` BIOLOGY

CHAPTER 6
STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS
 In unicellular organisms, all functions like ANIMAL TISSUES
digestion, respiration and reproduction are Animal cells vary in their structure and shape according to
performed by a single cell. the function they perform. Therefore, the tissues are
 A multicellular organism has millions of cells. The different and are broadly classified into four types:
cells of a particular type assemble together and 1. Epithelial tissue: it covers the free surface of other
perform a specific function. These groups of cells tissues.
having similar structure and function are called 2. Connective tissue: It joints, supports and holds
tissues. other tissues together.
In multicellular animals, a group of similar cells 3. Muscular tissue: It causes the movement of
along with intercellular substances perform a skeleton and internal organs by contraction and
specific function. Such an organization is called relaxation.
tissue. 4. Nervous tissue: It transmits messages in the form
 Extracellular or intercellular fluid: The individual of impulses.
cells in a tissue are surrounded by extracellular Cell junctions
fluid. The extracellular fluid binds the cells of a In nearly all animal tissues, specialised junctions provide
tissue together. The nature and amount of this fluid both structural and functional links between its individual
varies from tissue to tissue. In some tissues, it may cells. Three types of cell junctions are found in the tissues.
be present in large amount, while in others it may 1. Tight junctions: Tight junctions help to stop
be negligible. substances from leaking across a tissue.
 These tissues are organised or grouped to form an 2. Adhering junctions: Adhering junctions
organ like stomach, lung, heart and kidney. Each perform cementing to keep neighbouring cells
organ in our body is made of one or more type of together.
tissues. For example, our heart consists of all the 3. Gap junctions. Gap junctions facilitate the cells
four types of tissues, i.e., epithelial, connective, to communicate with each other by connecting
muscular and neural. the cytoplasm of adjoining cells, for rapid
 When two or more organs interact in a coordinated transfer of ions, small molecules and
manner to perform a common function, they sometimes big molecules.
together form organ system, e.g., digestive system, EPITHELIAL TISSUE
respiratory system, etc.  We commonly refer to an epithelial tissue as
 A complex organism is a result of the cooperative epithelium (pl.: epithelia).
and integrated activities of various organ systems.  Epithelial tissue covers the external surface of the
body and lines the internal surface of the hollow
visceral organs. They line the body cavities, the
cavities of hollow body organs and various ducts.
They also form the inner lining of blood vessels.
They are basically protective in function.
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 The cells are compactly packed with little
intercellular matrix.
 Epithelial cells rest on a non-cellular basement
membrane, which separates the epithelium from the
underlying connective tissue.
 There is no blood vessel supplying the epithelial
tissue; it receives nutrients from the underlying
connective tissue.
 There are two types of epithelial tissues namely
simple epithelium and compound epithelium.
1. Simple epithelium: Simple epithelium is
composed of a single layer of cells and
functions as a lining for body cavities, ducts,
and tubes.
2. The compound epithelium consists of two or
more cell layers and has protective function as
it does in our skin.
SIMPLE EPITHELIUM
On the basis of structural modification of the cells, simple
epithelium is further divided into three types.
a. Squamous epithelium:
o The squamous epithelium is made of a
single thin layer of flattened cells with
irregular boundaries.
o They are found in the walls of blood
vessels, Bowman’s capsule of the nephron
and air sacs (alveoli) of lungs.
o The squamous epithelium lining the blood
vessels is called endothelium.
o Squamous epithelia are involved
functions like diffusion, osmosis and
filtration.
b. Cuboidal epithelium or cubical epithelium:
o The cuboidal epithelium is composed of a
single layer of cube-like cells.
o This is commonly found in ducts of glands
and tubular parts of nephrons in kidneys.
o Its main functions are secretion and
absorption.
o The cuboidal epithelium of proximal
convoluted tubule (PCT) of nephron in the
kidney has microvilli (short protoplasmic
projections). This gives a brush-like
appearance. Such epithelium is called
brush-bordered epithelium. Microvilli
increases surface area of cell and thereby
increase the rate of absorption.
c. Columnar
o The columnar epithelium is composed of a
single layer of tall and slender cells. The
cells are much taller than wide.
o Their nuclei are located at the base.
o Free surface may have microvilli.
o They are found in the lining of stomach
and intestine and help in secretion and
absorption.
Modifications of epithelial tissue
1. Ciliated epithelium:
o If the columnar or cuboidal cells bear cilia
on their free surface they are called
ciliated epithelium.
o Their function is to move particles or
mucus in a specific direction over the
in
epithelium.
o They are mainly present in the inner
surface of hollow organs like bronchioles
and fallopian tubes.
o
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2. Glandular epithelium:
o Some of the columnar or cuboidal cells
get specialised for secretion and are called
glandular epithelium.
o They are mainly of two types: unicellular
gland and multicellular gland.
Unicellular gland (simple gland):
consisting of isolated glandular cells
(goblet cells of the alimentary canal)
Multicellular gland (compound gland):
consisting of cluster of cells (salivary
gland).
o On the basis of the mode of pouring of
their secretions, glands (multicellular
glands) are divided into two categories
namely exocrine and endocrine glands.
Exocrine glands:
The glands which conduct their secretions
through their ducts to the sites of action
are called exocrine glands or ducted
glands.
For example: salivary glands, sweat
glands, mammary glands, liver etc.
Exocrine glands secrete mucus, saliva,
earwax, oil, milk, digestive enzymes and
other cell products.
Endocrine glands:
Endocrine glands do not have ducts.
Their products are called hormones.
Hormones are secreted directly into blood.
Thus hormones reach their sites of action
through blood.
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For example: pituitary, thymus, thyroid
etc.
COMPOUND EPITHELIUM
 Compound epithelium is made of more than one
layer (multi-layered) of cells and thus has a limited
role in secretion and absorption.
 Their main function is to provide protection against
chemical and mechanical stresses. They cover the
dry surface of the skin, the moist surface of buccal
cavity, pharynx, inner lining of ducts of salivary
glands and of pancreatic ducts.
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Connective tissues are most abundant tissue and
widely distributed in the body of animals.
 They are named connective tissues because of their
special function of linking and supporting other
tissues/organs of the body.
 There are three major components in a connective
tissue:
(i) Cells (ii) Fibres (iii) Matrix
Cells
They are of four different types, namely fibroblasts, mast
cells, adipose cells and macrophages.
 Fibroblasts
o Fibroblasts are irregularly shaped flat cells
with long protoplasmic processes.
o They are concerned with the formation of
fibres and matrix.
o Tendon cells, ligament cells, chondrocytes
(cartilage cells) and osteocytes (bone
cells) are all modified fibroblasts.
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 Mast cells
o Mast cells are irregularly ovoid cells.
o They secrete histamine, heparin and
serotonin.
o Histamine is an inflammation-producing
substance. It is involved in allergic and
inflammatory reactions.
 Adipose cells or adipocytes
Adipose cells are large, spherical, fat-filled cells.
These cells store fats.
 Macrophages
Macrophages are large amoeboid cells that
phagocytose and destroy microbes, foreign
particles and cells of the damaged tissues.
Fibres
 These fibres are distributed along with the cells in
the matrix. The fibres provide strength, elasticity
and flexibility to the tissue.
 The fibroblasts secrete fibres. The fibres are
extracellular materials formed of insoluble proteins
and are found in the matrix of the connective
tissue. Fibres are of two types- collagen fibres and
elastin fibres.
Collagen fibres
They are composed of collagen protein. They are
tough, long and unbranched fibres. They are
flexible but non-elastic. They are arranged in
bundles.
Elastin fibres
They are composed of elastin protein. They are
long and branched fibres, which are flexible and
elastic. They are arranged singly.
Matrix
 A characteristic feature of the connective tissue is
the presence of a large amount of matrix.
4 w w w. r a y s e d u c a t i o n. o r g
 It is a transparent substance in which cells and
fibres are embedded.
 The fibroblasts secrete matrix.
 It consists of modified polysaccharides
(mucopolysaccharides).
 The matrix may be loose or dense, soft or hard,
flexible or rigid, and may also be a fluid. In blood,
the matrix is a fibre-free fluid whereas in bones it is
dense, mineralized and rigid, solid substance.
CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
Connective tissues are classified into three types:
1. Loose connective tissue,
2. Dense connective tissue
3. Specialised connective tissue
LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 It is the simplest connective tissue. The matrix is
less dense. The fibres are loosely arranged in the
matrix.
 It is of two types- areolar tissue and adipose tissue.
Areolar tissue
 Areolar tissue present beneath the skin. Often it
serves as a support framework for epithelium. It
fills up spaces between adjacent tissues and holds
organs together in different parts of the body. Thus,
it helps to maintain organs in normal shape.
 It contains fibroblasts (cells that produce and
secrete fibres), macrophages and mast cells.
Fibroblasts are the chief cells of this tissue.
 Fibroblasts produce collagen and elastin fibres.

