CELL DIVISION

Mitosis is the regular divisions of a cell such a fashion that

each of the two daughter cells receives the same number and the
same kind of chromosomes that the parent cell had. It involves two
basic processes: karyokinesis, a nuclear division into two daughter
cells, each containing a daughter nucleus. For descriptive purposes
mitosis has been divided into four stages: prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, telophase. Phase or “resting” stage. The nucleus is resting
only with respect to division, however, during this time it may be
very active metabolically.
Constancy of the chromosomes number in the cells of
successive generations of organisms is unsure by the process of
meiosis, which occurs during the formation of gamete, either eggs or
sperm, and in the formation of spores in plants. Meiosis is essentially
a pair of cell divisions during which the chromosome number is
reduced to one-half, so that the gametes received 1/2as many
chromosomes as other cells in the body. When two gametes unite in
fertilization, the fusion of their nuclei reconstitutes the diploid
number of chromosomes.
Through this activity you should be able to observe
chromosomes changes and behavior animal cell in mitosis, and to
identify the stages of mitosis.
Interphase. The interphase cycle may be defined as the entire
sequence of events transpiring from close of one nuclear division to
the beginning of the next one. The cell in this stage does not show
any sign of actual division. The cell is divided into two parts: the Specimen: Allium cepa root tip
nucleus, a center deeply stained region, and the cytoplasm, a
peripheral less stained region. The nucleus is surrounded by a definite
wall, the nuclear membrane, which encloses one or two deeply,
staining bodies, the nucleoli. Minute bodies called chromatin
granules are scattered throughout the nucleoplasm. The cytoplasm,
which in life is filled with a watery fluid, is surrounded by the cell
membrane.
Prophase. As the cell enters the prophase stage, the chromosomes
progressively shorten and thicken to form individually recognizable,
elongated, longitudinally double structures arranged randomly in the
nucleus. The nucleolus, as well as the nuclear membrane, gradually
disappears during this stage. As prophase progresses, a mitotic
apparatus, the spindle (and associated structures) begins to form; it
occupies a large portion of the cell volume at the end of prophase. In
animal cells the spindle may be seen to arise at both ends; each is
composed of a black dot, the centriole, with astral rays or asters
radiating from the ends of the spindle.
Metaphase. At this stage the chromosomes are shortest and thickest.
The main event during this stage is the alignment of chromosomes at
the mid- portion of the cytoplasm called the equatorial plane.
Anaphase. This is characterized by the separation of the metaphase
sister chromatids and their passage as daughter chromosomes to the
spindle poles. It begins at the moment when the centromeres of each
of the daughter chromatids become functionally double and ends with
the arrival of the daughter chromosomes at the poles.
Telophase. The arrival of the daughter chromosomes at the spindle
poles marks the beginning of telophase. The events of prophase occur
in reverse sequence during this phase. New nuclear membranes are
formed, the mitotic apparatus gradually disappears, the nucleoli are
reformed, and the chromosomes resume their long, slender, extended
form as their coils relax. Cytokinesis takes place during telophase. In
plant cells, this is accomplished by the formation of a cell plate, a
structure that appears as a dark line at the middle of the cell. Early
steps in cytokinesis include the formation of vesicles in the midplane
of the mitotic apparatus, the coalescence of these vesicles starting at
the center of the spindle to form a phragmoplast. The cell plate forms
within the phragmoplast, gradually extending centrifugally and
dividing the phragmoplast into two parts before the latter disappears.
In animal cells, cytokinesis is accomplished by the formation of a
cleavage furrow. The telophase stage ends upon the reorganization of
two nuclei and their entry into the interphase stage.
 TISSUES
EPITHELIAL TISSUES are ectodermal in origin and
function as covering of outer surfaces and lining the cavities of
internal organs. There are some epithelial tissues that are specialized
for protection, absorption, and secretion. The cells making up an
epithelium are closely packed, with very scanty intercellular matrix
and rest on a basement membrane or basal lamina. The various kinds
of epithelial tissues are classified according to the shape of the cells
and the number of layers:

(1) Simple Squamous epithelium – cells are flat or tile-like, with

centrally located nucleus. The thin outer layer of the skin of
some vertebrates that is constantly shed off is an example of
squamous epithelium. The cells may be arranged in a single
layer (simple squamous epithelium) or they may be arranged in
several layers (stratified squamous epithelium). Specimen: Frog
CONNECTIVE TISSUES
epidermic cells
Cells of these tissues secrete a nonliving material called matrix which
usually occupies more space than the cells themselves. The matrix
may be composed of fluid, gelatinous material, long fibers, or hard
mineralized material.
(1) Loose Connective Tissue (Areolar) – The white fibers are
made up of many fine parallel fibrils, pale in color and often
wavy in outline forming bundles that are crisscrossed or
interlaced. Elastic fibers are sharply defined, few, straight, and
frequently branched.

(2) Cuboidal epithelium - found in the collecting tubes of the

kidney ducts of the liver and pancreas, parts of the salivary and
thyroid glands, etc. Study a stained section of the kidney of the
toad. Note the cubelike cells lining the irregular cavities
(uriniferous tubules). Focus and draw under High Power
Objective and label as before. Human Kidney 400X

(2) Adipose or Fat Tissue – This consists of rounded or polygonal

cells. They contain droplets of fat, which many forms large
globules. Fat is usually dissolved out in prepared microscopic.

(3) Columnar epithelium - this epithelium is more resistant to wear

than squamous or cuboidal epithelium. Thus, they generally, line
the surface of larger tubes through which much passage takes
place, such as the stomach, intestine, bronchi of lungs, fallopian
tubes or oviducts, and the uterus.
(3) Cartilage tissue – The clear hyaline portion is the matrix which
is secreted by the chondrocytes. These cells are scattered
irregularly and located in rounded spaces or lacunae. Specimen:
Hyaline Cartilage 400X

(4) Bone or Osseus tissue – bone is a dense organic matrix with

mineral deposits. The bone matrix is arranged in regular
concentric lamellae. Within the bone matrix are scattered
 numerous minute spaces or lacunae, in which the bone cells or
osteocytes are located in life, arising from the lacunae are
numerous thin branching canals, the canaliculi, which lead to
neighboring lacunae, thus establishing connections among them.
The central cavity where blood vessels pass and into which the
canaliculi from the innermost row open directly is the haversian
canal. The concentric lamellae with their lacunae and canaliculi
together with a haversian canal constitute a haversian canal
system. Bone Decalcified 400x

x bodily movements;(b) visceral-smooth involuntary muscles of
(5) Vascular Tissues - This include the blood and lymph that serve
to transport and distribute materials in the body. The blood
consists of fluid plasma containing free cells or corpuscles.
Colorless white blood cells or leucocytes are present in all
animals which protects the body against infection. Vertebrate
blood also contains red blood cells or erythrocytes which is
colored red by a pigment, hemoglobin. Those in mammals are
non-nucleated biconcave and usually round. In other vertebrates,
they are nucleated biconvex and oval.
MUSCULAR TISSUES
Microscopically, the muscles of vertebrates are of three types: (a)
skeletal-striated voluntary muscle attached to skeleton that produced
internal organs; and (c) cardiac-striated involuntary muscles present
only on the walls of the heart.
(1) Striated skeletal/ Voluntary muscle - Each muscle fiber is
covered on the outside with a structureless inelastic envelope the
sarcolemma. The protoplasm of the muscle is termed
sarcoplasm. It is multinucleated. Specimen: Human Skeletal
Muscles

(2) Smooth, Visceral muscles- The walls of the visceral organs are
provided with smooth muscles whose individual cells are
spindle shaped & mononucleated within each cell are myofibrils
which are homologous and not cross-banded. The cells have no
apparent sarcolemma. They are not voluntary. Specimen:
Human Smooth Muscles 400x

