ground
meristem, produces two tissues composed of
parenchyma cells.
 The parenchyma tissue in the center of the stem is the pith.
 Pith cells tend to be very large and may break
down shortly after they are formed, leaving a
cylindrical, hollow area.
 Even if they do not break down early, they may eventually
be crushed as new tissues produced by other meristems
add to the girth of the stem, particularly in woody plants.
 The other tissue produced by the ground meristem is the
cortex.
 The cortex may become more extensive than the
pith, but in woody plants, it, too, eventually will be
crushed and replaced by new tissues produced
from within.
 The parenchyma of both the pith and the cortex function in
storing food or sometimes, if chloroplasts are present, in
manufacturing it.
 All five of the tissues produced by this apical meristem
complex (epidermis, primary xylem, primary phloem,
pith, and cortex) arise while the stem is increasing in
length and are called primary tissues
 You may recall that plants undergo two types of growth.
 Primary growth, an increase in the length of a
plant, occurs at apical meristems at the tips of
stems and roots.
 Secondary growth, an increase in the girth
(circumference) of a plant, is due to the activity of
lateral meristems along the sides of stems and
roots.
 The new tissues formed by the lateral meristems are called
secondary tissues to distinguish them from the primary
tissues produced by apical meristems.
Herbaceous plants mostly undergo primary growth, with little
secondary growth or increase in thickness. Secondary growth,
or “wood”, is noticeable in woody plants; it occurs in some
dicots, but occurs very rarely in monocots.
Primary Growth
 Most primary growth occurs at the apices, or tips, of
stems and roots.
 Primary growth is a result of rapidly-dividing cells in the
apical meristems at the shoot tip and root tip.
 Subsequent cell elongation also contributes to primary
growth.
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Secondary Growth
 The increase in stem thickness that results from secondary
growth is due to the activity of the lateral meristems, which
are lacking in herbaceous plants.
 Lateral meristems include the vascular cambium and, in
woody plants, the cork cambium.

 Cells in the vascular cambium divide and produce two

complex tissues: secondary xylem (wood), to replace
primary xylem; and secondary phloem (inner bark), to
replace primary phloem.
 Primary xylem and primary phloem cannot
transport materials indefinitely and are replaced in
plants that have extended life spans.
 Cells of the outer lateral meristem, the cork cambium,
divide to produce cork cells, containing a waxy substance
known as suberin that can repel water, and cork
parenchyma (phelloderm).
 The cork cambium and the tissues it produces are
collectively called periderm (outer bark).
 Periderm functions as a replacement for the
epidermis, which splits apart as the stem
increases in girth.
In some plants, the periderm has many openings, known as
lenticels (as shown below).
 Lenticels- allow the
interior cells to exchange gases
with the outside atmosphere.
 This supplies oxygen to the
living and metabolically active
cells of the cortex, xylem and
phloem.

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HERBACEOUS DICOT AND MONOCOT STEMS larger towards

the center.
Cambium Due absence of Due to presence of
vascular cambium in
cambium in between phloem
between phloem and xylem, the
and xylem, the vascular bundles of
vascular bundles a dicotyledonous
in plant are open.
monocotyledono
us plant stem are
closed.
Sclerenchymat A There is no
ous bundle sclerenchymatou sclerenchymatous
Although herbaceous stems all have the same basic tissues, the s bundle sheath bundle sheath
arrangement of the tissues varies considerably. is generally present on the
 Herbaceous dicot stems have the vascular bundles present on the outside of a
arranged in a circle in cross section and have a distinct outside of each vascular bundle.
cortex and pith. vascular bundle.
 Herbaceous monocot stems have scattered vascular Vessels Shape The vessels are The vessels are
bundles and ground tissue rather than a distinct cortex and oval or round and polygonal in outline
pith. are arranged in a and usually
Dicot Stem Y-shaped like arranged in chains
 Unlike the root with its pith ringed by vascular bundles, the manner. or rows
stem has a continuous cortex punctuated with vascular Ground Tissue Ground tissue is Ground tissue is
bundles. Differentiation differentiated into differentiated into
stelar and extra- stelar and extra-
 In the close-up of the vascular bundle, note the lignifed
support cells, the large vessels and the single layer of stelar tissues. stelar tissues.
meristematic cells which produces the xylem & phloem Protoxylem & In Each vascular
Metaxylem monocotyledono bundle of
Monocot Stem us stem, each dicotyledonous
vascular bundle stem has many
 Unlike the root, the stele is split into a number of vascular
has only two protoxylem and
bundles.
metaxylem metaxylem
 The pith remains intact and is separated from the cortex by
elements. elements.
a meristematic layer, the interfasicular (between bundles)
Hypodermis The hypodermis The hypodermis is
and fasicular vascular cambium (within the vascular
is made up of made-up of
bundles).
non-green collenchymas
 Monocots (with the exception of the most primitive
sclerenchyma which is green in
species, the Joshua Tree (Yucca brevifolia var.
fibres. color.
brevifolia; Family Liliaceae)) lack a vascular
cambium or cork cambium. Therefore, these Vascular The first formed The older vascular
monocots do not produce true, botanical wood Tissue Life vascular tissues tissues stop
Cycle continue functioning after
(concentric rings of xylem), although they may be
very "woody" in some cases (e.g., palms, large functioning some time. They
bamboos). throughout the are replaced by
life of plant. younger vascular
tissues.
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MONOCOT AND DICOT
Ground Tissue The ground The ground tissue
STEM Differentiation tissue is not is differentiated into
Source:https://vivadifferences.com/difference-between- differentiated into cortex, endodermis,
monocot-and-dicot-stem/ different cells; pericycle, pith etc.
BASIS OF MONOCOT DICOT instead it is a
COMPARISON mass of similar
Arrangement Monocot plant is Dicot plant stem is cells.
of Vascular characterized by characterized by Secondary Secondary The dicotyledonous
Bundles presence of presence of Growth growth in stem shows
scattered vascular bundles monocotyledono secondary growth
vascular bundles arranged in rings us plants is due to the formation
throughout the around the pith. conspicuously of secondary
ground tissue. absent. vascular tissues
Number of The vascular The vascular and periderm.
Vascular bundles are bundles are fewer Stomata Shape The stomata of The stomata of
Bundles numerous and in number and all dicotyledonous dicotyledonous
are of different are uniform in size. plant have dumb stems have kidney-
sizes. They are bell-shaped shaped guard cells.
smaller towards guard cells.
the outside and