 Cells and fibres are distributed in the matrix. The
matrix is transparent semi-fluid. The matrix-filled
spaces inbetween the cells and fibres are called
areolae, hence the name, areolar tissue.
Adipose tissue
 Adipose tissue or fatty tissue is composed of
abundant adipose cells and fewer fibroblasts, and
macrophages. The adipocytes are specialised to
store fats.
 The excess of nutrients which are not used
immediately are converted into fats and are stored
in this tissue.
 It consists of collagen fibres and elastin fibres.
 Adipose tissue is located mainly beneath the skin.
It store fat. It prevents heat loss by forming a heat-
insulating layer beneath the skin.
DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 The matrix is dense. The fibres are arranged
densely in the matrix.
 Fibres (mainly collagen) and cells (mainly
fibroblasts) are compactly packed in the matrix.
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 Orientation of fibres shows a regular or irregular
pattern and is of two types- dense regular and dense
irregular tissues.
Dense regular connective tissues
 In the dense regular connective tissues, the
collagen fibres are present in rows between many
parallel bundles of fibres.
 It is of two types- tendon and ligaments.
Tendon
 Collagen fibres are arranged in thick parallel
bundles.
 The adjacent bundles are separated from each other
by a single row of tendon cells. Tendon cells are
modified fibroblasts.
 Tendon occurs at the end of skeletal muscles, and
serves to attach them strongly to bones.
Ligament
 Collagen and elastic fibres are present (mainly
collagen fibres). Ligament cells (modified
fibroblasts) are seen in between the fibres.
 Ligaments attach one bone to another.
Dense irregular connective tissue
 Dense irregular connective tissue has fibroblasts
and many fibres (mostly collagen) that are oriented
differently. This tissue is present in the skin.
SPECIALISED CONNECTIVE TISSUES
 Cartilage, bones and blood are various types of
specialised connective tissues.
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Cartilage
 It is a solid, semi-rigid and pliable/flexible
connective tissue.
 The matrix contains a protein called chondrin.
The fibres are embedded in the matrix.
In the matrix there are many fluid-filled spaces
called lacunae.
Each lacuna contains 2 or 3 chondrocytes.
Chondrocytes are modified fibroblasts.
The chondrocytes secrete the matrix.
Blood vessels are absent the matrix. So, exchange
of materials between the chondrocytes and matrix
is by diffusion.
Cartilage is covered by a dense connective tissue
sheath called perichondrium.
 On the basis of the fibre content in the matrix
cartilage is classified into three types-
a. Hyaline cartilage
o In hyaline cartilage, the matrix is fibreless,
glass-like (hyaline) and transparent.
o It is most abundant type of cartilage in the
human body.
o It is present in the tracheal rings, larynx,
nasal septum, various joints etc.
o It forms major part of skeleton in
cartilaginous fishes.
b. Fibrous cartilage-
o In fibrous cartilage, matrix contains
dense collagen fibres.
o It is present in between the adjacent
vertebrae in the vertebral column. It is
also present in pubic symphysis.
c. Elastic cartilage-
o The matrix contains a network of
elastin fibres.
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o The elastic cartilage is flexible and
highly elastic.
o It is present in epiglottis, eustachian
tube, tip of the nose and pinna of the
ear.
 Most of the cartilages in vertebrate embryos are
replaced by bones in adults.
Bones
 It is a solid, rigid and strong connective tissue.
 Bones have a hard and non-pliable matrix rich in
calcium salts and collagen fibres which give bone
its strength.
 Bone is composed of many column-like cylindrical
microscopic units called Haversian systems.
In the centre of each system there is a longitudinal
canal called Haversian canal. Harvesian canals
carry blood vessel and nerves.
The matrix of the bone is solid and is arranged in
the form of concentric rings called lamellae around
the Haversian canal.
The bony lamellae contain fluid-filled irregular
spaces called bone lacunae. The lacuna has minute
radiating canals called canaliculi.
Each lacuna contains a bone cell (osteocyte).
Osteocytes are modified fibroblasts. Haversian
canals of two adjacent Haversian systems are
interconnected by transverse canals called
Volkman’s canals.
Bone is covered externally by a connective tissue
called periosteum.

 On the basis of nature of the matrix present, bones
are classified into two types. They are spongy
bones and compact bones.
a. A compact bone
Compact bone forms outer layer of bones.
Compact bone surrounds the spongy bone.
It consists of Haversian systems.
Long compact bones have yellow bone
marrow. The yellow bone marrow stores fats.
b. Spongy bone
Spongy bone forms inner layer of bones. It is
present in the deeper central parts of the bones.
It does not have the organisation of Haversian
system.
Spongy bones have red bone marrow. The red
bone marrow produces blood cells.
 Bones serve the following functions:
o It is the main tissue that provides
structural frame to the body.
o Bones support and protect softer tissues
and organs.
o Limb bones, such as the long bones of the
legs, serve weight-bearing functions.
o They also interact with skeletal muscles
attached to them to bring about
movements.
o The bone marrow in some bones is the site
of production of blood cells.
Blood
 Blood is a fluid connective tissue.
 It contains plasma, red blood cells (RBC), white
blood cells (WBC) and platelets.
 It is the main circulating fluid that helps in the
transport of various substances.
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MUSCLE TISSUE
Each muscle tissue is made up of several cells called muscle
cells. The muscle cells are thin and elongated, and so they
are called muscle fibres.
Muscles are classified into three types based on their
location:
1. Skeletal
 Skeletal muscles are closely associated
with the skeleton of the body. They are
attached to the bones by tendons.
 Each muscle is made of many long,
unbranched, cylindrical muscle fibres.
Skeletal muscle fibres are multinucleated.
 They have a striped appearance under the
microscope and hence are called striated
muscles.
 Their activities are under the voluntary
control of the nervous system, and hence
also known as voluntary muscles.
 They are primarily involved in locomotory
actions and changes of body postures. In
general, skeletal muscles play an active
role in all the movements of the body.
2. Visceral
 Visceral muscles are located in the wall of
internal organs such as the blood vessels,
urinary bladder, uterus, stomach and
intestine.
 They do not exhibit any striation and are
smooth in appearance. Hence, they are
called smooth muscles (nonstriated
muscle).
 The smooth muscle fibres are thin,
elongated, spindle-shaped cells with
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tapering ends (fusiform). They are  Neurons are the structural and functional unit of
arranged parallel to each other and they neural system.
are bundled together in a connective tissue  Besides neurons, nervous tissues also contain
sheath. Visceral muscle fibres are neuroglial cells. Neuroglial cells protect and
uninucleated. support neurons. Neuroglia makes up more than
 Their activities are not under the voluntary one-half the volume of neural tissue in our body.
control of the nervous system and are NEURON OR NERVE CELL
therefore known as involuntary muscles.  Neuron is the structural and functional unit of
 They assist in the transportation of food neural system.
through the digestive tract and gametes  Neurons represent the longest cells in the body.
through the genital tract.
 Neuron does not divide at all after its formation
3. Cardiac
because they lack centrosome.
 Cardiac muscles are the muscles of heart.
Structure of neuron
 Many cardiac muscle cells assemble in a
branching pattern to form a cardiac
muscle.
 Cardiac muscle fibres are uninucleated.
 Cell junctions fuse the plasma membranes
of cardiac muscle cells and make them
stick together. Communication junctions
(intercalated discs) at some fusion points
allow the cells to contract as a unit, i.e.,
when one cell receives a signal to contract,
its neighbours are also stimulated to
contract.
 Based on appearance, cardiac muscles are
striated.
 They are involuntary in nature as the
nervous system does not control their
activities directly.
A neuron is a microscopic structure composed of three

NEURAL TISSUE (NERVOUS TISSUE) major parts: cell body, dendrons and axon.

 Nervous tissues are specialised tissues, which can 1. Cell body/cyton/soma- The cell body contains the

receive stimuli and transmit messages. They have nucleus and cytoplasm. The cytoplasm contains

special property of excitability and conductivity. typical cell organelles and certain granular bodies

Excitability is the ability to initiate nerve impulse called Nissl’s granules. The Nissl’s granules are

in response to stimuli. Conductivity means the irregular masses of rough endoplasmic reticulum.

ability to transmit a nerve impulse. 2. Dendron- Short fibres which project out of the cell
body are called dendrons. These fibres transmit

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impulses towards the cell body. Dendrons also EARTHWORM

contain Nissl’s granules. Dendrons branch  Earthworm is a reddish brown terrestrial
repeatedly and are called dendrites. invertebrate that inhabits the upper layer of the
3. Axon- The axon is a long process, the distal end of moist soil.
which is branched. Each branch terminates as a  During day time, they live in burrows made by
bulb-like structure called synaptic knob which boring and swallowing the soil.
possess synaptic vesicles containing chemicals
 In the gardens, they can be traced by their faecal
called neurotransmitters. The axons transmit nerve
deposits known as worm castings.
impulses away from the cell body.
 The common Indian earthworms are Pheretima and
The axonal ends form junctions with dendrite of
Lumbricus.
next neuron to form a synapse. The axon does not
MORPHOLOGY
have Nissl’s granules.
 Earthworms have long cylindrical body. The body
The part of cell body from where the axon arises is
is divided into 100-120 short segments called
called axon hillock. It is the most sensitive part of
metameres. The segments are separated externally
the neuron.
by grooves (annuli) and internally by septa.
Based on the presence or absence of myelin sheath, there are
 The dorsal surface of the body is marked by a dark
two types of neurons,
median mid dorsal line (dorsal blood vessel) along
1. Myelinated- The myelinated neurons are enveloped
the longitudinal axis of the body.
with Schwann cells, which form a myelin sheath
The ventral surface is distinguished by the presence
around the axon. The gaps between two adjacent
of genital openings (pores).
myelin sheaths are called nodes of Ranvier.
 Anterior end consists of the mouth and the
2. Nonmyelinated- Unmyelinated neurons is enclosed
prostomium, a lobe which serves as a covering for
by a Schwann cell that does not form a myelin
the mouth and as a wedge to force open cracks in
sheath around the axon,
the soil into which the earthworm may crawl. The
Anatomy: Field of biology concerned with study of size,
prostomium is sensory in function.
shape and structure of internal structures of body.
 The first body segment is called the peristomium
Morphology: Field of biology concerned with study of
(buccal segment) which contains the mouth.
external structures of body.
Physiology: Study of the function of body parts. Physiology  In a mature worm, segments 14-16 are covered by

deals with the working of the body parts and their specific a prominent dark band of glandular tissue called

roles. clitellum. Thus the body is divisible into three

For example prominent regions – preclitellar, clitellar and

Anatomy of heart means, structure of heart, its chambers, postclitellar segments.

arteries, veins, the valves, etc…  Four pairs of spermathecal apertures are situated on

Physiology means how the pumping of the blood is done by the ventro-lateral sides of the intersegmental

heart. grooves, i.e., 5th -9th segments (5/6, 6/7, 7/8 and 8/9
segments). These help in receiving the sperms at
the time of copulation.


