INDEX

 Introduction
 Some common alloys-
i. Brass
ii. Bronze
iii. Duralumin
 Analysis of an alloy
 Experiment
 Uses of alloys
 Bibliography
INTRODUCTION:
An alloy is a mixture of chemical elements, which forms an impure substance (admixture) that
retains the characteristics of a metal. An alloy is distinct from an impure metal in that, with an
alloy, the added elements are well controlled to produce desirable properties, while impure metals
such as wrought iron are less controlled, but are often considered useful. Alloys are made by
mixing two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal. This is usually called the primary
metal or the base metal, and the name of this metal may also be the name of the alloy. The other
constituents may or may not be metals but, when mixed with the molten base, they will
be soluble and dissolve into the mixture. The mechanical properties of alloys will often be quite
different from those of its individual constituents. A metal that is normally very soft (malleable),
such as aluminium, can be altered by alloying it with another soft metal, such as copper.

PREPARATION OF ALLOYS:
Alloys are prepared from the techniques of fusion, compression or simultaneous electro -
deposition. Generally the components are mixed together in proper properties in a fuse clay
crucible, melted and stirred with a piece of charcoal to avoid oxidation. The molten mixture is
now allowed to cool. When an alloy is obtained e.g. brass is prepared by above melted.

ANALYSIS OF AN ALLOY:
The complete analysis of an alloy involves two steps.
1. Qualitative Analysis:
This involves identification of the components of the alloys.
2. Quantitative Analysis:
This involves determination of the components of the alloy. It involves the separation of the
components from the alloy quantitatively followed by determination of percentage of each
component volumetrically or gravimetrically.
In this project we will carry out qualitative analysis only.

Objectives of Project:
In this project, our aim is to know the various metals present in the given sample of brass as alloy.
 Experiment-1

AIM: TO ANALYZE A SAMPLE OF BRASS QUALITATIVELY.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
China dish, test-tube funnel, filter paper and common laboratory reagents.

THEORY:
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc with the following.

COMPOSITION:
Cu = 60-90% and Zn. = 10-40%.
Thus Cu and Zn. form the main constituents of brass. Both these metals dissolved in 50% of nitric
acid due to formation of nitrates which are soluble.
3Cu + 8HNO3 (Dil.) 3Cu (NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O
Cu + 8H+ + 2NO3 3 Cu+2 + 2NO + 4H2O
4Zn + 10HNO3 (Dil.) 4 Zn (NO2)2 + N2O + 5H2O
4Zn + 2NO3- + 10H+ 4 Zn+2 + N2O + 5H2O
The solution is boiled to expel the oxides of nitrogen and the resulting solution is tested for Cu2+
and Zn+2 ions

.PROCEDURE:
1. Place a small piece of brass in a china dish and heat this with minimum quantity of 50%
HNO3 so as to dissolve the piece completely.
2. Continue heating the solution till a dry solid residue is obtained.
3. Dissolve the solid residue in dil. Hydrochloric acid and filter. Add distilled water to the
filtrate.
4. Pass H2S gas through the filtrate. A black precipitate of copper sulphide is obtained.
Separate the black ppt. and keep the filtrate for the test of Zn+2 ions Dissolve black ppt.
by heating them with 50% HNO3. To this solution add ammonium hydroxide solution.
Appearance of deep blue colouration in the solution shows the presence of copper ions in
the solution.
5. To test Zn+2 ions, boil the filtrate to remove H2S gas, then add solid NH4Cl to this and
heat to dissolve NH4Cl. Add excess of NH4OH so that the solution is ammonias. Dirt
white or grey precipitate indicates zinc. Separate the precipitates and dissolve it in
minimum amount of hydrochloric acid.
 6. Boil to expel H2S gas and add potassium Ferro cyanide solution. White or bluish
precipitate occurs which confirms ZN+2 ions in the solution.

RESULT:
The given sample of brass contains copper and zinc metals as the main constituent.

Experiment - 2

AIM: PROJECT REPORT TO ANALYZE A SAMPLE OF BRONZE QUALITATIVELY.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
China dish, test-tube funnel, filter paper and common laboratory reagents.

THEORY:
Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin with the following.

COMPOSITION:
Cu = 88-96% and Sn. = 4-12%.
As copper and zinc form the main constituents of bronze we are dissolving these metals in nitric
acid.

3 Cu + 8H+ + 2NO3 -- 3 Cu2+ + 2NO + 4H2O

4Sn + NO3– + 10 H+ 4 Sn+2 + NH4+ + 3H2O
(Cold and Dil. Acid)
Sn + 4NO3– + 4H+ H2Sn O3 + 2NO2 + H2O
(Metstannic Acid)

Excess of nitric acid is removed by heating the solution. The resulting solution now would contain
Cu+2 ions and Metstannic acid. This solution is acidified with dil. HCl and H2S gas is passed
when the sulphides of copper and tin are formed.