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Mudallary Rays In all In dicotyledonous  Note that an annual ring normally may contain
monocotyledono plants medullary many layers of xylem cells and it is all the layers
us stems, rays are found in produced in one growing season that constitute an
medullary rays between vascular annual ring—not just the dark layers.
between vascular for radial  The annual rings not only indicate the age of the tree
bundles for radial conduction. (because, normally, only one is produced each year), but
conduction are they can also tell something of the climate and other
absent. conditions that occurred during the tree’s lifetime.
Change In The stems of The stem of
Diameter With monocotyledono dicotyledonous
Age us plants show a plant shows much
little increase in increase in
diameter with diameter with-age.
age.
Hollowness In The stem of The stem of
the Stem monocotyledono dicotyledonous
us plants is plant is always
usually hollow in solid. No hollow
the center with spaces.
exception of
maize plant stem. Vascular rays
Phloem No phloem Phloem  Fairly obvious lighter streaks or lines can be seen radiating
Parenchymas parenchymas are parenchyma is out from the center across the annual rings.
present in present in dicot  consist of parenchyma cells that may remain alive for 10 or
monocot stem. stems. more years.
Silica There is silica There is no silica  Their primary function is the lateral conduction of nutrients
Deposition deposition over deposition in the and water from the stele, through the xylem and phloem, to
the epidermis of stem of dicot plants. the cortex, with some cells also storing food.
the monocot Xylem ray
stem.  Any part of a ray within the xylem
Phloem ray
WOODY STEM  Xylem ray’s extension through the phloem

In woody plants, obvious differences begin to appear as soon as
the vascular cambium and the cork cambium develop.
 The most conspicuous differences involve the secondary
xylem, or wood, as it is best known.
 The wood of most trees, however, is produced seasonally.
In trees of temperate climates, virtually all growth takes
place during the spring and summer and then ceases until
the following spring.
Spring wood
 When the vascular cambium of a typical broadleaf tree first
becomes active in the spring, it usually produces relatively
large vessel elements of secondary xylem; such xylem.
As the season progresses, the vascular cambium may produce
vessel elements whose diameters become progressively
smaller in each succeeding series of cells produced, or there
may be fewer vessel elements in proportion to tracheids
produced until tracheids (and sometimes fibers) predominate.
If you have ever examined different types of lumber, you may
have noticed that some trees have wood with two different
colors.
Sapwood
 The functional secondary xylem—that is, the part that
conducts water and dissolved minerals
 the younger, lighter colored wood closest to the bark.
Heartwood
 the older wood in the center of the trunk, is typically a
brownish red.
 A microscopic examination of heartwood reveals that its
vessels and tracheids are plugged with pigments, tannins,
gums, resins, and other materials.
 heartwood no longer functions in conduction.

Summer wood
 The xylem that is produced after the spring wood, and
which has smaller or fewer vessel elements and larger
numbers of tracheids.
Over a period of years, the result of this type of switch between
the early spring and the summer growth is a series of alternating
concentric rings of light and dark cells.’

Annual ring
 One year’s growth of xylem.
 In conifers, the wood consists mostly of tracheids, with
vessels and fibers being absent.
 Annual rings are still visible, however, because the first
tracheids produced in the spring are considerably larger
and lighter in color than those produced later in the growing
season
Tyloses
 look like bubbles; they can fill a vessel member and
completely block it
 forms when the cell wall of the parenchyma cell actually
grows through a pit and into the vessel member.
 look like bubbles; they can fill a vessel member and
completely block it

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Stolons Similar to runners but

are produced beneath
the surface of the
ground and tend to grow
in different directions but
usually not horizontally.

Stem These types of stems

tendrils are slender, twining
strands that enable a
plant to seek support
while climbing on other
surfaces.

Ex. Grapes

Corms Short, vertical, swollen

underground stem of a
While the vascular cambium is producing secondary xylem to
plant that serves as a
the inside, it is also producing secondary phloem to the outside.
food storage organ to
enable the plant to
Bark
survive adverse
 The term bark is usually applied to all the tissues outside conditions.
the cambium, including the phloem.
 Some scientists distinguish between the inner Example: Colocasia
bark, consisting of primary and secondary
phloem
 Outer bark (periderm), consisting of cork tissue
and cork cambium. Cladophy This type of stem is a
lls green, flattened or
STEM MODIFICATIONS cylindrical one that
The overall appearance of specialized stems may differ resembles a leaf. A
markedly from that of the stems discussed so far, but all stems phylloclade is capable of
have nodes, internodes, and axillary buds; these features performing
distinguish them from roots and leaves, which do not have them. photosynthesis and we
 The leaves at the nodes of these specialized stems are can find them in
often small and scale-like. They are seldom green, but full- xerophytes or in other
sized, functioning leaves may also be produced. plants that have little or
Descriptions of some of the specialized stems follow. no leaves.
Stem Description Image Tubers The thickened end of a
Modificati rhizome that is fleshy
on and enlarged for food
Rhizomes Thickened underground storage.
stem that has distinct The “eyes” of a potato
nodes and internodes are actually axillary
and scaly leaves at the buds, evidence that the
nodes. tuber is an underground
stem rather than a
Example: Ginger storage root like sweet
potatoes or carrots
Bulbs A bulb is a modified
underground bud in
Runners It grows parallel to the which fleshy storage
ground and has a leaves are attached to a
creeping stem with long short stem. A bulb is
internodes. On the lower rounded and
surface, the nodes give is covered by paper-like
out adventitious roots at bulb scales, which are
regular intervals. A modified leaves. It
runner develops from frequently forms small
the axils of lower leaves daughter bulbs
of the aerial stem. (bulblets). Two kinds of
bulbs are as follows:
Example: Strawberry Tunicate bulbs have a
papery outer covering.
Protection from digging
and drying out.