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 A single female genital pore is present in the mid-
ventral line of 14th segment. Eggs are released
through this opening.
 A pair of male genital pores is present on the
ventro-lateral sides of the 18th segment.
Spermatophores are released through this opening.
 Numerous minute pores called nephridiopores open
on the surface of the body. Nitrogenous wastes are
discharged through them.
 In the middle of each body segment, except the
first, last and clitellum, there is a ring of S-shaped
bristle-like structures known as setae. Their
principal role is in locomotion.
ANATOMY
BODY WALL
The body wall is formed of 5 layers
1. Cuticle- The thin non-cellular layer forming the
outermost part of the body wall.
2. Epidermis- Below cuticle is the epidermis. The
epidermis is made up of a single layer of columnar
epithelial cells which contain secretory gland cells.
3. Two muscle layers- Below the epidermis, there are
two muscle layers (outer circular and inner
longitudinal).
4. Coelomic epithelium- The innermost epithelial
layer of the body wall.
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DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 The food of the earthworm is decaying leaves and
organic matter mixed with soil.
 The alimentary canal is a straight tube and
extending from first to last segment of the body.
a. A terminal mouth opens into the buccal cavity
(1-3 segments).
b. Buccal cavity leads into muscular pharynx (4th
segment).
c. Oesophagus (5-7 segments)
d. Oesophagus continues into a muscular gizzard
(8-9 segments). It helps in grinding the soil
particles and decaying leaves, etc.
e. The stomach extends from 9-14 segments.
Calciferous glands, present in the stomach,
neutralise the humic acid present in humus.
f. Intestine starts from the 15th segment onwards
and continues till the last segment.
A pair of short and conical intestinal caecae
project from the intestine on the 26th segment.
The characteristic feature of the intestine after
26th segment except the last 23rd-25th segments
is the presence of internal median fold of
dorsal wall called typhlosole. This increases
the effective area of absorption in the intestine.
The alimentary canal opens to the exterior by a
small rounded aperture called anus. Insoluble
and undigested food is removed along with soil
particles, through the anus, as worm castings.
 The ingested organic rich soil passes through the
digestive tract where digestive enzymes breakdown
complex food into smaller absorbable units. These
simpler molecules are absorbed through intestinal
membranes and are utilised.
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2. Ventral blood vessel- it also extends from one

end of the body to the other. The blood flows
in this vessel from anterior to posterior end.
The ventral blood vessel does not have valves.
It is a main distributing blood vessel.
3. Subneural vessel- it runs from the posterior
end of the body upto the 14th segment infront.
It collects blood from the body wall and the
nerve cord. The blood thus collected is sent to
the dorsal blood vessel through commissural
vessels.
4. Lateral oesophageal blood vessels- these are
paired blood vessels lying one on either
ventrolateral side of alimentary canal between
the body wall and alimentary canal in the first
fourteen segments. Both the lateral
oesophageal vessels are continuation of the
sub-neural vessel in the 14th segment.
5. Supra-oesophageal blood vessel- it is a single
vessel which lies on the dorsal side of
alimentary canal between the 9th and the 13th
BLOOD VASCULAR SYSTEM segments. It receives blood from the lateral
 Pheretima exhibits a closed type of blood vascular oesophageals through two pairs of anterior
system, consisting of blood vessels, capillaries and loops and pour into two pairs of latero-
heart. Due to closed circulatory system, blood is oesophageal hearts present in the 12th and 13th
confined to the heart and blood vessels. segments.

 Blood glands are present on the 4th, 5th and 6th  Hearts and anterior loops
segments. They produce blood cells and Four pairs of pulsatile hearts are present in the 7 th,
haemoglobin. 9th, 12th and 13th segments. These hearts are
Haemoglobin is dissolved in blood plasma. provided with valves. Contractions of the heart
Only leucocytes are present in the plasma. Blood keep the blood circulating in one direction.
cells are phagocytic in nature. The anterior two pairs of hearts, known as lateral

 Blood vessels hearts lie in the 7th and 9th segments. They receive

1. Dorsal blood vessel- it extends from one end blood from the dorsal blood vessel and convey it to

of the body to the other. The blood flows in ventral blood vessel.

this vessel from behind to forward on the The posterior two pairs of hearts are called latero-

dorsal side of alimentary canal. The dorsal oesophageal hearts and are situated in the 12th and

blood vessel has valves which prevent the 13th segments. Latero-oesophageal hearts carry

backward flow of blood.

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blood from the dorsal vessel and the supra 2.
oesophageal vessel to the ventral blood vessel.
There are present two pairs of loop like vessels, the
anterior loops in the 10th and 11th segments. They 3.
have no valves. They carry blood from the lateral
oesophageal vessels to the supra oesophageal
vessel.
Integumentary nephridia- attached to lining of
the body wall of segment 3 to the last that open
on the body surface
Pharyngeal nephridia, present as three paired
tufts in the 4th, 5th and 6th segments. They open
into the pharynx.

RESPIRATION
 Earthworms lack specialised breathing devices.
 Respiratory exchange occurs through moist body
surface into their blood stream. It is called
cutaneous respiration.
EXCRETORY ORGANS
 The excretory organs occur as segmentally
NERVOUS SYSTEM
arranged coiled tubules called nephridia (sing.:
 A pair of cerebral ganglia are fused to form a brain,
nephridium).
that lies in the anterior and dorsal part of the third
 Nephridia regulate the volume and composition of
segment.
the body fluids.
 It is connected to two sub-pharyngeal ganglia,
 A nephridium starts out as a funnel that collects
lying below the pharynx, with the help of a pair of
excess fluid from coelomic chamber. The funnel
circum-pharyngeal connectives, that form a nerve
connects with a tubular part of the nephridium
ring.
which delivers the wastes through a pore to the
 The nerve cord starts from the sub-pharyngeal
surface in the body wall or into the digestive tube.
ganglion and lies mid ventrally upto the last
 They are of three types. These different types of
segment. It is formed by the fusion of two ventral
nephridia are basically similar in structure.
nerve cords, and so, is double in nature. It is solid
1. Septal nephridia- present on both the sides of
as there is no cavity in it. In each segment, the
intersegmental septa of segment 15 to the last
nerve cord bears a segmental ganglion (resulting
that open into intestine.
from the fusion of two ganglia from each nerve
cord). So, the nerve cord is ganglionated.


12 w w w. r a y s e d u c a t i o n. o r g
 ` BIOLOGY

o Prostate glands- a single pair, in the 18th

and 19th segment. Each open out by a
prostate duct through the male genital pore
in the 18th segment.
o Accessory glands- Two pairs of accessory
glands are present one pair each in the 17th
and 19th segments.
 Female reproductive organs
o Ovaries- One pair of ovaries is attached at
the inter-segmental septum of the 12th and
13th segments.
o Ovarian funnels- A single pair. Ovarian
SENSORY SYSTEM funnels are present beneath the ovaries.

 Sensory system does not have eyes but does o Oviducts- Ovarian funnels continue into

possess light and touch sensitive organs (receptor oviduct. Oviducts join together and open

cells) to distinguish the light intensities and to feel on the ventral side as a single median

the vibrations in the ground. female genital pore on the 14th segment.

