CHAPTER 3.

TISSUE BIOLOGY

Lesson 1

Tissues

 A tissue is one of the building blocks of an organism--either

animal or plant. An organism is comprised of tissues, which
are made up of individual cells. These cells share a similar
structure (how they're built) and function (what they do).

 Tissues are what makes up our bodies: everything from our

bones to organs like our heart and brain! Even blood is
considered to be a tissue.
The Four Basic Human Tissue Types
 This tissue has many different specific types,
which range from bone and cartilage, which
make up the human skeleton, to blood and fat
(also known as adipose connective tissue).
 Muscle Tissue
 The functions of muscle tissue are movement,
maintenance of posture and body temp.,
communication, construction of organs and
vessels, and contraction of the heart.
 There are three different types of muscle
tissue. They are smooth, skeletal and cardiac

 Epithelial Tissue
 The functions of epithelia are protection from the
environment, coverage, secretion and excretion,
absorption, and filtration.
 epithelial covers something; typically, an organ. All
types of epithelium issue have basement membrane.
 Epithelial tissues have one of three main cell shapes:
columnar, cuboidal, and squamous. Columnar cells
look like columns, and cuboidal cells look like cubes.
Squamous cells are scale-like.
 Different types of epithelial tissues are defined by two
things:
 The cell shape they have
 How many cell layers thick they are?
muscle tissue.
 Nervous Tissue
 there are no specific tissues within this broad
category. This tissue makes up our brain and
spinal cord, as well as the nerves in our bodies.
 It is responsible for coordinating and
controlling many body activities. It stimulates
muscle contraction, creates an awareness of the
environment, and plays a major role in
emotions, memory, and reasoning.

 Connective Tissue
 it connects things in our body together
Plant Tissue Systems
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 CHAPTER 3. TISSUE BIOLOGY
Unlike mammals, plants do not have basic
tissue types, but tissue systems. They are
classified as tissue systems because each
system has a specific job. The three tissue
systems in plants are epidermis, vascular, and
ground tissue.
The epidermis in plants are the cells that
combine to make up the leaves. Have you
ever heard of the epidermis in humans? It's
another word for our skin. The vascular
tissues transport water and food to the plant
from the roots and the leaves. Ground
tissue makes nutrients for the plant using a
process called photosynthesis, which means
using sunlight to make energy.
Lesson 2
Epithelial Tissue
Function, Types & StructureTypes & Explanation
 Epithelial tissues are widespread
throughout the body. They form the
covering of all body surfaces, line
body cavities and hollow organs, and
are the major tissue in glands.
 The tissue that lines, and covers, and
generally organizes your body,
creating order from what would be
chaos.
There are two major types of epithelia:
 Proper/Primary Epithelium
 protects the whole body, inside and out. It’s a great
organizer, partitioning everything into separate but
connected units. It covers the surface of the body
when it combines with connective tissue to create
skin, but it also lines the body cavities, and coats the
internal and external walls of many of the organs.
Epithelia Cell Shapes
- the shape of each kind of epithelial cell correlates with
its function.
 Squamous
 Are flat polygonal cells with small
round nuclei. Their name means
“scale,” and they look kind of
squished, like fish scales. Even the
cell’s nucleus, which gets darkly
stained and is usually easy to see, is
flattened.
 Their function absorption or
transportation. The primary function
of simple squamous epithelia is to
facilitate diffusion of gases and small
molecules They perform a variety of
functions that include protection,
secretion, absorption, excretion,
filtration, diffusion, and sensory
reception.
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 CHAPTER 3. TISSUE BIOLOGY

epithelium lines the organs of

the urinary system and is
known here as urothelium.

 Cuboidal
 cube-ish shaped, about as tall as they are
wide.
 The important functions of the simple
cuboidal epithelium are secretion, like
sweat. Their nucleus and absorption.
 This epithelial type is found in the small
collecting ducts of the kidneys, pancreas,
and salivary glands.
 Glandular Epithelium
 Columnar  The glandular epithelium is a group of tissues,
 tall and thick and look like columns, and other than the covering and lining epithelium,
they cushion underlying tissues. And as if which is specialized for the production and
they were cuboidal cells that got stretched
secretion of various macromolecules. Because of
tall, their nuclei also are stretched into an
ellipse. its primary function, the glandular epithelium is
 The main function of simple columnar also called the secretory epithelium.
epithelial cells are protection. For example,
the epithelium in the stomach and digestive glandular epithelium forms two different kinds of
tract provides an impermeable barrier
against any bacteria that could be ingested
but is permeable to any necessary ions. This
function is especially important in the colon