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Example: onion, tulips,  Cotton root bark was used by black slaves to induce
daffodils. abortion
Non-tunicate/Scaly
bulbs lack a papery Ephedra
outer covering. Ephedra spp.
Susceptible to damage  E. nevadensis or E. sinica
and drying  Drug ephedrine is widely used in nasal congestion and low
BP; also known as MA-HUANG
Example: Garlic, Lily  Contains toxic amounts of cyanide
bulbs.
European Birch
Bulblets Tiny secondary bulb that Betula pendula
forms in the angle  Oil distilled from barks and leaves are used for kidney
between a leaf and stem stones and UTI
or in place of flowers in
certain plants. Fennel
Foeniculum vulgare
 Roots & stems & fruits used as appetite suppressant and
as eyewash

PHARMACEUTICAL AND PHARMACOLOGICAL Lilly of the valley

IMPORTANCE OF THE STEM Convallaria majalis
Source: pdf in canvas Stems with Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological  Plant is poisonous
Importance
 But all parts can be used to control irregular heart beat
Button Snakeroot
Eryngium aquaticum spp.  A heart stimulant similar to digitalis
 Inserted chewed stem in nostrils to arrest epistaxis
Cinchona
Cinchona pubescens
Camphor
Cinnamomum camphora  Its bark is a practical source of Quinine
 Oil from leaves & wood used in cold remedies & liniments  Used for the treatment of malaria.

Cascara PLANT STEMS

Rhamnus purshiana Source: Yt video in canvas
 Bark extract widely used as laxative Plant stems can be categorized the way the leaves protrude or
grow out of them.
Cat’s Claw
Uncaria tomentosa External Anatomy (One way to categorize stem in general)
 Root bark extract used in intestinal problems like  Defined by leaf structure
diverticulosis & Crohnsdisease  Alternate – leaves alternate in different sides as
 Hirsutincomponent-lowers BP they grow up the stem.
 Opposite – two leaves come out at the same point
 Alkaloid property inhibits platelet clotting; increase brain
as it grows up the stem.
serotonin level.
 Whorled – 3 or more leaves coming out at the
same point.
Cherry (wild)
Stem is defined by its ability to grow leaves.
Prunus serotina
External Anatomy
 Tea from bark is used for coughs and colds
 Nodes - where the leaf grows.
Chinese magnolia  Internodes – in between nodes.
Magnolia officinalis or Magnolia quinquepeta  Leaf: grows from axillary buds
 Bark extract used for nasal stuffiness & discharge - Blade: flattened part
- Petiole: stalk of the leaf where it attaches to
 To drain sinuses and alleviate asthma and sinus headache
stem.
Chinese rubber tree  Stipules: small projections at leaf attachment to stem.
Eucommia ulmoides  Terminal bud: responsible for primary growth of stem.
 Bark extract improve circulation to the hands and feet  Leaf scars and bundle scars are left after leaves fall
 Reduce high BP from deciduous trees.
 Alleviate frequent urination problems
Origin and Development
Cinquefoil  Apical meristem: site of primary growth
Potentilla erecta  Bud scales add protection
 Dried rhizome used to control diarrhea  Leaf primordia: embryonic leaves that will grow into
leaves during growing season.
Cotton
Gossypium spp
 Gossypium hirsutum or Gossypium barbadense 3 Primary Meristems
 During the bud formation or seed germination
1. Protoderm – Epidermis