(3) Cardiac or Striated Involuntary muscles- the cells resemble

Human Blood Smear 400x those of skeletal muscles because they are filamentous &
The granulocytes are the (1) neutrophils (w/ 3 or more striated; but the filaments are branching. Like the visceral
lobules in the nucleus joined by a thread-like structure); (2) basophils muscles, they are involuntary. There muscle tissues form the
(non-lobulated, twisted nucleus) (3) eosinophils (have two lobules in walls of the heart.
the nucleus). The agranulocytes are the (1) lymphocytes (with big
rounded nucleus) and (2) monocytes (with horse-shoe shaped
nucleus).
 Diffusion through a Membrane
Activity: Submerging the cellophane bag with starch
solution in a beaker with water.

Osmosis
Activity: Submerging the partially exposed membrane of
an egg for 15 minutes in a beaker with water.

Protoplasmic Movement
Activity: Observing the movements of the organelles of
a Hydrilla Leaf.

NERVOUS TISSUE
This type of tissue is composed of nerve cells or neurons
which are of varied form in the systems of different animals and the
several parts of any one system. The individual neuron usually has a
large cell body/cyton, a conspicuous nucleus, and two or more
extensions or processes, the dendrite that transmits impulses to the
cell body and the axon that carries impulses away from it. A group of
nerve fibers when bound together forms a nerve.

MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
Simple Diffusion
Activity: Pouring of powdered dye on a beaker with
water.
 HISTOLOGY
SUITES OF DEVELOPMENTAL CHARACTERS
Ectoderm
- Epithelium and nervous system
Endoderm
- Epithelial lining of the digestive tube
Mesoderm
- Muscular system, reproductive system,
calcareous plates sea endoskeleton.
 Thick
 Protective role, subject to wear and tear
 Regenerate from basal surface to replace apical surface
cells that rub off or die
 Cells differ in shape at apical and basal surface. (named
for apical surface)
 Pseudo-stratified (false stratified)
peritoneum,  Shapes vary in height
 Nuclei at different levels – appear stratified, but aren’t.
 All cells reach basement membrane; only a few reach the
surface
Function
 Absorption
 Secretion of mucus by goblet cells
 Cilia (larger than microvilli) sweep mucus
Location
 Respiratory Linings & Reproductive tract

 Simple Columnar
Function and Location
 Absorption & Secretion (ex. digestive tract)
 When in open to body cavities – called mucous membranes
Special Features
 Often w/ microvilli on apical surface (brush border)
 Goblet cells, single cell glands, produce protective mucus.

EPITHELIAL TISSUE
 Closely packed apical cells that are exposed to external or
internal surface
 Cells attached to basement membrane
 Lack blood vessels
 Cells continually replaced
FUNCTIONS:
 Protection (i.e. skin)
 Excretion and secretion (i.e. glands)
Two Classes of Glandular Secretion
 Exocrine secretion—Secretion onto a body surface
 Endocrine secretion—Secretion (of hormones) into
neighboring tissues and blood
 Absorption (i.e. digestive system)  Stratified Squamous
 Sensation Structure
 Filtration (i.e. kidneys)  Cells often cuboidal or columnar below apical squamous
layer
Glandular Epithelia Function and Location
Three secretion mechanisms  Protection
 Merocrine  Keratin (protein) is accumulated in older cells near the
 Exocytosis of vesicles surface – waterproofs and toughens skin
 Apocrine Location
 Release of apical cytoplasm  Skin (keratinized), mouth & throat
 Holocrine
 Burst of entire contents

 Transitional Epithelium
Structure
 Multi-layer
 Basal surface cells are cuboidal or columnar
 Apical surface cells vary: changes shape to accommodate
for change in volume due to stretching
Function
 Allows stretching
Location
 Urinary bladder, ureters & urethra

CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES

Number of layers
Simple (one cell thick)
Stratified (distinct multiple cells thick)
Pseudostratified (indistinct layers of cells)
Cell shape
Cross-section
 Squamous – flat, like a fried egg, or scale-like
 Cuboidal – cubes, large spherical central nuclei
 Columnar – columns, long oval nuclei, usually near basal
surface
 Simple (one layer)
 Thin: limited, no protection
 Sparse cytoplasm
 Found where rapid diffusion is a priority Characteristics of Epithelial Tissues
 Areas of high diffusion rates: I. Tight fitting sheets
 gasses (ex lungs) Regardless of cell shape or number of layers
 nutrients and waste exchange (blood vessels and  Shape of the cells
surrounding cells)  Number of layers
 filtrates (kidneys)
 Makes lubricating fluid in lining of body cavities (ex. II. Apical-Basal Polarity
serous membranes) Apical Surface
 Secretion and Absorption = top surface that borders an “open” space called LUMEN
 Covers walls of SMALL ducts, glands, kidney tubules, Basal Surface
ovaries = bottom surface that borders underlying supportive connective
 Stratified (many layers) tissue
Apical Surface
 Often w/ microvilli (brush border)
- Increases SA in areas that need to absorb or secrete
 Some with cilia to move substances along lumen
Basal Surface
- Has adhesive sheet of glyco-proteins secreted by epithelial
cells called the basal lamina
Connective Tissue beneath secretes collagen, creating the Reticular
Lamina.
Basal Lamina + Reticular Lamina = Basement Membrane (defines
the epithelial boundary)
o Contains fibroblasts, macrophages, plasma cells, mast cells,
adipocytes and a few white blood cells as well as all 3 types
of fibers
o Helps to form the subcutaneous layer
Adipose Tissue – The cells, called adipocytes, are specialized for
storage of triglycerides. Adipocytes fill up with a large fat droplet so
the nucleus gets pushed to one side of the cell.
o Used for insulation, protection and as an energy reserve
Reticular Connective Tissue – made of interlacing reticular fibers and
reticular cells that connect to each other to form a network.
o Used to bind together smooth muscle cells and to filter out
worn out blood cells and bacteria