Cu+2 + S2 - CuS (Black ppt.)

H2SnO3 + 2H2S SnS2 (Black ppt.) + 3H2O
The sulphides are separated by boiling the ppt. with yellow ammonium sulphide when SnS2 goes
into solution as thiostannate where as CuS is not affected.

SnS2 + (NH4)2S (NH4)2 SnS2 (Soluble)

(Ammonium thiostannate)
CuS + (NH4)2S CuS (Unaffected)
Black ppt.
The soluble black ppt. is tested for Cu+2 ions and the solution is tested for Sn2+ ions as in
elementary qualitative analysis.

PROCEDURE:

1 Take about 1g. of small pieces of bronze in a china dish and add to it 5-10 ml. of
dil.HNO3
2 Heat the contents slowly to dissolve copper and tin completely and then boil the
contents to a paste to remove excess of HNO3. All this is carried out in cup board.
3 Dissolve this dry mass in distilled water containing HCl (1:1) to get a clear solution.
4 Transfer the solution in a test tube and pass H2S in excess i.e. till the precipitation is
complete. Filter and reject the filtrate.
5 Take the black ppt. in a test tube and add to it 2-3 ml. of yellow ammonium sulphide
and heat. Filter the contents. Black residue is tested for Cu+2 ions and filtrate is tested
for Sn+2 ions.
6 Analysis of black residue :
7 Transfer a little of the black ppt. into a test tube. Add to it 2-3 ml. of 50%. HNO3 and
boil the contents of the tube. A light blue or green sol. indicates the presence of Cu+2.
Divide this sol. into two parts.
8 To one part add excess of NH4OH a deep blue colouration confirms the presence of
Cu+2 ions.
9 Acidify the second part with acetic acid and add K4 [Fe (CN)6] i.e. potassium Ferro
cyanide solution. A reddish brown ppt. confirms the presence of Cu+2 ions.
10 Analysis of filtrate: Boil the filtrate with 1 ml. of dil. HCl. A yellow ppt. is obtained.
Dissolve in 1 ml conc. HCl. To this solution add 0.5 g. of zinc. dust and boil it for 2-3
minutes. Filter and to filtrate add 1-2 ml. of mercuric chloride solution. A white ppt.
turning grey on standing confirms the presence of Sn+4 ions.

RESULT:
 The given sample of bronze contains - Cu and Sn as the main constituents.

Experiment - 3

AIM: TO ANALYZE A SAMPLE OF DURALUMIN QUALITATIVELY.

Materials Required: China dish, test-tube funnel, filter paper and common laboratory reagents.

THEORY:
Duralumin is an alloy of copper and tin with the following.

COMPOSITION:
Al = 95%, Cu = 4%, Mn = 0.5%, Mg = 0.5%
The alloy dissolves in aqua regia. The solution is tested as in an elementary qualitative analysis.

PROCEDURE:
1. Take about 1 g. of duralumin in a china dish. Add to it about 10 ml. of aqua regia (Con. HNO3 :
Con. HCl, 1:3)
2. Heat the contents of china dish strongly till the whole of the alloy dissolves and then slowly to
get a paste.
3. Dissolve the paste in dil. HCl in a test tube. Pass H2S gas in excess through it till the
precipitation is complete. A black ppt. is formed.
4. Filter the solution. Test the black ppt. for copper and filtrate for aluminium.
5. Test of Black ppt. :
Transfer a little of the black ppt. into a test tube. Add to it 2-3 ml. of 50%. HNO3 and boil the
contents of the tube. A light blue or green sol. indicates the presence of Cu+2. Divide this sol. into
two parts.
a) To one part add excess of NH4 OH - a deep blued colouration confirms the presence of Cu+2.
b) Acidify the part with acetic acid and add K4[Fe(CN)6] i.e. potassium ferrocyanide solution. A
reddish brown ppt. confirms the presence of Cu+2 ions.
6) Analysis of filtrate:-
Boil the filtrate till H2S is completely removed. Add a drop of conc. HNO3 and heat add 1g of
solid NH4Cl, warm and cool. Add NH4OH in excess till the solution smells of ammonia - A
gelatinous white ppt in minimum dil. HCl then add a drop of blue litmus solution. Add NH4OH
solution till it smells of ammonia (till it is alkaline).
A blue ppt (lake) floating in the colourless solution confirms the presence of Al3+ ion.

RESULTS
The given sample of duralumin contains - Cu and Al as the main constituents.