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2. Procambium – Primary xylem and phloem
cells
3. Ground meristem – Parenchyma cells pf pith
and cortex
 Pith and cortex become replaced by
other tissues in woody plants
Primordia
 As primary tissues are produced bud primordia and
leaf primordia develop into mature leaves and buds.
 A trace (xylem and phloem) within the leaf/bud
develops
 The trace leaves a gap in the vascular tissue
- Leaf gap
- Bud gap
Lateral Meristems
 Narrow band between primary xylem and phloem retain
meristematic properties and become the vascular
cambium.
 Vascular cambium develops into tracheids, vessel
elements, fibers (inside cambium), and sieve tube members
and companion cells (outside cambium).
 Woody species develop second cambium called cork
cambium or phellogen
 Produced box shaped cork cells which become
impregnated with suberin (waxy)
 Cork tissue makes up bark to protect against
mechanical injury and desiccation
 Lenticles are produced to maintain gas exchange.
Tissue Patterns
 Stele (the central cylinder)
 Primary xylem, phloem, and pith in younger shoots
and roots
 Protostele (solid core of vascular tissue) is found
in some primitive plants
 Eusteles (primary xylem and phloem form discrete
bundles) are found in flowering plants and
conifers.
Cotyledons
 Seed-leaves
 Monocots have one leaf that develops from the
seed
 Dicots have two leaves that develop from the
seed.
Herbaceous Dicot Stems
 Annuals (die in same year that they mature)
 Have green, herbaceous stems
 Annual dicots are mostly primary tissue.
 Vascular bundles have patches of xylem and phloem
arranged in a cylinder
 Cambium layers form between xylem and phloem.
Woody Dicot Stems
 Seasonal secondary growth which forms rings
 Spring: vascular cambium produces xylem which
is light in color (springwood)
 Throughout summer smaller amounts of vessel
elements are produced as tracheids increase in
production and is dark in color (summerwood)
 Increase in rainfall will increase xylem production
 Parasitism of leaves will decrease xylem
production
 Year of fires can be determined by counting sings
past a burn scar in the sylem.
 Bores can be used to determine the age of tree.
MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO
 Vascular rays radiate from the stele to the phloem for the
lateral movement of water and nutrients.
 Made of parenchyma cells
 Through xylem = xylem ray
 Through the phloem = phloem ray
 Narrow phloem and broad phloem
ray.
 As a tree ages the parenchyma cells fill the central vessels
and tracheid and fill with resins, gums, and tannins and
pigments that darken the wood.
 Old, dark wood is called heartwood (support)
 Young, functioning xylem is called sapwood.
 Hardwoods have xylem that consists of tracheids, fibers,
and vessel elements
 Softwoods have xylem that consists primarily of tracheids.
 Bark is produced to the outside of the vascular cambium
 Inner bark consists of primary and secondary
phloem
 Outer bark consists of cork tissue and cork
cambium
 Older phloem and parenchyma cells of the cortex
are crushed by new layers. Older phloem
becomes part of bark.
 Laticifers produce latex through pores in the bark.
Monocot Stems
 Most monocots are herbaceous plants
 Stems do not have a vascular or cork cambium
 Xylem and phloem occur in bundles scattered throughout
the stem
 Xylem is central and phloem is peripheral
 Phloem is entirely sieve tubes and companion
cells surrounded by a sheath of sclerenchyma
cells.
 Intercalary meristems increase the length throughout the
growing season in some monocots
 Larger monocots increase in girth by dividing parenchyma
cells (not a true vascular cambium)
Specialized Stems
 Rhizomes
 Horizontal stems that grow below the ground
 Can be fleshy or thin
 Usually have adventitious roots
 Runners and Stolons
 Runner: Horizontal stems that grow above ground
with long internodes (ex. strawberry)
 Can develop into new plants and be isolated from
the parent plant
 Stolons: Produced beneath the surface of the
ground and grow in different directions but not
horizontally. (ex. Potatoes)
 Tubers
 Food storage stems, they have lots of starch or
sugar within them
 Accumulation of food causes swelling
 Swelling have internodes with buds and can grow
into stolons
Ex. potatoes
 Bulbs
 Large buds surrounded by fleshy leaves and small
stem
 Adventitious roots grow from stem
 Fleshy parts are food storage for growth of leaves
Ex. Onions, tulips(monocot)
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Corms
 Similar to bulbs but composed entirely of stem
tissue except for scale-like leaves covering
surface.
 Produce adventitious roots and store food
Cladophylls
 are flattened, leaf-like stems
ex. asparagus
Other Specialized stems
 Cacti have fleshy stems for water storage
 Stems can be modified as thorns
 Climbing plants have modified stems for
attachment called tendrils (Some have adhesive
disks)
LESSON 2 : LEAVES
MORPHOLOGICAL AND ANATOMY (EXTERNAL
AND INTERNAL STRUCTURE)
External Structure
 All leaves originate as primordia (immature leaf) in the
buds.
 Once mature, each leaf would typically have a leaf blade,
also called the lamina
 which is also the widest part of the leaf.
 Some leaves are attached to the plant stem by a petiole
 Sessile leaves- Leaves that do not have a petiole and are
directly attached to the plant stem
 Stipules- small green appendages usually found at the
base of the petiole.
 Most leaves have a midrib, which travels the length of the
leaf and branches to each side to produce veins of vascular
tissue.
 Margin- edge of the leaf
 Apex- tip of the leaf
 Within each leaf, the vascular tissue forms veins.
Venation pattern
 The arrangement of veins in a leaf
Monocots and dicots differ in their patterns of venation.
 Monocots have parallel venation in which the veins run in
straight lines across the length of the leaf without
converging.
 In dicots, however, the veins of the leaf have a net-like
appearance, forming a pattern known as reticulate
venation.
 Ginkgo biloba is an example of a plant with
dichotomous venation.
MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO
INTERNAL STRUCTURES
Epidermis
 The leaf is a complex organ composed of several tissues
organized to optimize photosynthesis.
 The leaf blade has upper and lower surfaces consisting of
an epidermal layer.
 The upper epidermis covers the upper surface, and the
lower epidermis covers the lower surface.
 Most cells in these layers are living parenchyma cells that
lack chloroplasts and are relatively transparent.
 One interesting feature of leaf epidermal cells is
that the cell wall facing toward the outside
environment is somewhat thicker than the cell wall
facing inward. This extra thickness may provide
the plant with additional protection against injury
or water loss.
Upper Epidermis
 leaves of certain grasses have large, thin-walled cells called
bulliform cells on both sides of the midvein.
 These cells appear to be involved in the rolling or folding
inward of the leaf during drought.
 When water is plentiful, bulliform cells are turgid (swollen
with water) and the leaf is open.
 When bulliform cells lose water (as they may during a
drought), the leaf folds inward, decreasing its surface area
exposed to the air, an action that reduces water loss by
evaporation.
Cuticle
 A leaf has a large surface area exposed to the atmosphere;
as a result, water loss by evaporation from the leaf’s surface
is unavoidable.
 However, epidermal cells secrete a waxy layer, the
cuticle, that reduces water loss from their exterior walls.
 The cuticle, which consists primarily of a waxy substance
called cutin, varies in thickness in different plants, partly as
a result of environmental conditions.
 A leaf’s exposed (and warmer) upper epidermis generally
has a thicker cuticle than the shaded (and cooler) lower
epidermis.
Stomata and Guard Cells
 The epidermis contains minute openings, or stomata, for
gas exchange.
 Each stoma is flanked by two specialized epidermal guard
cells.
 Changes in the shape of each pair of guard cells open and
close the stoma.
 Guard cells are usually the only epidermal cells with
chloroplasts.
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Mesophyll
 The photosynthetic ground tissue of the leaf, the mesophyll,
is sandwiched between the upper epidermis and the lower
epidermis.
 Mesophyll cells, which are parenchyma cells packed with
chloroplasts, are loosely arranged with many air spaces
between them that facilitate gas exchange.
In many plants, the mesophyll is divided into two sublayers:
Palisade Mesophyll
 Toward the upper epidermis, the columnar cells are stacked
closely together in a layer called palisade mesophyll.
Spongy Mesophyll
 In the lower portion, the cells are more loosely and
more irregularly arranged, in a layer called spongy
mesophyll.
 Palisade mesophyll is the main site of photosynthesis in the
leaf. Photosynthesis also occurs in the spongy mesophyll,
but the primary function of the spongy mesophyll is to allow
diffusion of gases, particularly CO2, throughout the leaf’s
interior.
 Some monocots (corn and other grasses) do not have
mesophyll differentiated into distinct palisade and spongy
layers.
Vascular bundles
 The veins, or vascular bundles, of a leaf extend through the
mesophyll. Each vein contains two types of vascular tissue:
xylem and phloem.
Xylem
 which conducts water and dissolved minerals upward
(inorganic nutrients), is usually located on the upper side of
a vein, toward the upper epidermis.
Phloem
 which conducts dissolved sugars throughout the plant, is
usually confined to the lower side of a vein.
One or more layers of nonvascular cells surround the larger
veins and make up the bundle sheath.
MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO
LEAF FUNCTIONS
Plant leaves help to sustain life on earth as they generate food
for both plant and animal life. The following are the
important functions of leaves:
1. Photosynthesis
 This is the most important function of a leaf. They
contain chloroplasts which have the pigment chlorophyll
that is responsible for helping in photosynthesis. The
prepared food is transported to the other parts of the plant
via phloem tissue. (Further discussion on Lesson 5 of this
module and Module 10)
2. Gas exchange
 The epidermis of the leaf contains guard cells that control
and regulate the small pores on the undersurface of the
leaves. These pores are called stomata. Stomata are
responsible for regulating water in and out of the cell. It is
also responsible for the exchange of gases across the
epidermis.
3. Storage of food
 In some plants, the leaves are modified to store food. These
plants generally have succulent leaves as seen in
xerophytic plants.
Photosynthesis
 is the process of absorbing energy from sunlight and using
it to produce food in the form of sugar.
 Leaves make it possible for plants to fulfill their role as
primary producers in food chains.
 Not only do leaves make food, but they also generate
oxygen during photosynthesis and are major contributors to
the cycle of carbon and oxygen in the environment.
Transpiration
 Despite leaf adaptations such as the cuticle, approximately
99 percent of the water that a plant absorbs from the soil is
lost by evaporation from the leaves and, to a lesser extent,
the stems.
 Loss of water vapor from aerial plant parts is called
transpiration.
 Most transpiration occurs through open stomata.
 The numerous stomatal pores that are so effective in gas
exchange for photosynthesis also provide openings through
which water vapor escapes.
Guttation
 is the secretion of droplets of water from the pores of plants
called hydathodes.
 It is the exudation of drops of xylem sap on the tips or edges
of leaves of some vascular plants, such as grasses.
 Guttation is not to be confused with dew, which condenses
from the atmosphere onto the plant surface.
AUTHOR: MODULES IN CANVAS FOR THIS COURSE 10
 [BSP1A] Canvas- Module 4