Epithelia Cell LAYERING

 Simple Epithelium glands:

 Only one layer of cells.
 Endocrine Glands
 Secrete hormones right into your
 Stratified Epithelium bloodstream or to nearby cells
 Multiple layers set on top of
each other, like bricks

 Pseudostratified Epithelium
 epithelium consisting of a
single layer of cells that gives the
appearance of being multiple
layers because the nuclei of the  Exocrine Glands
cells are present at different
 Secrete their juices into tubes or ducts that
levels.
lead to the outside of the body, or the inside
of your tube, rather than right into the blood.
 Transitional Epithelium
 consists of multiple layers of describing a type of epithelial tissue
epithelial cells which can
contract and expand in order to  when describing a type of epithelial tissue, like in a lab
adapt to the degree of setting, we cite both its shape and its layering. think of a
distension needed. Transitional

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 CHAPTER 3. TISSUE BIOLOGY
tissue’s first name as its number of layers, and its This
name as the shape of its cells.
Example:
Simple squamous epithelium from doing so, in order to keep the epithelium
 A single layer of flat, alive.
scale-like cells
Stratified cuboidal tissue
 layers of cube-shaped cells, like the
linings of the ducts that leak sweat and
spit.
Structure OF epithelial
tissue 💡 All of epithelial cells are
polar, meaning they have
distinct sides
 The Apical or Upper Side of Epithelium
 Is the side that faces the opposite direction, usually
towards the lumen (inside) of a tube.
 Is exposed to either the outside of your body, or
whatever internal cavity it’s lining.
 The Basal Side or Inner Surface of the
Epithelium
 Tightly attached to the basement membrane, a thin
layer of mostly collagen fibers that helps hold the
epithelium together, and anchors it to the next-
deeper.
 The basal lamina is a layer of extracellular matrix
secreted by the epithelial cells, on which the
epithelium sits. It is often incorrectly referred to as
the basement membrane, though it does constitute
a portion of the basement membrane.
 Basement Membrane
 All epithelial tissue relies on a structure called a
basement membrane.
last is a thin sheet of tissueLesson
underneath
3 the
epithelium that helps to anchor the epithelium to
deeper tissues.
 The basement membrane also helps to allow
certain substances to pass through, or blocks them
The Function of epithelial
tissue
 The protection of underlying tissue
from things like the sun, trauma, or
bacteria
 The secretion and exchange of important
enzymes, hormones, and sweat
Connective Tissue
Types & definition
 Connective tissue keeps a person looking young,
makes up the skeleton, and delivers oxygen and
nutrients throughout the body. It’s what holds the
human body together, in more ways than one.
 Issue where cells are distributed within an
extracellular matrix.
 all connective tissues have three factors in
common that set them apart from other tissue
types:
 They share a common origin: They all develop
from mesenchyme, a loose and fluid type of
embryonic tissue
 Connective tissues have different degrees of
vascularity, or blood flow.
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 CHAPTER 3. TISSUE BIOLOGY

 All connective tissues are mostly composed of Collagen - Is a hard, insoluble, and fibrous protein that
nonliving material, called the extracellular makes up one-third of the protein in the human body. In
matrix. most collagens, the molecules are packed together to
 Extracellular matrix - on-cellular portion of a tissue. form long, thin fibrils. These act as supporting
It is a collection of extracellular material produced andstructures and anchor cells to each other. They give the
secreted by cells into the surrounding medium. The skin strength and elasticity.
main function of the extracellular matrix is to provide Elastic - are long, thin, and highly retractile. Elastin, as
structural and biochemical support to the surrounding its name implies, provides elasticity and extensibility to
cells. the dermis and assists in recovery from deformation.
 Matrix is made of two components: allow connective tissue to stretch and recoil.
 The Ground Substance - a watery, rubbery,  Reticular Fiber - a mesh-like, supportive framework
unstructured material that fills in the spaces between
cells and protects the cells from their surroundings.
The anchors of this framework are proteins called
proteoglycans. And from each one sprouts lots and
lots of long, starchy strands called

for soft organs such as lymphatic tissue, the spleen, and

the liver. Reticular cells produce the reticular fibers that
form the network onto which other cells attach.

glycosaminoglycans, or GAGs, radiating out from

those proteins like brush bristles.