III. Avascular (a = without)

o Lacks blood vessels
o Nourished by connective tissue
But Innervated
o w/ nerve fibers
TYPES OF DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUES
IV. Regeneration and repair quickly Contains more numerous, thicker and denser fibers but fewer cells
than loose connective tissue.
Dense regular connective tissue
Bundles of collagen fibers are arranged regularly in parallel patterns
CONNECTIVE TISSUES that give it strength.
 Binds together, supports and strengthens other body tissues Withstands pulling from the ends, but unravels when pulled from the
Collagen Fibers side
o Strong, resist pulling forces, flexible Silvery white in appearance. Tough and pliable
Found in tendons and ligaments
o Made of the protein collagen which is the most abundant Dense Irregular connective tissue
protein in your body o Collagen fibers are packed closely together in an irregular,
Elastic Fibers random pattern
o smaller in diameter than collagen fibers, branch to form o Found in parts of the body where pulling forces are exerted
network in various directions
o Made of the protein elastin o Usually found in sheets
Reticular Fibers o Examples: Dermis of the skin, heart valves, perichondrium
o Provide support for the walls of blood vessels and periosteum
o Made of collagen with a glycoprotein covering Elastic Connective Tissue
 Protects and insulates internal organs o Contains branching elastic fibers and fibroblasts
 Compartmentalizes structures such as skeletal muscle o Yellowish in color
 The major transport system within the body o Strong, can regain shape after stretching
 Site of stored energy reserves o Found in lungs and arteries
 Main site of immune responses
 2 basic parts: Cells and Matrix
 Matrix – material between widely spaced cells CARTILAGE
o Consists of protein fibers and ground substance  Dense network of collagen fibers and elastic fibers embedded in
Ground substance – material between cells and chondroitin sulfate (a rubbery component of the ground
fibers secreted by the cells and determine the substance)
tissue qualities  Can withstand more stress than the dense and loose connective
 Does not occur on free surfaces tissue.
 Has a nerve supply (except cartilage)  Collagen fibers make the tissue strong, chondroitin sulfate
 Highly Vascular (except cartilage and tendons) makes it resilient
 Extracellular matrix  Chondrocytes – mature cartilage cells
Protein fibers  Lacunae – holes in the matrix in which the cells sit
Fluid phase (the ground substance)  Perichondrium – dense irregular connective tissue that
Functions surrounds cartilage
 Structural framework 3 types – hyaline, fibrocartilage and elastic
 Fluid and solute transport  Cartilage is AVASCULAR and NO nerve supply (but the
 Physical protection perichondrium does)
 Tissue interconnection Hyaline Cartilage
 Fat storage o Gel like ground substance, collagen fibers (not visible with
 Microorganism defense normal stains) and prominent chondrocytes
Ground Substance – component of a connective tissue between the o Most abundant cartilage in the body
cells and fibers, supports cells, binds them together, and provides a o Found at the end of long bones to cushion joints and at
medium through which substances are exchanged. epiphyseal plates (growth plates in bones)
Ex. Hyaluronic Acid o Weakest of the 3 types of cartilage
CONNECTIVE TISSUE CELLS Fibrocartilage
 Fibroblasts – large flat cells with branching processes. (Loose o Chondrocytes scattered among visible bundles of collagen
connective tissue) fibers
 Chondrocytes – cells in cartilages o No perichondrium
 Osteocytes – bone cells o Strongest of the 3 types of cartilage
 Macrophages – develop from white blood cells. Surround and o Found in the intervertebral discs
engulf material by phagocytosis Elastic Cartilage
 Mast Cells – alongside blood vessels that supply connective o Chondrocytes located in a threadlike network of elastic
tissue. Produce histamine fibers
– a chemical that dilates blood vessels. o Provides strength, elasticity and maintains the shape of
 Adipocytes – “fat cells” store triglycerides. certain structures (like the external ear)
BONE TISSUE (osseous tissue)
 Matrix provides unique properties
 Collagen fibers resist bending
 Calcium salts resist compression
 Diffusion through canaliculi nourishes osteocytes
 Covered by periosteum
2 types – compact and spongy
Compact
- Osteon – basic unit of compact bone
- Lamellae – concentric circles of matrix
Connective tissue proper - Lacunae – spaces in the matrix that house cells
- Contains varied cell populations and fiber types surrounded - Osteocytes – mature bone cells
by a syrupy ground substance Spongy
Resident and migrating cells - Trabeculae – columns of bone with spaces filled with red
 Fibroblasts bone marrow
 Macrophages
 Fat cells
 Mast cells
 Other white cells
Protein fibers
 Collagen fibers - Provides toughness
 Reticular fibers - Supports cells
 Elastic fibers - Provides resilience
TYPES OF LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUES
Fibers of loose connective tissues are loosely intertwined among
many cells.
Areolar Connective Tissue – one of the most widely distributed
connective tissues in the body.
  Lack most organelles
 Makes more room for hemoglobin
 Degenerate after about 120 days

Erythropoiesis—Process for formation of red blood

cells
 Occurs mainly in the bone marrow
 Stimulated by erythropoietin (EPO)
EPO increases when oxygen levels are low
 Development stages include:
Erythroblasts
Reticulocytes (after nucleus is expelled)

BLOOD TISSUE Blood Type

o Connective Tissue with a liquid matrix
o Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes) – transport oxygen
o White Blood Cells – function in immunity
Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils, T and B
leukocytes, natural killer cells and Monocytes
o Platelets – participate in blood clotting
 Determined by presence or absence of specific
antigens (agglutinogens) on outside surface of RBC
 Antigens are called A, B, and Rh
 Antibodies (agglutinins) in plasma react with foreign
antigens on RBCs
 RBCs clump and break open
 Anti-Rh antibody made after exposure to Rh-
positive blood cells