PHARMACEUTICAL AND PHARMACOLOGICAL MODIFIED LEAVES

IMPORTANCE OF THE LEAVES
Source: pdf in canvas Leaf Description Example
Modific
Leaves are an important source of drugs used in medicine and ation
of narcotics and poisons. Shade  They are larger than
Name Description leaves their counterparts in
Catnip (Nepeta Leaf tea for colds and relieve infant the sun.
cataria) colic.  They are thinner and
Creosote bush Decoction from leaves used as CURE have fewer well-
(Larrea divaricata) ALL by Native Americans esp for defined mesophyll
respiratory problems layers and fewer
Damiana Dried leaves used for minor pain, as a chloroplasts
(Turnera diffusa) laxative, flavoring for liquor, and as  They also do not have
sexual stimulant; also said to improve as many hairs.
blood circulation Leaves  Thick, leathery leaves
Deadly  A drug complex from the leaves of Arid and fewer stomata, or
nightshade containing atropine, hyoscyamine, region stomata that are
(Atropa & scopolamine (used as opium sunken below the
belladonna) antidotes) surface in special
 For shock treatment depressions, to
 Pupil dilation reduce loss of water
 Scopolamine as tranquilizer to through transpiration.
induce twilight sleep during child  May have succulent,
birth water-retaining leaves
Echinacea  Leaves and root have antiviral and or no leaves at all May
(Echinacea anti-inflammatory property. have dense, hairy
purpurea)  Used to boost the immune system coverings
Eucalyptus Oil extracted leaves used to alleviate Leaves Less xylem than phloem,
(Eucalyptus spp) bronchitis and coughs of and the mesophyll, which
Aquatic is not differentiated into
Gingko (Gingko  Concentrated leaf extract
biloba) areas palisade and spongy
improves oxygen carrying capacity
of capillaries esp those of the brain layers, has large air
and may improve memory; spaces
 used for treating vertigo and
tinnitus Tendril  Helps the plant in
Globe artichoke Leaf and root extract used for gallstone s climbing or supporting
(Cynara formation and to alleviate digestion weak stems
scolymus) problems  Tendrils curl in the
Green tea  Unfermented leaves source of direction of the
(Camellia polyphenols which appear to contact (solid support)
sinensis) reduce incidence of cancers in growth is continuous
regular users through  Clematis- the rachis
neutralization of free radicals; serve effectively as
 Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) tendrils
ingredient of green tea particularly  Cucurbits family
effective for prostate cancer (Mayo Spines Less Leaf tissue
clinic) water replaced with
Jimson weed  Drugs atropine, hyoscyamine and loss sclerenchyma
(Datura scopolamine obtained from seeds, Protects
stramonium spp) flowers and leaves. the plant Example:
 Used for knockout drops and for from Mesquite,
asthma Highly poisonous. browsing black locust
Kava kava (Piper Leaf tea used as sedative, muscle Thorns animals Pine-like
methysticum) relaxant and as pain reliever objects arising
Lemon Balm Leaf extract oils used for colds in the axils of
(Melissa leaves.
Prickles Neither leaves
officinalis)
Lobelia (Lobelia Source of Lobeline sulfate - a drug used nor stems, but
inflata) for smoking cessation and in treatment are
of respiratory disorder. outgrowths
from the
epidermis or
cortex.

MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO AUTHOR: MODULES IN CANVAS FOR THIS COURSE 11

[BSP1A] Canvas- Module 4

Example: Venus “active trap”

roses and flytrap
raspberries (Dionae Two halves of the blade
Storage  Succulent leaves a have the appearance of
leaves (modified for water muscipu being hinged along the
retention) la) midrib, with stiff, hairlike
 Parenchyma cells projections along their
with large vacuoles margins
Flower Dischidia is an epiphyte Bladder Found in margins of lakes
pot that grows non- worts and streams
leaves parasitically on other (Utricula
plants develop urn like ria) Have finely dissected
pouches that become leaves with tiny bladders.
home to ant colonies
When triggered, the
trapdoor springs open, and
water rushes into the
Window Leaves buried in bladder, trapping the
leaves ground/sand. insect inside.

There is a mass of tightly

packed, transparent water-
storage cells below the
exposed end; these allow
light coming through the
“windows” to penetrate to
the chloroplasts in the
mesophyll, located all
around the inside of the
shell of the leaf.
Reprod Walking fern - New plants
uctive at leaf tips
leaves
Air plant - Tiny plantlets
along leaf margins
Floral Specialized leaves known
leaves as bracts are found at the
(Bract) bases of flowers or flower
stalks.

In poinsettia (Euphorbia
pulcherrima), the flowers
themselves have no
petals, but the brightly
colored floral bracts that
surround the small flowers
function as petals in
attracting pollinators
Insect trapping leaves
Pitcher “passive trap”
Plants
(Serrac Pitcher leaves have
enia) nectar-secreting glands
around the rim.

The distinctive odor

produced by these glands
attracts insects, which,
while foraging, often fall
into the watery fluid at the
bottom.
Sunde Mechanically/actively trap
ws insects.
(Droser
a) Leaves covered with
glandular hairs have sticky
digestive enzymes

MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO AUTHOR: MODULES IN CANVAS FOR THIS COURSE 12

Cytology • “Post office of the cell”
•The study of the structure and the function of • Composed of circular, flattened vesicles of
cells. cisternae aligned in stacks.
Prokaryotes • “Packaging of proteins” areas, transport of
 Archae substances to and from the cell.
 Bacteria PLASTIDS
Eukaryotes Rounded, oval, or irregularly shaped
 Plant protoplasmic bodies which have three main
 Animals types
 Protists 1. Chloroplast
 Fungi 2. Leucoplast
CELL MEMBRANE 3. Chromoplast
•selectively permeable which regulates the Chloroplast
entrance and exit of substances in a cell. CHLOROPLAST
Cell Wall • Green plastids
•Outermost part of the plant cell. • Contains photosynthetic pigments called
•A non-living material made up of cellulose and chlorophylls.
other substance like lignin, suberin, and cutin. • Organelles of photosynthesis.
Cytoplasm • Chloroplasts synthesize carbohydrates using
• Surrounds/keeps organelles in place the energy of sunlight
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM CHROMOPLAST
•Facilitates the transport of materials within • Yellow, orange, or red in color due to the
the cell. presence of carotenoid pigments, which they
• Help in the production and storage of proteins synthesize and accumulate
SOFT ER LEUCOPLAST
w/o ribosomes • Essentially colorless and include amyloplasts,
• SER mainly produce and export lipids and which synthesize starches, elaioplasts, which
protein and function for detoxification synthesize oils, and proteinoplast/aleuroplasts,
ROUGH ER stores protein and found in seeds and nuts
• RER produces, secrete and export proteins NUCLEUS
and few hormones. • “Control center of the cell”
RIBOSOMES • Serves to protect DNA information and is
• Dense granules which synthesize protein. perforated with holes called nuclear pores.
•Each ribosome is composed of two subunits NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
that are composed of RNA and proteins; the •Membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
subunits, upon close inspection, can be NUCLEOPLASM
differentiated by a line or left toward the • Similar to the cytoplasm of a cell, also known
center. as karyoplasm
MITOCHONDRIA/CHONDRISOMES • Contains chromosomes and nucleolus
• “Powerhouse of the cell” CHROMOSOMES
• Double layered organelle of the plant cell. • Contains the “genes” that determines the
• Cristae- inside folds; site for cellular hereditary characteristics of the cell.
respiration • Controls the activity of the cell.
GOLGI BODY/ DICTYOSOMES NUCLEOLUS
•Assembles ribosomes, is the largest structure CYTOKINESIS- normally comes with mitosis;
in the cell nucleus. division of the remainder of the cell