 Proteoglycan - major component of the animal

extracellular matrix, the "filler" substance existing
between cells in an organism. They are also involved
in binding cations.
 Glycosaminoglycans - play a crucial role in the cell
signaling process, including regulation of cell growth,
proliferation, promotion of cell adhesion, anticoagulation,
and wound repair.
 Fibers - provide support and structure. Responsible for
providing connective tissue with tensile strength and
elasticity, respectively.
Types of Fibers:
Connective Tissue Cell Types:
 Immature - Immature cells share the suffix “-
blast.” in their names. it means forming. There are
the stem cells that are still in the process of
dividing to replicate themselves. But each kind of
blast cell has a specialized function: namely, to
secrete the ground substances and fiber that form
its unique matrix.
 Mature - Mature cells share the suffix “-cyte” in
their names. These cyte cells maintain the health of
the matrix built by the blasts, but they can
sometimes revert back to their blast state if they
need to repair or generate a new matrix.

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 CHAPTER 3. TISSUE BIOLOGY
 Immune Cell Types:
 Macrophages - guard cells that patrol the
connective tissues and eat bacteria, foreign
materials, and even dead cells.
 White Blood Cells or Leukocyte - scour
circulatory system fighting off infection.
Kinds of Cells in Connective Tissue
Resident cells or Fixed cells - create
fibrous material, or the matrix, of some
connective tissues. cells that develop and
remain within connective tissue. Fibroblasts,
adipocytes (fat cells), macrophages, and mast
cells are regarded as resident cells.
Transient cells or Wandering cells - cells
that move through the cellular matrix. used to
describe cells that are found in connective
tissue, but are not fixed in place. This term is
used occasionally and usually refers to blood
leukocytes
Types of connective Tissue
 Fibrous/Proper Connective Tissue
 Composed of parallel bundles of collagen fibers.
provides insulation and fuel storage and also serves
structural purposes.
 Bone
 A connective tissue containing cells, fibers and
ground substance. There are many functions in the
body in which the bone participates, such as storing
Lesson 4
minerals, providing internal support, protecting vital
organs, enabling movement, and providing attachment
sites for muscles and tendons.
 Cartilage
 A form of connective tissue in which the ground
substance is abundant and of a firmly gelatin
consistency that endows this tissue with unusual
rigidity and resistance to compression. keeps joint
motion fluid by coating the surfaces of the bones in
our joints and by cushioning bones against impact.
 Blood
 A connective tissue that has a fluid matrix, called
plasma, and no fibers. Erythrocytes (red blood cells),
the predominant cell type, are involved in the transport
of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Blood is considered a
connective tissue for two basic reasons: (1)
embryologically, it has the same origin (mesodermal)
as do the other connective tissue types and (2) blood
connects the body systems together bringing the
needed oxygen, nutrients, hormones and other
signaling molecules, and removing the wastes.
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 CHAPTER 3. TISSUE BIOLOGY

 The primary cell type in connective tissue proper is the

fibroblast.
 Fibroblast - produces components for the extracellular matrix
of the connective tissue proper, which includes collagen and
elastin. The fibroblast means “fiber formers”. Fibroblasts
manufacture proteins and secrete them (via exocytosis) into the
extracellular matrix where they act as building blocks for the
matrix.

Functions and Structures

Proper Connective Tissue

Loose connective Tissue
Most common type of connective tissue. It holds organs in
place and attaches epithelial tissue to other underlying
tissues. Found between many organs where it acts both to
absorb shock and bind tissues together. It allows water, salts,
and various nutrients to diffuse through to adjacent or
imbedded cells and tissues.
Types OF Loose connective Tissue:
 Areolar Connective Tissue
 Most common loose connective tissue. Mainly found
around under the epithelial tissue, and wrapped around
organs.
 Areolar tissue appears as a disorganized network of
fibers with lots of space between them and a small
 The main function of connective tissue proper is to
bind tissues, and to resist stress and taring due to
Connective tissue proper contains tissues that
stretching and tension placed on the tissue. fall into 2 different categories.
 Connective tissue proper, found in most organs, is
Loose Connective Tissues
characterized by a predominance of fibers in the
extracellular matrix. Its varied functions are chiefly Dense Connective Tissues
related to binding cells and tissues into organs and There are 3 types of Loose There are 3 types of
organ systems. Connective Tissue. Dense Connective
Tissue.
Areolar Connective Dense Regular Connective
Tissue Tissue 7
Adipose (Fat) Tissue Dense Irregular
Connective Tissue
Reticular Tissue Elastic Connective Tissue
 CHAPTER 3. TISSUE BIOLOGY