 Worms have specialised chemoreceptors (taste o Spermathecae- Four pairs of spermathecal

receptors) which react to chemical stimuli. apertures are situated on the ventro-lateral
sides of the intersegmental grooves, i.e.,
 These sense organs are located on the anterior part
5th -9th segments (5/6, 6/7, 7/8 and 8/9
of the worm.
segments). They receive and store
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
spermatozoa during copulation.
 Earthworm is hermaphrodite (bisexual), i.e., testes
and ovaries are present in the same individual.
 Male reproductive organs
o Testes- There are two pairs of testes
present in the 10th and 11th segments.
o Seminal vesicles- two pairs. Each pair in
segments 9 and 12.
o Semiducal funnels- two pairs. Each pair in
segments 10 and 11.
o Vas deferens- two pairs. Each vas
deferens arises from a semiducal funnel.
The two vasa deferentia of each side unite
in the 12th segment and extend upto 18th
segment and open out commonly with the
prostate duct, through the male genital
pore.

w w w. r a y s e d u c a t i o n. o r g 13
BIOLOGY

 Fertilization ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

o Though a hermaphrodite, the earthworm is
 Earthworms are known as ‘friends of farmers’
unable to fertilize its own eggs. So, cross
because they make burrows in the soil and make it
fertilization occurs.
o A mutual exchange of sperm occurs
porous which helps in respiration and penetration
between two worms during mating.
of the developing plant roots. The process of
o Two worms lie ventrally, close together in
increasing fertility of soil by the earthworms is
opposite directions, with the male genital
called vermicomposting.
pores of one worm facing the
 They are also used as bait in game fishing.
spermathecal pores of the other.
Spermatozoa are passed from each worm
COCKROACH
into the spermathecae of the other. The
 Cockroaches are animals that are included in class
worms then separate.
Insecta of Phylum Arthropoda.
o When the ovaries mature, the clitellum
secretes a cocoon. Eggs are laid into the  The common species of cockroach is Periplaneta

cocoon through the female genital pore. americana.

The worm then wriggles the anterior part  They are nocturnal omnivores that live in damp

of its body through the cocoon. As the places throughout the world.

cocoon passes over the spermathecae, the  They have become residents of human homes and

stored sperms are shed over the eggs in the thus are serious pests and vectors of several

cocoon. diseases.
MORPHOLOGY
 Cockroaches are brown or black bodied animals.
Bright yellow, red and green coloured cockroaches
have also been reported in tropical regions.
 Their size ranges from ¼ inches to 3 inches (0.6-

o Fertilisation and development occur 7.6 cm). The adults of the common species of

within the cocoons. cockroach, Periplaneta americana are about 34-53

o Cocoon then slips off the worm and is mm (3.4 to 5.3 cm) long.

deposited in or on the soil. The cocoon  They have long antenna, legs and flat extension of

holds the worm embryos. After about 3 the upper body wall that conceals head.

weeks, each cocoon produces two to  The entire body is covered by a hard chitinous
twenty baby worms with an average of exoskeleton (brown in colour). In each segment,
four. exoskeleton has hardened plates called sclerites
 Development of earthworms is direct, i.e., there is (tergites dorsally and sternites ventrally) that are

no larva formed. joined to each other by a thin and flexible articular

membrane (arthrodial membrane).

14 w w w. r a y s e d u c a t i o n. o r g
 ` BIOLOGY

 Anterior end of the head bears appendages forming

biting and chewing type of mouth parts. The
mouthparts consisting of a labrum (upper lip), a
pair of mandibles, a pair of maxillae and a labium
(lower lip). A median flexible lobe, acting as
tongue (hypopharynx), lies within the cavity
enclosed by the mouthparts.

 The body of the cockroach is segmented and

divisible into three distinct regions – head, thorax
and abdomen.
Head
 Head is triangular in shape and lies anteriorly at
right angles to the longitudinal body axis. Thorax
 It is formed by the fusion of six segments and  Thorax consists of three parts – prothorax,
shows great mobility in all directions due to mesothorax and metathorax.
flexible neck.  The head is connected with thorax by a short
 The head capsule (all sclerites of the head are fused extension of the prothorax known as the neck. The
to form a head capsule) bears a pair of compound tergite of prothorax is also called pronotum.
eyes. Each compound eye has a large number of  Each thoracic segment bears a pair of walking legs.
ommatidia. A compound eye produces a mosaic There are three pairs of legs.
vision.
 There are two pairs of wings. The first pair of
In between the compound eyes are two
wings arises from mesothorax and the second pair
undeveloped ocelli (singular: ocellus) or simple
from metathorax.
eyes that are sensitive to light but cannot form
images.

Forewings (mesothoracic) called tegmina are

 A pair of thread like antennae arises from
opaque dark and leathery and cover the hind wings
membranous sockets lying in front of eyes.
when at rest.
Antennae have sensory receptors that help in
monitoring the environment.
w w w. r a y s e d u c a t i o n. o r g 15
BIOLOGY

The hind wings are transparent, membranous and  The mouth opens into a short tubular pharynx,
are used in flight. leading to a narrow tubular passage called
oesophagus.
 Oesophagus opens into a sac like structure called
crop used for storing of food.
 The crop is followed by gizzard or proventriculus.
It has an outer layer of thick circular muscles and
thick inner cuticle forming six highly chitinous
plate called teeth. Gizzard helps in grinding the
food particles.
 Foregut leads into the midgut. A ring of 6-8 blind
tubules called hepatic or gastric caeca is present at
Abdomen
the junction of foregut and midgut, which secrete
 The abdomen in both males and females consists of digestive juice.
10 segments.
 Midgut leads into the hindgut. At the junction of
 In females, the 7th sternum is boat shaped and midgut and hindgut is present another ring of 100-
th th
together with the 8 and 9 sterna forms a brood or 150 yellow coloured thin filamentous Malpighian
genital pouch whose anterior part contains female tubules. They help in removal of excretory
gonopore, spermathecal pores and collateral glands. products from haemolymph.
 In males, genital pouch or chamber lies at the hind  The hindgut is broader than midgut and is
end of abdomen bounded dorsally by 9th and 10th differentiated into ileum, colon and rectum.
terga and ventrally by the 9th sternum. It contains
 The rectum opens out through anus.
dorsal anus, ventral male genital pore and
gonapophysis. Males bear a pair of short, threadlike
anal styles which are absent in females.
 In both sexes, the 10th segment bears a pair of
jointed filamentous structures called anal cerci.
ANATOMY
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Digestive system includes the alimentary canal and two
pairs of salivary glands.
 The alimentary canal is divided into three regions:
foregut, midgut and hindgut. The entire foregut is
lined by cuticle.
 Foregut starts with mouth. Two pairs of salivary
glands pour their secretion into the mouth.

16 w w w. r a y s e d u c a t i o n. o r g

BLOOD VASCULAR SYSTEM
 Blood vascular system of cockroach is an open
type.
 Blood vessels are poorly developed and open into
space (haemocoel). Visceral organs located in the
haemocoel are bathed in blood (haemolymph).
 The haemolymph is composed of colourless plasma
and haemocytes.
 Heart of cockroach consists of elongated muscular
tube (13 chambered blood vessel) lying along mid
dorsal line of thorax and abdomen. It is
differentiated into thirteen funnel shaped chambers
with ostia on either side. The blood from the heart
enters the haemocoel (sinuses).
 Blood from sinuses enter heart through ostia and is
pumped anteriorly to sinuses again.
 Alary muscles- they are a series of small muscles
found in the heart wall of insects. Their contraction
causes blood to flow from the sinuses into the
heart.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 The respiratory system consists of a network of
tubes called trachea.
 Trachea opens to the outside through 10 pairs of
small holes called spiracles present on the lateral
side of the body. The opening of the spiracles is
regulated by the sphincters.
 Inside the body, the trachea divides and redivides
into tracheoles, whose terminal ends are immersed
in the body fluid.
w w w. r a y s e d u c a t i o n. o r g
` BIOLOGY
 Air enters through the spiracles and reaches the
body fluid through the trachea and tracheoles.
 Exchange of gases takes place at the tracheoles by
diffusion.
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
 Excretion is performed by Malpighian tubules.
They are present at the junction of midgut and
hindgut.
 Each tubule is lined by glandular and ciliated cells.
They absorb nitrogenous waste products and
convert them into uric acid which is excreted out
through the hindgut. Therefore, this insect is called
uricotelic.
 In addition, the fat body, nephrocytes and urecose
glands also help in excretion.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
 The nervous system of cockroach is spread
throughout the body.
 In the head region, the brain is represented by
supra-oesophageal ganglion which supplies nerves
to antennae and compound eyes.
 It is connected to sub-oesophageal ganglion, lying
below the oesophagus, with the help of a pair of
circum-oesophageal commissures, which form a
nerve ring.
 The nerve cord starts from the sub-oesophageal
ganglion and lies mid ventrally upto the last
segment. The two ventral nerve cords are not fused,
but lie very close together. There are nine
segmental ganglia. Three ganglia lie in the thorax,
17
BIOLOGY
and six in the abdomen. At the region of each
segmental ganglion, the two nerve cords are joined.
 The head holds a bit of a nervous system while the
rest is situated along the ventral (belly-side) part of
its body. So, now you understand that if the head of
a cockroach is cut off, it will still live for as long as
one week.
SENSE ORGANS
 In cockroach, the sense organs are antennae,
compound eyes, maxillary palps, labial palps and
anal cerci.
 Eyes- The compound eyes are situated at the dorsal
surface of the head. Each eye consists of about
2000 hexagonal ommatidia (sing.: ommatidium).
With the help of several ommatidia, a cockroach
can receive several images of an object. This kind
of vision is known as mosaic vision with more
sensitivity but less resolution, being common
during night (hence called nocturnal vision).
 Touch receptors present in antenna.
 Taste receptors present in maxillary palps and
labial palps.
18
 Smell receptors present in antenna, maxillary palps
and labial palps
 Receptors of hearing present in anal cerci.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Cockroaches are dioecious and both sexes have well
developed reproductive organs.
Male reproductive system
 Testes- There is a pair of testes one lying on each
lateral side in the 4th -6th abdominal segments.
 Vas deferens- From each testis arises a thin vas
deferens.
 Seminal vesicles- the posterior ends of each vas
deferens are slightly dilated to form the seminal
vesicles. The sperms are stored in the seminal
vesicles and are glued together in the form of
bundles called spermatophores which are
discharged during copulation.
 Mushroom gland- The seminal vesicles bear
numerous finger-shaped diverticula, which together
appear like a mushroom, and so is known as the
mushroom gland. It consists of long tubules, small
tubules and seminal vesicles. Their secretions
nourish the sperms, and help to bundle them into
spermatophores.
 Ejaculatory duct- two seminal vesicles open into
ejaculatory duct.
 Male gonopore- The ejaculatory duct opens into
male gonopore situated ventral to anus.
 Phallic gland: it is a large gland lying below the
mushroom gland and ejaculatory duct. The duct
arising from this gland opens into the genital
pouch. The secretions of this also help in
spermatophore formation.
 Male genital pouch: it is the small area below the
9th and 10th terga, containing dorsally the anus and
ventrally the male genital pore.
 Male gonapophyses or phallomeres: The external
genitalia are represented by male gonapophysis or
phallomere. There are three phallomeres- ventral,
w w w. r a y s e d u c a t i o n. o r g