chromosomes as the parent cell

INCLUSIONS BODIES CYTOKINESIS
• Vacuole 3. Cytokinesis
• Filled with aqueous solutions containing
various dissolved substances new cells, overlaps with the final stages of
• Used for the storage of waste and food mitosis.
• Useful for maintaining cell structure and
water balance splitting it into two daughter cells separated by
Cell Cycle a new wall.
TISSUES
where cells divide
perform related functions and are similar in
1. Interphase structure.
2. Mitosis Meristems – Where Tissues Originate
Process of division that produces two daughter
cells with identical chromosomal content of growth
parent cell.
a. Prophase
b. Metaphase Responsible for primary growth
c. Anaphase
d. Telophase
1. Interphase
growth
visible with light microscope ems
ells are NOT dividing
Apical Meristem
G1 –(growth or gap one) lengthy period
after the nucleus divides; RNA are ribosomes SAM and RAM
are produced & cell increase in size
S- synthesis- DNA replication takes place Epidermis/Dermal Tissue – Protoderm
G2- (growth or gap two) mitochondria & (aka dermatogen)
other organelles divide; microtubules are Ground Tissue – Ground meristem
produced; coiling & condensation
ofchromosomes begin Vascular Tissue – Procambium
2. MITOSIS Lateral Meristem

the two cells to produce two more daughter

cells Cork/ cork cambium
protective tissue that replaces the epidermis
tips) when secondary growth displaces or response
to injury/infection.
Secondary vascular tissue and
 thin layer of cells found in plants, are most abundant of all the cells.
separating two other types of plant
vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) photosynthesis,
exchange of gases and as the bulk of ground
Permanent Tissues and vascular tissues, store protein and starch,
Non-dividing tissues and for repair
Simple Tissues - Composed of a single Collenchyma
cell type
tissues
(especially
corners) thickened with pectin and cellulose
ercellular space.
Complex Tissues - Composed of a more than
one cell type
Xylem – Vessel and tracheids growing
Phloem – Sieve tubes and companion cells tissues, like stem.
TYPES OF PLANT TISSUES Sclerenchyma
----- (on the basis of a part in a plant present)----
--
Epidermal and are
- Parenchyma dead at maturity
Ground for the
-Parenchyma plant.
-Collenchyma
Vascular
-Xylem
-Phloem C. Vascular Tissue
A. Dermal Tissue phloem, which
function in the transport of water and
controls interactions with the plants' dissolved substances.
surroundings. material between the
tissue that is usually root and the shoot of the plant.
a single layer of cells covering the younger parts Xylem
of a plant. It secretes a waxy layer called the -Conducts water and dissolved minerals
cuticle that inhibits water loss. -conducting cells are dead and hollow at
B. Ground Tissue maturity
photosynthesis, Phloem
storage, regeneration, support, and protection. -transports sugar
tissue includes -main conducting cells are sieve-tube members
parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma. -companion cells assist in the loading of sugars
Parenchyma
Stem
▪ Stems are a crucial part of plant physiology
and become the erect, aerial SHOOT SYSTEM
which contains the branches & leaves.
Function
▪ The stem is the aerial part of the plant. It is the
axis of the shoot system which provides
mechanical support to the plant.
▪ It is the site where leaves and reproductive
shoots get attached.
▪ A stem exposes the leaves for photosynthesis
and positions the reproductive shoots for
optimal access to pollinators and dispersal
agents.
▪ It also conducts water and minerals from roots
to the leaves and solutes from leaves to storage
and use sites.
▪ Storage of food and/or water
Types of Stem
1. Herbaceous stems – thin, soft and green in
color except those that grow underground.
2. Woody stems – taller, thicker, and harder
than herbaceous stems.
External Parts
1. Node- area of the stem where a leaf or leaves
are attached
2. Internode- stem region between nodes
3. Bud - located at the angle (axil) between a
petiole & stem
– Axillary Bud- bud at the axillary; forms into
separate branches
– Terminal Bud- present at the end of the twig
(not always); does not form into branches
4. Bud scales- protects buds; falls off when bud
tissue starts to grow
5. Terminal bud scale scars – marks leaves on
the stem from the previous years which serve
as external measure of annual growth.
6. Stipule scars- left after buds expand; maybe
fine line encircling the twig (or inconspicuous)
7. Leaf scars- left after leaves fall
8. Bundle scars- mark the location of water
conducting & food conducting tissue
9. Lenticel – pores that allow for gas exchange
Terminology
▪ Shoot – A young stem (1 year old or less) with
leaves
▪ Twig – A young stem (1 year old or less) that is
in the dormant
winter stage (no leaves)
▪ Branch – A stem that is more than 1 year old
typically with
lateral stems radiating from it
▪ Trunk – A woody plant’s main stem
Leaf Primordia
The apical meristem is dormant before the
growing season begins. It is protected by bud
scales of the bud in which it is located and to
certain extent by leaf primordia, the tiny
embryonic leaves that will develop into mature
leaves after the bud scales drop off and growth
begins.
Meristematic tissue
Protoderm → Epidermis- coated & protected by
a cuticle; from the protoderm
▪ Procambium → Primary xylem and phloem
▪ Ground Meristems →
▪ Pith- parenchyma tissue in the center
of the stem
▪ Cortex- from the ground meristem
Secondary growth
▪ Vascular Cambium/Cambium
▪ Secondary Xylem – tracheids, vessel elements
▪ Secondary Phloem – sieve tubes, companion
cells
▪ In woody species, a second cambium arises
within the cortex
or from the epidermis/phloem. → Cork
Cambium/Phellogen
▪ produces boxlike cork cells, which become
impregnated with suberin
Herbaceous Dicot Stem
▪ In general, plants that die after going from
seed to maturity within one growing season
(annuals) have green, herbaceous (nonwoody)
stems.
▪ Have discrete vascular bundles composed of
patches of xylem and phloem. The vascular
bundles are arranged in a cylinder that
separates the cortex from the pith.
▪ Exception: (e.g., foxgloves), the xylem and the
phloem are produced as continuous rings
(cylinders) instead of in separate bundles.
Monocot Stem
Most monocots (e.g., grasses, lilies) are
herbaceous plants that do not grow tall.
▪ The stems have no vascular cambium nor a
cork cambium and thus produce no secondary
vascular tissues or cork.
▪ Each bundle, regardless of its specific location,
is oriented so that its xylem is closer to the
center of the stem and its phloem is closer to
the surface.
Woody Dicot Stem
▪ In woody plants, obvious differences begin to
appear as soon as the vascular cambium and
the cork cambium develop. The most
conspicuous differences involve the secondary
xylem, or wood, as it is best known.
▪ Some tropical trees (e.g., ebony), in which
both the vascular cambium and the cork
cambium are active all year, produce an
ungrained, uniform wood.
▪ The wood of most trees, however, is produced
seasonally. In trees of temperate climates,
virtually all growth takes place during the spring
and summer and then ceases until the following
spring.
When the vascular cambium of a typical
broadleaf tree first becomes active in the
spring, it usually produces relatively large vessel
elements of secondary xylem; such xylem is
referred to as spring wood.
▪ The xylem that is produced after the spring
wood, and which has smaller or fewer vessel
elements and larger numbers of tracheids, is
referred to as summer wood.
▪ Vascular rays - lighter streaks seen on
transverse or cross section of tree trunk
▪ Their primary function is the lateral
conduction of nutrients and water from the
stele, through the xylem and phloem, to the
cortex, with some cells also storing food.
▪ Tylosis (Tyloses) - protrusions filled with
resins, gums or tannins; that prevent
conduction of water & dissolved substance
▪ HEARTWOOD- older darker wood at the
center
▪ SAPWOOD- lighter; still functioning xylem
Pines and other cone-bearing trees have xylem
that consists primarily of tracheids; no fibers or
vessel elements are produced. Because it has
no fibers, the wood tends to be softer than
wood with fibers and is commonly referred to
as softwood, while the wood of woody dicot
trees is called hardwood.
Maple Sap
– In late summer-early fall, starches are stored
in stem and root sapwood.
– The following year, in early spring when the
temperature is right, these starches are
converted to sugars.
– The watery, sugar-filled sap begins flowing
upwards.
– Trees are tapped and the sap is collected in
buckets.
– The water is boiled-off to make maple syrup.
▪ Bark- all tissues outside the cambium, Veins
including the phloem -composed of vascular bundles
▪ Inner bark- consist of primary and secondary
phloem Stoma
▪ Outer bark (periderm)- consist of cork tissue openings in the surface of the leaf and stems for
and cork cambium gas exchange. Water vapor also passes out
through these holes.
Laticifers- specialized cells or ducts of latex- FUNCTION:
secreting cells 1. Regulate gas exchange
▪ Latex (dagta)- thick white/yellow/orange/red 2. Regulate water entering the plants at the
fluid with gums, protein, sugar, oils, salt, root
alkaloidal drugs, enzymes etc.
Stoma
Leaves – Alfalfa & corn
• Leaves are the solar energy and CO2 • have stomata on both surfaces
collectors of plants. – Water lily
• Leaves are the principle structure, produced • on the upper surface
on stems, where photosynthesis takes place. – Submerged leaves of aquatic plants
• In some plants, leaves have become adapted • NONE
for specialized functions.
– PRIMORDIA- immature leaf from the bud Guard Cells
– JUVENILE LEAVES- early leaves produced – two of these special cells surround each
stoma and regulate the opening and closing of
External Structure of Leaf the stoma.