number of spread-out cells. The ground substance of

the areolar tissue is a viscous liquid that surrounds the
cells and fibers.
 holds organs in place and attaches epithelial tissue to
other underlying tissues. It also serves as a reservoir of
water and salts for surrounding tissues. Almost all
cells obtain their nutrients from and release their
 Reticular Tissue
 A type of loose connective tissue that contains
a network of reticular fibers. The word
"reticulum" means (net or network).
 Reticular connective tissue is found in bone
marrow and surrounding the kidneys, the
spleen, and the lymph nodes. tissue that forms
a stroma and provide structural support.
 Reticular tissue forms a flexible 'skeleton' or
internal framework, that can support many free
blood cells (largely lymphocytes) in lymph
nodes, the spleen, and red bone marrow.

wastes into areolar connective tissue.

 Adipose (Fat) Tissue
 A Connective tissue consisting of lipid-rich cells
called adipocytes. A type of specialized connective
tissue whose main functions are to store the energy,
protect the organs and contribute to the endocrine
profile of the body

 There are two types of fat tissue (Based on

structure)
- White Fat - stores your energy in large fat
droplets (in the form of a lipid droplet). Mainly
found in adults.
- Brown Fat - Generate heat to help maintain
your body temperature in cold conditions.
Mainly found in newborn.
 There are two kinds of fat tissue (Based on
location)
- Visceral Fat - body fat that's stored within
the abdominal cavity
- Subcutaneous Fat - fat that surrounds the
organs and fat stored just beneath your skin.
Dense connective Tissue
Dense connective tissue, also called dense fibrous tissue, is a
type of connective tissue with fibers as its main matrix
element. Dense connective tissue forms strong, rope-like
structures such as tendons and ligaments. Tendons attach
skeletal muscles to bones; ligaments connect bones to bones
at joints. Its function is providing strong connection between
different tissues
Types OF Dense connective Tissue:

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 CHAPTER 3. TISSUE BIOLOGY

 Dense regular connective

Lesson 5 the collagen fibers
tissue,
are arranged in parallel bundles. It makes it suitable
for binding body parts together. type of tissue, the
collagen fibers are densely packed, and arranged in
parallel. This type of tissue is found in ligaments
(which link bone to bone at joints) and tendons
(connections between bones or cartilage and muscle).
 provide great resistance to tension when that tension is
exerted in one direction.
Connective tissues that have a very large
amount of elastin are referred to as elastic
connective tissue.
 Elastic fibers are long, thin fibers that form
branching network in the extracellular matrix.
They help the connective tissue to stretch and
recoil. function is to provide elasticity and
resilience to the tissues.

 Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

 A Dense irregular connective tissue contains collagen
fibers arranged into irregular, interwoven bundles.
(Some elastic fibers are also present.) Dense irregular
connective tissue is found prominently in the dermis
of the skin and the lamina propria of the
gastrointestinal tract.

 Dense irregular connective tissue is able to

withstand tension from multiple directions. It
provides support and strength. This tissue is found
in areas that experience stretching from multiple
angles, such as the dermis of the skin, the
submucosa of the digestive tract and the fibrous
capsules of organs and joints.
 Thick irregular connective tissue can be discovered
in (1) the deep layer of the skin (dermis), (2) the
joint pills surrounding easily movable joints, (3)
the membranes surrounding bone, cartilage, and
the heart, (4) heart valves, and (5) membrane pills
Bone or Osseous
surrounding some internal organs.
 Elastic Connective Tissue
Tissues
 Elastic fibers are present in different
concentrations in all of the connective tissues
proper. Elastic fibers are made with elastin
that has the ability to stretch and then return Functions and Types
to its original shape after being stretched.