Uses of alloys

 To modify chemical reactivity:-

When sodium is used as reducing agent it is too reactive to be used but its alloy with
mercury which is called sodium amalgam can be safely used as reducing agent.
 To increase hardness:-
Hardness of gold is increased by adding copper to it. Also zinc is added to copper to make
copper hard in form of brass.
 To increase tensile strength:-
Nickel alloy, an alloy of Nickel (1%), Copper (4%) and aluminium (95%) has high tensile
strength.
 To lower the melting point:-
Solder metal which is an alloy of tin (30%) and lead (70%) has very less meting point as
compared to melting points of tin and lead.
 To modify the colour:-
Aluminium bronze an alloy of Cu and Al has beautiful golden colour.
 To resist corrosion:-
Iron gets rusted and corroded. Its corrosion takes place with time but stainless steel, an
alloy of iron and carbon get not rusted.
BRASS

Brass is a binary alloy composed of copper (50-90%) and zinc that has been produced for
millennia and is valued for workability , hardness, corrosion resistance, and attractive appearance.

Properties

 Alloy Type: Binary

 Content: Copper & Zinc
 Density: 8.3-8.7 g/cm3
 Melting Point: 1652-1724 °F (900-940 °C)

Characteristics

The exact properties of different brasses depend on the composition of the brass alloy, particularly
the copper-zinc ratio. In general, however, all brasses are valued for their mechanical ability or the
ease with which the metal can be formed into desired shapes and forms while retaining high
strength.

While there are differences between brasses with high and low zinc contents, all brasses are
considered malleable and ductile (low zinc brasses more so). Due to its low melting point, brass
can also be cast relatively easily. However, for casting applications, a high zinc content is usually
preferred.

Brasses with a lower zinc content can be easily cold worked, welded and brazed. A high copper
content also allows the metal to form a protective oxide layer (patina) on its surface that guards
against further corrosion, a valuable property in applications that expose the metal to moisture and
weathering.

The metal has both good heat and electrical conductivity (its electrical conductivity can be from
23% to 44% that of pure copper), and it is wear and spark resistant. Like copper, its bacteria
resistant properties have resulted in its use in bathroom fixtures and healthcare facilities.

Brass is considered a low friction and non-magnetic alloy, while its acoustic properties have
resulted in its use in many 'brass band' musical instruments. Artists and architects value the metal's
aesthetic properties, as it can be produced in a range of colours, from deep red to golden yellow.
Applications

Brass's valuable properties and relative ease of production have made it one of the most widely
used alloys. Compiling a complete list of all of brass' applications would be a colossal task, but to
get an idea of industries and the types of products in which brass is found we can categorize and
summarize some end-uses based on the grade of brass used:

 Nuts, bolts, threaded parts

 Terminals
 Jets
 Taps
 Injectors
 Artefacts

BRONZE
Brass is a metal alloy that is always made with a combination of copper and zinc. By varying the
amount of copper (60-90%), tin (5-35%), lead , iron and zinc, brass can be made harder or softer.
Other metals—such as aluminium, lead, and arsenic—may be used as alloying agents to improve
mechanical ability and corrosion resistance.

Characteristics

By adding different metals to brass, it is possible to change its properties. It can become
yellower, harder, softer, stronger, or more corrosion-resistant, depending upon its chemical
composition. For example:

Brass is usually a warm golden colour. The addition of 1 percent manganese, however,
will turn brass to a warm chocolate-brown colour, while nickel will make it silver.

Lead often is added to brass to make it softer and thus more malleable .Arsenic may be
added to make brass more stable in certain environments .Tin can help to make brass
stronger and harder.
Uses of Brass

Brass is a popular metal for applications that are both practical and decorative. Items like
door handles, lamps, and ceiling fixtures like lights and fans are examples of practical uses
that also serve a decorative purpose. Aside from being attractive, brass also is resistant to
bacteria, making it that much more useful for fixtures like door handles that multiple
people touch frequently. Some uses, such as figures atop bedposts, are strictly decorative.

Many musical instruments also are made of brass because it is a very workable metal and
can be formed into the sorts of precise shapes necessary for horns, trumpets, trombones,
and tubas. These instruments, collectively, are commonly known as the brass section of an
orchestra.

Because of its low friction and resistance to corrosion, brass also is popular hardware for
plumbing fixtures and other building supplies. Pipe fittings, nuts, and bolts are often made
of brass to take advantage of its characteristics. Shell casings for ammunition also are a
popular use for brass, largely because of its low friction.

Brass also is highly ductile, meaning it can be formed into a lot of shapes, making it a
popular alloy for use in precision instruments, such as gauges and clocks.

DURALUMIN
Duralumin, strong, hard, lightweight alloy of aluminium, widely used in aircraft
construction,