1. Blade or also known as lamina Rigid inner surface remains stiff

– It is the broad portion of the leaf. Guard Cells Stomata
– It consist of apex, margin, vein, midrib, and
base. Inflate= Open
2. Petiole (Rachis)
– It is a thin stalk that attaches the leaf Deflate= Close
to a stem.
• SESSILE- leaves without a petiole
3. Stipules
– It is the leaf-like/thorn-like structures
at the leaf base.

Epidermis – a layer of cells one cell thick that

provides protection for the inner tissues.

Mesophyll contains palisade cells that are tall,

tightly packed, and filled with chloroplasts for
photosynthesis.
 Stomatal Control
• When water is abundant:
• Temporal regulation of stomata is used:
• OPEN during the day
• CLOSED at night

• When water is limited:

• Stomata will open less or even remain closed
even on a sunny morning
Function of the Leaf • Plant can avoid dehydration
• Photosynthesis
• Respiration
Bulliform Cells
• Transpiration
• Function: Causes leaf to fold or roll, reducing
• Guttation
Transpiration
Photosynthesis
• Plants take simple inorganic molecules
(carbon dioxide and water) and convert them to
sugar.
• Oxygen is given off as a byproduct.
• Involves trapping and storing of energy in
sugar molecules that are constructed from
ordinary water and CO2 in the atmosphere

Respiration
essentially the release of energy from glucose
molecules that are broken down to individual
carbon dioxide molecules

Transpiration
• The process of water movement through a
plant and its evaporation from aerial parts, such
as leaves, stems and flowers

Guttation
• The loss of water through hydathodes is called
guttation.
The expelled water may contain ions secreted
by root cells.
• Hydathodes - special opening at the tip of leaf
veins that the root pressure would force liquid
water out at night (when there is no
transpiration)