White Blood Cells (WBCs)

 Also called, leukocytes
 Defend the body against:
 Pathogens
 Toxins
 Abnormal cells
 Damaged cells
WBC Properties
 Perform diapedesis—Push between cells to cross
blood vessel walls and enter the tissues
 Exhibit chemotaxis—Move toward specific
chemicals released by bacteria or injured cells
Consist of two groups:
 Granulocytes (cytoplasmic granules)
 Agranulocytes (no granules)
Three Types of Granulocytes
 Neutrophils
 50–70% of circulating WBCs
 Phagocytic
 Eosinophils
 Less common
 Phagocytic
 Attracted to foreign proteins
 Basophils
 Release histamine
 Promote inflammation
Two Types of Agranulocytes
 Lymphocytes
 Found mostly in lymphatic system
 Provide specific defenses
o Attack foreign cells
o Produce antibodies
o Destroy abnormal (cancer) cells
 Monocytes
 Migrate into tissues
 Become macrophages
 Live as phagocytic amoeba
Production of WBCs in Bone Marrow
 Myeloid stem cells produce:
Hemopoiesis—The cellular pathways by which the  Granulocytes (three types)
formed elements are produced.  Monocytes (future macrophages)
Stem cells (hemocytoblasts)—Cells that divide and  Lymphoid stem cells produce lymphocytes
mature to produce all three classes of formed elements.  Process called, lymphopoiesis
 Lymphocytes enter blood
Red Blood Cells  Migrate to lymphoid tissues
 Also called, erythrocytes or RBCs PLATELETS
 Make up about 45% of whole blood volume  Produced in the bone marrow
 Make up 99.9% of the formed elements  Released from megakaryocytes as cytoplasmic
Red Blood Cell Composition fragments into the blood
 Hemoglobin makes up 95% of RBC protein  Essential to clotting process
 Globular protein composed of four subunits
Each subunit contains: Hemostasis — Processes that stop the loss of blood
 A globin protein chain from a damaged vessel. Largely dependent on platelets
 A molecule of heme and soluble proteins (clotting factors).
 An atom of iron
 A binding site for one oxygen molecule
 Phagocytes recycle hemoglobin from damaged or
dead RBCs
Properties of RBCs Three phases in Hemostasis:
 Transport oxygen and carbon  Vascular phase
 dioxide in blood stream  Local contraction of injured vessel
 Have large surface to volume ratio  Platelet phase
 Speeds up gas loading/unloading  Platelets stick to damaged vessel wall
  Coagulation phase o Numerous mitochondria (up to 40% of cell
 Clotting factors in plasma form blood clot volume)
The Clotting Process Smooth Muscle
 Coagulation pathways require an external trigger  Short, tapering cells
 Extrinsic pathway  No striations
- Triggered by factors released by injured  Involuntary contraction
endothelial cells or peripheral tissues Blood vessels
 Intrinsic pathway Urinary bladder
- Triggered by factors released by platelets stuck Digestive organs
to vessel wall Uterus
 Both pathways lead to common pathway
- Thrombin converts soluble fibrinogen subunits  Fusiform, non-striated cells
to an insoluble polymer, fibrin  Single, centrally-placed nucleus
 Contraction is non-voluntary
 Contraction is modulated in a neuroendocrine
MUSCULAR TISSUES manner
 Found in blood vessels, GI and urogenital organ
- Capable of contraction walls, dermis of skin
Actin filaments
Myosin filaments
Skeletal Muscle
 Long, cylindrical multinucleated cells with
peripherally placed nuclei.
 Contraction is typically quick and vigorous and
under voluntary control.
 Used for locomotion, mastication, and phonation.
 Contains elongated cells (fibers)
o Fibers tied together by loose connective tissue
o Possesses microscopic striations
o Contains many nuclei
o Controlled by voluntary nervous system
o Moves and stabilizes the skeleton
Gross Anatomy of Skeletal Muscles
Connective tissue organization
 Epimysium
 Fibrous covering of whole muscle NERVOUS TISSUE
 Perimysium Neurons = nerve cells
 Fibrous covering of fascicle  Cells specialized to transmit messages
 Endomysium  Major regions of neurons
 Fibrous covering of a single cell (a muscle fiber)  Cell body — nucleus and metabolic center
 Tendons (or aponeurosis) of the cell (main part of nerve cell)
 Processes — fibers that extend from the cell
body
 can be microscopic or up to 3-4 feet in
length
 Dendrites
Information entry
 Cell body
Information integration
 Axon (nerve fibers)
Information transmission
 Synaptic terminals
Information transfer
Microanatomy of a Muscle Fiber Properties of Neural Tissue
 Sarcolemma  Conduct electrical impulses
Muscle cell membrane  Transfer, process, and store information
 Sarcoplasm  Comprises neurons and neuroglia
Muscle cell cytoplasm
 Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)
Like smooth ER
 Myofibrils (contraction organelle)
 Sarcomere—Repeating structural unit
of the myofibril
Components of a sarcomere
 Myofilaments
Thin filaments (mostly actin)
Thick filaments (mostly myosin)
 Z lines at each end
Anchor for thin filaments