right and left. They are chitinous asymmetrical
structures, surrounding the male gonopore that
helps in copulation.
Titillator and pseudopenis are parts of left
phallomere.
Female reproductive sysytem
 Ovaries- The female reproductive system consists
of two large ovaries, lying laterally in the 2
abdominal segments. Each ovary is formed of a
group of eight ovarian tubules or ovarioles,
containing a chain of developing ova.
 Oviducts - Oviducts of each ovary unite into a
single median oviduct (also called vagina) which
opens by the female genital pore (gonopore) into
the genital pouch.
 Spermatheca- A pair of spermatheca is present in
the 6th abdominal segment which opens into the
genital pouch. One spermatheca is sac-like and the
other filamentous. Spermathecae store
spermatophores after copulation.
 Collateral glands- A pair of branched glands opens
independently into the genital pouch. These secrete
the ootheca or egg case.
 Female genital pouch- Female genital pouch
contains female gonopore, spermathecal pores and
collateral glands.
 Female gonapophyses- these are three pairs of
chitinous structures which help to deposit the
ootheca in a safe place.
w w w. r a y s e d u c a t i o n. o r g
` BIOLOGY
Fertilization and development
 The male and female cockroaches come together
by their posterior ends.
 By the help of male phallomeres, the
spermatophores are transferred to the genital pouch
of the female. Sperms are liberated from the
nd
–6 th
spermatophores and reach the spermatheca.
 The eggs from ovaries pass through the female
genital pore into the genital pouch.
 Eggs are fertilized by the sperms coming from
spermatheca. Their fertilised eggs are encased in
capsules called oothecae.
 Ootheca is a dark reddish to blackish brown
capsule, about 3/8" (8 mm) long. They are dropped
or glued to a suitable surface, usually in a crack or
crevice of high relative humidity near a food
source. On an average, females produce 9-10
the oothecae, each containing 14-16 eggs.
 The development of P. Americana is
paurometabolous, meaning there is development
through nymphal stage. The nymphs look very
much like adults. The nymph grows by moulting
about 13 times to reach the adult form. The next to
last nymphal stage has wing pads but only adult
cockroaches have wings.
19
BIOLOGY

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE  On either side of eyes a membranous tympanum

(ear) receives sound signals.
 They are pests because they spoil food and
 The forelimbs and hind limbs help in swimming,
contaminate it with their smelly excreta.
walking, leaping and burrowing. The hind limbs
 They can transmit a variety of bacterial diseases by
end in five digits and fore limbs end in four digits.
contaminating food material.
The hind limbs are larger and muscular than fore
 Many species of cockroaches are wild and are of no
limbs. Feet have webbed digits that help in
known economic importance yet.
swimming.
 Frogs exhibit sexual dimorphism. Male frogs can
FROG be distinguished by the presence of sound
 Frogs can live both on land and in freshwater and producing vocal sacs and also a copulatory pad on
belong to class Amphibia of phylum Chordata. the first digit of the fore limbs which are absent in
 The most common species of frog found in India is female frogs.
Rana tigrina.
 They do not have constant body temperature i.e.,
their body temperature varies with the temperature
of the environment. Such animals are called cold
blooded or poikilotherms.
 They have the ability to camouflage, i.e., change
the colour to hide them from their enemies.
 Frogs are not seen during peak summer and winter.
During this period they take shelter in deep
burrows to protect them from extreme heat and
cold. This is known as summer sleep (aestivation)
and winter sleep (hibernation) respectively.
MORPHOLOGY
 Skin: The skin is smooth and slippery due to the
presence of mucus. The skin is always maintained
ANATOMY
in a moist condition. The colour of dorsal side of
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
body is generally olive green with dark irregular
 The digestive system consists of alimentary canal
spots. On the ventral side the skin is uniformly pale
and digestive glands.
yellow.
 The alimentary canal is short because frogs are
The frog never drinks water but absorb it through
carnivores and hence the length of intestine is
the skin.
reduced.
 Body of a frog is divisible into head and trunk. A
The mouth opens into the buccal cavity. Tongue is
neck and tail are absent.
bilobed. Food is captured by the tongue.
 Above the mouth, a pair of nostrils is present.
Buccal cavity leads to pharynx.
 Eyes are bulged and covered by a nictitating
Pharynx continues into the oesophagus.
membrane that protects them while in water.
20 w w w. r a y s e d u c a t i o n. o r g

Oesophagus is a short tube that opens into the
stomach. Digestion of food takes place by the
action of HCl and gastric juices secreted from the
walls of the stomach.
Partially digested food called chyme is passed from
stomach to the intestine. First part of the intestine is
duodenum. The duodenum receives bile from gall
bladder (liver secretes bile that is stored in the gall
bladder) and pancreatic juices from the pancreas
through a common bile duct.
Bile emulsifies fat and pancreatic juices digest
carbohydrates and proteins. Final digestion takes
place in the intestine.
Digested food is absorbed by the numerous finger-
like folds in the inner wall of intestine called villi
and microvilli.
The intestine continues as rectum and finally opens
outside by the cloaca. The undigested solid waste
moves into the rectum and passes out through
cloaca. The cloaca is a small, median chamber that
is used to pass faecal matter, urine and sperms to
the exterior.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Frogs respire on land and in the water by two different
methods.
 In water, skin acts as respiratory organ (cutaneous
respiration). Dissolved oxygen in the water is
exchanged through the skin by diffusion.
w w w. r a y s e d u c a t i o n. o r g
` BIOLOGY
 On land, the buccal cavity, skin and lungs act as the
respiratory organs.
The respiration by lungs is called pulmonary
respiration. Air enters through the nostrils into the
buccal cavity and then to lungs.
During aestivation and hibernation gaseous
exchange takes place through skin.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
 The blood vascular system of frog is well-
developed closed type. It involves heart, blood
vessels and blood.
Heart
Heart is a has three chambers, two atria and one
ventricle and is covered by a membrane called
pericardium. A triangular structure called sinus
venosus joins the right atrium. It receives blood
through the major veins called vena cava. The
ventricle opens into a sac-like conus arteriosus on
the ventral side of the heart.
Blood vessels
The blood from the heart (conus arteriosus) is
carried to all parts of the body by the arteries.
The veins collect blood from different parts of
body to the heart.
Frogs have hepatic portal system and renal portal
system. Hepatic portal system is the special venous
connection between liver and intestine, while renal
portal system is the venous connection between the
kidney and lower parts of the body.
Blood
The blood is composed of plasma and cells. The
blood cells are RBC (red blood cells) or
21
BIOLOGY

erythrocytes, WBC (white blood cells) or

leucocytes and platelets. RBC’s are nucleated and
contain red coloured pigment namely haemoglobin.
 Frogs have a lymphatic system also. The lymphatic
system consists of lymph, lymph channels and
lymph nodes. The lymph is different from blood. It
lacks few proteins and RBCs.
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
 The frog excretes urea and thus is a ureotelic
animal.
 The excretory system consists of a pair of kidneys,
ureters, urinary bladder and cloaca.
Kidneys are compact, dark red and bean like
structures situated posteriorly in the body cavity on
 The Bidder’s canal communicates with the
both sides of vertebral column. Each kidney is
urinogenital duct (ureter) that comes out of the
composed of several structural and functional units
kidneys and opens into the cloaca. The cloaca is a
called uriniferous tubules or nephrons. Excretory
small, median chamber that is used to pass faecal
wastes are carried by blood into the kidney where it
matter, urine and sperms to the exterior.
is separated and excreted.
Two ureters emerge from the kidneys. In the male
frogs, the ureters act as urinogenital duct which
opens into the cloaca. In females the ureters and
oviduct open seperately in the cloaca.
The thin-walled urinary bladder is present ventral
to the rectum which also opens in the cloaca. It
does not have direct connection with ureters/
urogenital ducts. It can store urine for some time.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Female reproductive system
Male reproductive system
 The female reproductive organs include a pair of
 Male reproductive organs consist of a pair of
ovaries. The ovaries are situated near kidneys and
yellowish ovoid testes, which are found adhered to
there is no functional connection with kidneys.
the upper part of kidneys by mesorchium.
 A pair of oviduct arising from the ovaries and
 10-12 vasa efferentia arise from testes. They enter
opens into the cloaca separately.
the kidneys on their side and open into Bidder’s
 A mature female can lay 2500 to 3000 ova at a
canal. Sperms produced by testes are passed into
time.
Bidder’s canal via vasa efferentia.
 Fertilisation is external and takes place in water.

22 w w w. r a y s e d u c a t i o n. o r g

 Development involves a larval stage called tadpole.
Tadpole undergoes metamorphosis to form the
adult.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
 Endocrine glands secrete hormones.
 The prominent endocrine glands found in frog are
pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, pineal
body, pancreatic islets, adrenals and gonads.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
 The nervous system is organized into a central
nervous system (brain and spinal cord), a
peripheral nervous system (cranial and spinal
nerves) and an autonomic nervous
(sympathetic and parasympathetic).
 Brain is enclosed in a bony structure called brain
box (cranium). There are ten pairs of cranial nerves
arising from the brain.
The brain is divided into fore-brain, mid-brain and
hind-brain. Forebrain includes olfactory lobes,
paired cerebral hemispheres and
diencephalon. The midbrain is characterised by a
pair of optic lobes. Hind-brain consists of
cerebellum and medulla oblongata.
The medulla oblongata passes out through the
foramen magnum and continues into spinal cord,
which is enclosed in the vertebral column.
SENSE ORGANS
Frog has different types of sense organs:
 Sensory papillae - organs of touch. These are found
in the skin.
 Taste buds – taste
 Nasal epithelium – smell
 Eyes – vision. These are simple eyes (possessing
only one unit).
 Tympanum with internal ears – hearing. External
ear is absent in frogs and only tympanum can be
w w w. r a y s e d u c a t i o n. o r g
` BIOLOGY
seen externally. The ear is an organ of hearing as
well as balancing (equilibrium).
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
 Frogs are beneficial for mankind because they eat
insects and protect the crop.
 Frogs maintain ecological balance because these
serve as an important link of food chain and food
web in the ecosystem.
 In some countries the muscular legs of frog are
used as food by man.
EXERCISES
NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS WITH
system
ANSWERS
1. Answer in one word or one line.
(i) Give the common name of Periplaneta
americana.
(ii) How many spermathecae are found in
earthworm?
(iii) What is the position of ovaries in the
unpaired
cockroach?
(iv) How many segments are present in the
abdomen of cockroach?
(v) Where do you find malphigian tubules?
(i) The common name of Periplaneta americana is the
American cockroach.
(ii) Four pairs of spermathecae are present in earthworms.
(iii) In a cockroach, the pair of ovaries is located laterally in
the 2nd-6th abdominal segments.
(iv) In both sexes, the abdomen of a cockroach consists of
ten segments.
(v) Malphigian tubules are a part of the alimentary canal, at
the junction of midgut and hindgut.
2. Answer the following:
(i) What is the function of nephridia?
(ii) How many types of nephridia are found in
earthworm based on their location?
23
BIOLOGY

(i) Nephridia are excretory organs present in earthworms.

(ii) On the basis of their location, three types of nephridia
are found in earthworms. They are:
(a) Septal nephridia: These are present on both
sides of the inter-segmental septa of segment 15 to
the last segment. They open into the intestines.
(b) Integumentary nephridia: These lie attached to
the body wall from the third segment to the last
segment, which opens on the body surface.
(c) Pharyngeal nephridia: These are present as three
paired tufts in fourth, fifth, and sixth segments.
3. Draw a labelled diagram of the reproductive organs
of an earthworm. 5. Distinguish between the following
(a) Prostomium and peristomium
(b) Septal nephridium and pharyngeal nephridium
(a)
Prostomium Peristomium
Prostomium is a lobe The first body segment
which serves as a in the earthworm is
covering for the mouth called the peristomium.
of an earthworm. It It contains the mouth.
helps the organism to
force open cracks in the
soil. It is sensory in
function.
(b)
Septal nephridium Pharyngeal nephridium
They are present on They are present as
both sides of inter- three paired tufts in the
segmental septa of 15th fourth, fifth, and sixth
segment to the last segments. They open
segment. They open into the pharynx.
into the intestines.
6. What are the cellular components of blood?
Components of blood include erythrocytes (RBCs),
leucocytes (WBCs), and thrombocytes (platelets).
4. Draw a labelled diagram of alimentary canal of a
cockroach.

24 w w w. r a y s e d u c a t i o n. o r g

7. What are the following and where do you find them
in animal body
(a) Chondrocytes
(b) Axons
(c) Ciliated epithelium
a. Chondrocytes: They are cells of cartilages, and are
present in small cavities (lacunae) within the matrix secreted
by them.
b. Axons: They are long, slender projections of neurons that
help in carrying nerve impulses from the neuron body.
c. Ciliated epithelium: It consists of simple columnar or
cuboidal epithelium with cilia on their free surfaces. It is
present on the inner surface of the oviducts and bronchioles.
It helps in the movement of eggs or mucus in specific
directions.
8. Describe various types of epithelial tissues with the
help of labelled diagrams.
Epithelial tissue lines the surface of a body and forms a
protective covering. Epithelium cells are packed tightly
together with little intercellular matrix. Epithelial tissue in
the body is of two types.
(a) Simple epithelium: It consists of a single layer of cells
where cells are in direct contact with the basement
membrane. It is further sub-divided into the following types:
(i) Simple squamous epithelium: It consists of a
single layer of flat cells with irregular boundaries.
It is found in the walls of the blood vessels and in
the lining of alveoli.
(ii) Simple cuboidal epithelium: It consists of a
single layer of cube-like cells. It is present in
regions where secretion and absorption of
substances takes place such as the proximal
convoluted tubule region of the nephron.
(i) Simple columnar epithelium: It consists of a single
layer of tall, slender cells with their nuclei present
at the base of the cells. They may bear micro-villi
on the free surfaces. Columnar epithelium forms
the lining of the stomach and
w w w. r a y s e d u c a t i o n. o r g
` BIOLOGY
intestines, and is involved in the function of
secretion and absorption.
(iv) Ciliated epithelium: It consists of columnar or
cuboidal cells with cilia on their free surfaces. They
are present in bronchioles and oviducts from where
they direct mucus and eggs in specific directions.
(v) Glandular epithelium: It consists of columnar or
cuboidal cells involved in the secretion of
substances. Glands are of two types, unicellular
glands (goblet cells of the alimentary canal) and
multicellular glands (salivary glands). They can be
classified as exocrine (ductless glands) and
endocrine glands (duct glands) by the method
through which they release enzymes.
(b) Compound epithelium: It consists of many layers of
cells. It is involved mainly in the function of providing
protection and has a limited role in secretion and absorption.
Examples of compound epithelium include the dry surface
of the skin or moist inner lining of the buccal cavity,
pharynx, pancreatic ducts, and the inner lining of ducts of
salivary glands.
9. Distinguish between
(a) Simple epithelium and compound epithelium.
(b) Cardiac muscle and striated muscle
(c) Dense regular and dense irregular connective
tissues
(d) Adipose and blood tissue
(e) Simple gland and compound gland
(a) Simple epithelium and compound epithelium
Simple epithelium Compound epithelium
1. It is composed of only 1. It is composed of many
one layer of cells. layers of cells.
2. It is mainly involved in 2. It is mainly involved in
the function of absorption the function of protection
and secretion. and has a limited role in
absorption and secretion.
3. It is present in the lining 3. It is present in the lining
of the stomach, intestine. of the pharynx and buccal
cavity.
25
BIOLOGY

(b) Cardiac muscle and striated muscle 10. Mark the odd one in each series:
Cardiac muscles Striated muscles (a) Areolar tissue; blood; neuron; tendon
1. They are involuntary in 1. They are voluntary in (b) RBC; WBC; platelets; cartilage
function. function. (c) Exocrine; endocrine; salivary gland; ligament
2. They are uni-nucleated 2. They are multi-nucleated (d) Maxilla; mandible; labrum; antennae
and branched. and unbranched. (e) Protonema; mesothorax; metathorax; coxa
3. They are found only in 3. They are found in limbs. (a) Areolar tissue, blood, and tendons are examples of
the heart. connective tissues. Neuron is an example of neural tissue.
(c) Dense regular and dense irregular connective tissues (b) RBCs, WBCs, and platelets are the three most important

Dense regular connective Dense irregular connective components of blood. Cartilage is therefore, the odd one out.

tissues tissues (c) Exocrine, endocrine, and salivary glands are examples of

1. In dense regular 1. In dense irregular glandular epithelium. Ligament is a connective tissue.

connective tissues, collagen connective tissues, fibres are (d) Maxilla, mandible, and labrum are mouth parts of a

fibres are present in rows arranged irregularly. cockroach. Antennae, on the other hand, are present in the

between many parallel head region of cockroaches.

bundles of fibres. (e) Protonema forms the developmental stage in the life

2. They are present in 2. They are present in the cycle of a moss. Mesothorax, metathorax, and coxa are parts

tendons and ligaments. skin or segments present in the legs of a cockroach

(d) Adipose and blood tissue 11. Match the terms in column I with those in column
II:
Adipose tissue Blood tissue
Column I Column II
1. It is composed of collagen 1. It is composed of RBCs,
fibres, elastin fibres, WBCs, platelets, and (a) Compound epithelium (i) Alimentary canal

fibroblasts, macrophages, plasma. (b) Compound eye (ii) Cockroach

and adipocytes. (c) Septal nephridia (iii) Skin

2. It helps in the synthesis, 2. It helps in the (d) Open circulatory system (iv) Mosaic vision

storage, and metabolism of transportation of food, (e) Typhlosole (v) Earthworm

fats. wastes, gases, and (f) Osteocytes (vi) Phallomere

hormones. (g) Genitalia (vii) Bone
3. It is present beneath the 3. It is present in the blood
skin. vessels Column I Column II
(e) Simple gland and compound gland (a) Compound epithelium (iii) Skin
Simple glands Compound glands (b) Compound eye (iv) Mosaic vision
1. They contain isolated 1. They contain a cluster of (c) Septal nephridia (v) Earthworm
glandular cells. secretory cells. (d) Open circulatory system (ii) Cockroach
2. They are unicellular. 2. They are multicellular. (e) Typhlosole (i) Alimentary canal
3. Examples include goblet 3. Examples include salivary (f) Osteocytes (vii) Bone
cells of the alimentary glands. (g) Genitalia (vi) Phallomere
canal.