Cardiac Muscle
 Only in heart
 Short, branched fibers
 Single nucleus
 Striated
 Involuntary contraction  Cell body
 Blood circulation o Nucleus
 Blood pressure
Tissue Features: o Large nucleolus
 Striated (same contractile machinery)  Processes outside the cell body
 Self-excitatory and electrically coupled o Dendrites — conduct impulses toward the cell
 Rate of contractions modulated by autonomic body
nervous system o Axons — conduct impulses away from the cell
 innervation is neuroendocrine in nature (i.e. no body
“motor end plates”)  Axons end in axonal terminals
Cell Features:  Axonal terminals contain small sacs with
o 1 or 2 centrally placed nuclei neurotransmitters (chemicals)
o Branched fibers with intercalated discs  Axonal terminals are separated from the next neuron
by a gap (they never really touch)
 o Synaptic cleft — gap (space) between adjacent
neurons
o Synapse — junction between nerves
 Myelin sheath — whitish, fatty material covering
axons
 protects/insulates the cells and increases the
transmission rate of nerve impulses
 Schwann cells — produce myelin
 Nodes of Ranvier — gaps in myelin sheath along the
axon
DIFFERENT NEURONAL STRUCTURE

TISSUE INJURIES AND REPAIR

- An injury harms multiple tissues simultaneously
- Tissues make coordinated response
- Responses restore homeostasis
Two response types
Inflammation
Restoration

Tissues Change with Age

 Healing slows
 Epithelia become thinner
 Connective tissues become more fragile
Unipolar  Bones weaken, become brittle
- Dendrite, axon continuous  Neuron and muscle fiber losses accumulate
- Afferent neurons  Lifestyle interventions slow decline
Multipolar
- Many dendrites, one axon
- Most common class of neuron
Bipolar Aging and Cancer Incidence
- One dendrite, one axon  25% develop cancer
- Very rare  Cancer risk rises with age
 After heart disease, cancer second leading cause
of death
 Smoking linked to 40% of cancers
 75% caused by environment

Three Classes of Neurons

 Sensory neurons
 Deliver information to CNS
 Motor neurons
 Stimulate or inhibit peripheral tissues
 Interneurons (association neurons)
 Located between sensory and motor neurons
 Analyze inputs, coordinate outputs
NEUROGLIA
 Provide physical support
 Maintain extracellular chemistry
 Supply nutrients
 Defend against infection
TWO ANATOMICAL DIVISION OF THE
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Central nervous system (CNS)
 Brain
 Spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
 All the neural tissue outside CNS
 Afferent division (sensory input)
 Efferent division (motor output)
Somatic nervous system
Autonomic nervous system