26 w w w. r a y s e d u c a t i o n. o r g
 ` BIOLOGY

12. Mention briefly about the circulatory system of 2. Observe the following chart and answer the given
earthworm. questions
Earthworms (Pheretima) have closed blood vascular
systems, which consists of the heart, blood vessels, and
capillaries. The heart pumps blood for circulating it into one
direction. Blood is supplied by smaller blood cells to the
gut, nerve cord and the body wall. Blood glands are present
in the 4th, 5th, and 6th segments, which produce blood cells
and haemoglobin dissolved in blood plasma. Blood cells in
earthworms are phagocytic in nature.
13. Draw a neat diagram of digestive system of frog.
Fill in the missing words A and B.
(2 marks)
3. a. Identify the given diagrams of connective tissues
A and B.

14. Mention the function of the following b. Write the location of tissue B in human body.
(a) Ureters in frog (2 marks)
(b) Malpighian tubules 4. Prepare two correctly matching pairs from the
(c) Body wall in earthworm given terms.
(a) Ureters in frogs: A ureter acts as a urinogenital duct,  Ommatidia
which carries sperms along with urine in male frogs.  Hepatic caecae
(b) Malpighian tubules: Malpighian tubules are excretory  Genital pouch
organs in cockroaches.  Sense organ
(c) Body wall in earthworms: In earthworms, the body wall  Excretory organ
consists of muscle layers. It helps in movement and  Digestive gland
burrowing.
 Upper lip (2 marks)
 PREVIOUS HSE QUESTIONS AND 5. Complete the given branching diagram based on
ANSWERS connective tissue. (2 marks)
1. Select the odd one out in the following series
a. Areolar tissue, blood, neuron, tendon
b. Hypopharynx, malpighian tubules, maxillae,
labrum (1 mark)

w w w. r a y s e d u c a t i o n. o r g 27
BIOLOGY

a. Identify the tissue A and B. (1 mark)

b. Name the specialized cells present in A and B.
(1 mark)
11. a. Among the following body parts squamous
epithelium is found in……... (1 mark)
i. The ducts of glands and tubular parts of

6. Select the connective tissues from the following nephron

and write one character (2 marks) ii. The lining of stomach and intestine

of each tissue. iii. The inner walls of blood vessels and air sacs

Areolar tissue, neural tissue, adipose tissue, cardiac tissue of lungs

iv. The inner surface of bronchioles and
7. Identify the word pair relation and fill the blanks
fallopian tubes
Bone: Osteocytes :: Cartilage:……………….
b. Write any one function of compound epithelium.
(1 mark)
(1 mark)
8. Observe the diagram showing the alimentary canal
12. Tendons and ligaments are examples of
of cockroach. Name the parts labelled A, B, C and
…………………. tissue. (1 mark)
D. (2 marks)
a. Areolar b. Adipose
c. Dense regular d. Dense irregular
13. Match column A with those in columns B and C
(3 marks)
A B C
Types of simple Location Function
epithelium
Squamous a Diffusion
epithelium
b Ducts of glands and c

9. Identify the following tissues: (2 marks) tubular parts of

a. Tissue that stores fat nephrons in kidneys.

b. Tissue that connects bones together. Columnar d Secretion and

c. Tissue that connects bones to muscles epithelium absorption

d. Tissue that conducts impulses e Inner surface of f

10. Observe the diagrams given below: bronchioles and

fallopian tubes
14. a. Identify the tissues based on the features given
below (1 mark)
i. Intercalated disc
ii. Involuntary in action.
b. Mention the function of intercalated disc.
(1 mark)

28 w w w. r a y s e d u c a t i o n. o r g
 ` BIOLOGY

15. Identify the function of the following structure of c. Tendon

cockroaches.
a. Compound eye
b. Arthrodial membrane
c. Seminal vesicle
d.Malpighian tubules
Answers
(2 marks) d. Nervous tissues
10. a. A- Cartilage, B- Bone
b. A- Chondrocytes, B- Osteocytes
11. a. The inner walls of blood vessels and air sacs of
lungs.
b. Their main function is to provide protection

1. a. Neuron against chemical and mechanical stresses. They

b. Malpighian tubules cover the dry surface of the skin, the moist surface

2. A. Goblet cells of buccal cavity, pharynx, inner lining of ducts of

B. Exocrine glands salivary glands and of pancreatic ducts.

3. a. A- Dense regular connective tissue 12. Dense regular

B- Dense irregular connective tissue 13. a. Found in the walls of blood vessels

b. Skin b. Cuboidal epithelium

4. Ommatidia- sense organ c. Secretion and absorption

Hepatic caecae- digestive gland d. Lining of stomach or intestine

5. A- Specialised connective tissue e. Ciliated epithelium

B- Adipose tissue f. Movement or transport.

C- Irregular 14. a. Cardiac muscle

D- Cartilage b. Allows the cardiac muscle to contract as a single

6. Areolar tissue- this is a loose binding connective unit or act as a communication junction.

tissue found under epithelia of many hollow 15. a. Mosaic vision

organs, skin and on the wall of blood vessels. It is b. Connect sclerites

formed of fibroblasts, macrophages and mast cells. c. Sperms stored

Fibroblasts produce collagen and elastin fibres. d. Excretion.

Macrophages engulf the foreign particles and CBSE MODEL QUESTIONS

damaged tissues. Mast cells secrete inflammation 1. In which type of muscle tissue can you see
producing substance histamine. intercalated discs?
Adipose tissue- Adipose tissue is a loose binding What is its significance? (1 mark)
connective tissue located mainly beneath the skin. 2. What are gap junctions? (1 mark)
It store fat. It prevents heat loss by forming a heat- 3. Where is areolar tissue present in our body? Name
insulating layer beneath the skin. the types of cells and fibres found in it. (2 marks)
7. Chondrocytes 4. Write a note on glandular epithelium? (3 marks)
8. A- Crop 5. What are tendons and ligaments? Also give their
B- Hepatic caecae function. (3 marks)
C- Mapighian tubule 6. Differentiate between striated, smooth and cardiac
D- Colon muscles. (5 marks)
9. a. Adipose tissue 7. Write any four important functions of each:
b. Ligaments (5 marks)

w w w. r a y s e d u c a t i o n. o r g 29
BIOLOGY

(i) Epithelial tissue (ii) Connective tissue Unicellular gland: consisting of isolated glandular
(iii) Muscular tissue cells (goblet cells of the alimentary canal)
8. Give the location of hepatic caecae in a cockroach. Multicellular gland: consisting of cluster of cells
What is their function? (2 marks) (salivary gland).
9. What are malpighian tubules? What is its function? On the basis of the mode of pouring of their
(3 marks) secretions, glands (multicellular glands) are divided
10. Draw a labelled diagram of alimentary canal of into two categories namely exocrine and endocrine
cockroach. What is the function of crop and gizzard glands.
in the digestive system of cockroach? Exocrine glands: The glands which conduct their
(5 marks) secretions through their ducts to the sites of action
Answers are called exocrine glands or ducted glands. For

1. Cardiac muscle tissue has intercalated discs. Cell example: salivary glands, sweat glands, mammary

junctions fuse the plasma membranes of cardiac glands, liver etc.

muscle cells and make them stick together. Endocrine glands: Endocrine glands do not have

Communication junctions (intercalated discs) at ducts. Their products are called hormones. For

some fusion points allow the cells to contract as a example: pituitary, thymus, thyroid etc.

unit, i.e., when one cell receives a signal to 5. Tendon is a dense regular connective tissues in

contract, its neighbours are also stimulated to which collagen fibres are arranged in thick parallel

contract. bundles. The adjacent bundles are separated from

2. Gap junctions are a type of cell junctions that each other by a single row of tendon cells. Tendon

facilitate the cells to communicate with each other cells are modified fibroblasts. Tendon occurs at the

by connecting the cytoplasm of adjoining cells, for end of skeletal muscles, and serves to attach them

rapid transfer of ions, small molecules and strongly to bones.

sometimes big molecules. Ligament is a dense regular connective tissues in

3. Areolar tissue present beneath the skin. Often it which collagen and elastic fibres are present.

serves as a support framework for epithelium. It Ligament cells (modified fibroblasts) are seen in

fills up spaces between adjacent tissues and holds between the fibres. Ligaments attach one bone to

organs together in different parts of the body. Thus, another.

it helps to maintain organs in normal shape. 6.

It contains fibroblasts (cells that produce and Striated Smooth Cardiac

secrete fibres), macrophages and mast cells. muscles muscles muscles

Fibroblasts are the chief cells of this tissue. They have a They do not Based on
Fibroblasts produce collagen and elastin fibres. striped exhibit any appearance,
4. Glandular epithelium: Some of the columnar or appearance striation and cardiac
cuboidal epithelial cells get specialised for under the are smooth in muscles are
secretion and are called glandular epithelium. They microscope and appearance. striated
are mainly of two types: unicellular gland and hence are called Hence, they
multicellular gland. striated muscles. are called
smooth

30 w w w. r a y s e d u c a t i o n. o r g
 ` BIOLOGY

muscles muscles. involuntary

(nonstriated muscles.
muscle). They are They assist in They are
Striated muscles Smooth Cardiac primarily the involved in
are closely muscles are muscles are involved in transportation pumping of
associated with located in the the muscles of locomotory of food heart.
the skeleton of wall of heart. actions and through the
the body. They internal organs changes of body digestive tract
are attached to such as the postures. and gametes
the bones by blood vessels, through the
tendons. Hence, urinary genital tract.
they are called bladder, 7. Epithelial tissue
skeletal uterus, a. Epithelial tissue covers the external surface of
muscles. stomach and the body and lines the internal surface of the
intestine. hollow visceral organs. Their main function is to
Hence, they provide protection against chemical and
are called mechanical stresses.
visceral b. Some of the columnar or cuboidal epithelial cells
muscles. get specialised for secretion and are called
Each muscle is The smooth Many cardiac glandular epithelium.
made of many muscle fibres muscle cells c. Functions of columnar or cuboidal epithelial are
long, are thin, assemble in a secretion and absorption
unbranched, elongated, branching d. Ciliated epithelium move particles or mucus in a
cylindrical spindle-shaped pattern to specific direction over the epithelium.
muscle fibres. cells with form a cardiac Connective tissue
tapering ends muscle. a. Help in linking and supporting other
(fusiform). tissues/organs of the body.
Skeletal muscle Visceral Cardiac b. Ligaments attach one bone to another.
fibres are muscle fibres muscle fibres c. Blood is the main circulating fluid that helps in
multinucleated. are are the transport of various substances.
uninucleated. uninucleated. d. Tendon occurs at the end of skeletal muscles,
Their activities Their activities They are and serves to attach them strongly to bones.
are under the are not under involuntary in Muscular tissue
voluntary the voluntary nature as the a. Skeletal muscles are primarily involved in
control of the control of the nervous locomotory actions and changes of body postures.
nervous system, nervous system does b. Skeletal muscles support the bones and other
and hence also system and are not control structures
known as therefore their activities
voluntary known as directly.

w w w. r a y s e d u c a t i o n. o r g 31
BIOLOGY

c. Visceral muscles assist in the transportation of OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

food through the digestive tract and gametes 1. Simple epithelium is a tissue in which the cells are
through the genital tract. a. hardened and provide support to the organs
d. Cardiac muscles are involved in pumping of b. continuously dividing to provide to form an
heart organ
8. Hepatic or gastric caeca is present at the junction of c. cemented directly to one another to form a single
foregut and midgut in cockroach, which secrete layer
digestive juice. d. loosely connected to one another to form an
9. At the junction of midgut and hindgut of irregular layer
cockroach, there is a ring of 100-150 yellow 2. The ciliated columnar epithelial cells in humans are
coloured thin filaments called Malpighian tubules. known to occur in
Malpighian tubules are excretory organs. They a. Fallopian tubes and urethra
absorb nitrogenous waste products and convert b. Bronchioles and fallopian tubes
them into uric acid which is excreted out through c. Eustachian tube and stomach lining
the hindgut. d. Bile duct and oesophagus
10. 3. Tendon is made up of
4.
a. only collagen fibres.
b. elastic connective tissue fibres
c. inelastic connective tissue fibres
d. inelastic and elastic connective tissue fibres
5. Fibrous tissue which connects bones is
a. Ligament
b. Tendon
c. Adipose tissue
d. Connective tissue
6. Which set clearly identify striated muscles?
Crop- Oesophagus opens into a sac like structure a. Cylindrical, striped and branched
called crop. Crop is used for storing of food. b. Cylindrical, striped and uninucleated
Gizzard- The crop is followed by gizzard or c. Cylindrical, unbranched and multinucleated
proventriculus. It has an outer layer of thick d. Spindle, unbranched and uninucleated
circular muscles and thick inner cuticle forming six 7. Bowman’s capsule is formed of
highly chitinous plate called teeth. Gizzard helps in a. Cuboidal epithelium
grinding the food particles. b. Ciliated epithelium
c. Squamous epithelium
d. Columnar epithelium

32 w w w. r a y s e d u c a t i o n. o r g
 ` BIOLOGY

8. Cardiac muscles are 18. Choose the correctly matched pair

1. striated 2. nonstriated a. Cartilage- Loose connective tissue
3. voluntary 4. involuntary b. Tendon- Specialised connective tissue
a. 1 and 3 are correct c. Areolar tissue- Loose connective tissue
b. 2 and 4 are correct d. Adipose tissue- Dense connective tissue
c. 1 and 4 are correct 19. Tendons, which attach one bone to another bone
d. 1, 2 and 3 are correct are made up of
9. Adipocytes are mainly found in a. Areolar tissue b. Adipose tissue
a. Bones b. Nerves c. Dense regular connective tissue
c. Cartilages d. Connective tissues d. Dense irregular connective tissue
10. Haversian lamellae are the structures found in 20. Select the correct statement regarding the Schwann
a. Bone b. Myelin sheath cells
c. Hyaline cartilage d. Fibrous cartilage a. Support muscle fibres
11. Hyaline cartilage does not have: b. Found in Haversian system of bones
a. Fibres b. cells c. Form basement membrane of epithelium
c. Lacunae d. Matrix d. Surround axon of myelinated nerve fibre
12. Fibroblasts, macrophages and mast cells are seen in 21. What type of cartilaginous tissue is found in the
a. Epithelial tissue b. Connective tissue inter-vertebral discs?
c. Muscle tissue d. Neural tissue a. Costal cartilage b. Hyaline cartilage
13. Columnar epithelium is found in c. White fibrous cartilage
a. Lungs b. Uterus d. Yellow elastic cartilage
c. Trachea d. Stomach 22. Which one is a specialised connective tissue among
14. Find the wrongly matched pair these?
a. Saliva- Exocrine gland a. Bone b. Muscle
b. Cartilage- Areolar tissue c. Areolar tissue d. Adipose tissue
c. Fusiform fibres- Smooth muscle 23. The tissue which covers the external surface of the
d. Intercalated disc- Cardiac tissue animal body and internal surface of visceral organs
15. The supportive skeletal structures in the human is
external ears and in the nose tip are examples of a. Epithelial tissue b. Connective tissue
a. Bone b. Cartilage c. Areolar tissue d. Adipose tissue
c. Ligament d. Areolar tissue 24. The function of gap junction is to
16. The secretion of tears, milk, sweat and oil are a. facilitate communication between adjoining cells
functions of which of the following tissues? by connecting the cytoplasm for rapid transfer of
a. Nervous b. Epithelial ions, small molecules and some large molecules.
c. Lymphoid d. Loose connective b. performing cementing to keep neighbouring cells
17. Which of the following is a loose connective together
tissue? c. stop substances from leaking across a tissue
a. Tendon b. Blood. d. separate two cells from each other
c. Areolar tissue d. Nervous tissue

w w w. r a y s e d u c a t i o n. o r g 33
BIOLOGY

25. Smooth muscles are 28. In cockroaches, digestive juice is secreted by the
a. involuntary, cylindrical, striated a. Crop b. Hepatic caecae
b. involuntary, fusiform, non-striated c. Gizzard d. oesophagus
c. voluntary, cylindrical, multinucleate 29. How many pairs of spiracles are present in
d. voluntary, spindle-shaped, uninucleate Periplaneta americana
26. Assertion (A): There is open type of blood vascular a. Six b. Ten
system in cockroach c. Eight d. Three
Reason (R): Blood is white in colour. 30. The excretory organs in cockroach and other
a. (A) is true statement but (R) is false insects are
b. Both (A) and (R) are false a. Green glands b. Hepatic caecae
c. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct c. Malpighian corpuscles
explanation of (A). d. Malpighian tubules
d. Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the 31. Young cockroach is called
correct explanation of (A). a. Pupa b. Ephyra
27. Exoskeleton of cockroach and other insects is c. Nymph d. Maggot
formed of
a. Keratin b. Amino acids
c. Chitinous cuticle d. Non-chitinous cuticle

1. c 2. b 3. a 4. a 5. c 6. c 7. c 8. d 9. a
10. a 11. b 12. d 13. b 14. b 15. b 16. c 17. c 18. c
19. d 20. c 21. a 22. a 23. a 24. b 25. d 26. c 27. b
28. b 29. d 30. c

34 w w w. r a y s e d u c a t i o n. o r g