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 CHAPTER 3. TISSUE BIOLOGY
 Bone connective tissue provides structural
support for other tissues such as our muscles
and skin.
 Bone tissue is a supportive type of connective
tissue. It acts to shield the internal organs and to
provide structure and support.
 also known as osseous tissue. Bone is alive and
filled with blood vessels. It has incredible
strengthen due to inorganic calcium salts that
form a rigid ground substance of the matrix.
Bone functions in the body to provide structural
support and protection to internal body
structures. Bone is able to withstand a great
deal of compression and tension (pushing force
and pulling force).
 The two main types of cells that are responsible
for bone formation and degradation are
osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
 Osteoblasts - secrete the collagen fibers
and the materials needed for the ground
substance. responsible for bone formation
and responsible for building that matrix in
bone tissue. These cells are also
responsible for mineralization of bone. The
number of osteoblasts in our body
decreases with age. This means that as we
get older, our bones are not repaired as
efficiently, so they become more brittle
and can break more easily
 The osteoblasts mature into the osteocytes.
– Osteocytes - a star-shaped cell found
in mature bone. reside in the lacunae
filling up the space. Perform two
important functions First it assists
osteoblasts and osteoclasts in forming
and breaking down bone tissue. The
second important function is
communication and exchange. Blood
vessels and nerve cells located in the
Haversian canal communicate with
osteocytes using the canaliculi. The
canaliculi are also used to exchange
nutrients and waste throughout bone
tissue.
 Osteoclasts - responsible for bone
degradation. These cells break down the
bone matrix and the bone itself. The
broken-down bone cells and matrix are
reabsorbed by our bodies. Osteoclasts are
very important because they 'clean out' bad
or damaged bone, so osteoblasts can come
in and repair the damage to build new
bone.
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 CHAPTER 3. TISSUE BIOLOGY

Central canal or Haversian Canal - runs lengthwise

through the bone and it houses nerves and blood vessels
that supply the bone with nutrients, it allows bone to get
oxygen and nutrition without being highly vascular. These
canals also communicate with bone cells using special
connections, or canaliculi.
 Concentric Lamellae - The thin
cylindrical plates, or layers of bone matrix
(produced by osteoblasts) around the
minute vascular central canals in compact
bone, which in cross-section produce a
COMPACT BONE pattern of circles of different size, one
within another, having a common center.
TISSUE composed of calcified matrix and this
matrix is comprised of inorganic salts and
Compact bone tissue is quite dense, with no visible spaces. It organic material.
forms the external layer of the bones and stores calcium for
 Inorganic Matrix is made up
bone cells to use to make more tissue. It provides protection
and strength to bones. Compact bone tissue consists of units of:
called osteons or Haversian systems.  rock like crystals of calcium and
phosphate called hydroxyapatite
Stature COMPACT BONE crystals
 calcium carbonate
 magnesium
 sodium
 sulfate
 fluoride
 Organic Material is
comprised of:
 collagenous fibers
 A gel like ground substance
containing protein and
polysaccharides - important in
providing support and adhesion

TISSUE
 Osteons or Haversian Systems - It provides
protection and strength to bones.

between cellular and fibrous

elements

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 CHAPTER 3. TISSUE BIOLOGY

 Circumferential Lamellae - thin communication and a passageway for the delivery of

parallel plates, or layers of bone matrix nutrients to the osteocyte’s cells.
(produced by osteoblasts) located just deep  Transverse or Volkmann Canals - connects central
to the periosteum which covers the outside canals to one another and these canals also house nerves
of bones and along the endosteum. and blood vessels.
 Periosteum - a very thin sheath of
connective tissue that encourages proper
bone growth and development and delivers
blood and nutrients to the bones, and it
covers most of the bones in your body.
 Endosteum - thin vascular membrane of
connective tissue that lines the inner surface
of the bony tissue that forms the medullary
cavity of long bones and lines the inner
spongy bone tissue.
 Interstitial Lamellae - are located
between osteons.

spongy BONE TISSUE

 Lacunae – are the small spaces in bone tissue where
mature bone cells called osteocytes are imprisoned.
 Osteocytes - cells are responsible for maintaining
the bone matrix.
 Canaliculi - small canals that extend in many
directions from the lacunae connecting to other lacunae
in the central canal they provide for intercellular
Spongy Bone Tissue is found in the heads of long bones
and in the inner layer of flat bones like the sternum.
This spongy tissue is strong, but porous, even to the
naked eye, and it uses this extra room to make and store
bone marrow. Spongy bone reduces the density of bone
and allows the ends of long bones to compress as the
result of stresses applied to the bone. Spongy bone is
prominent in areas of bones that are not heavily stressed
or where stresses arrive from many directions.

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 CHAPTER 3. TISSUE BIOLOGY
Stature spongy BONE
Lesson 6
TISSUE
 Trabeculae - are the thin columns and
plates of bone that create a spongy structure
in a cancellous bone, which is located at the
ends of long bones and in the pelvis, ribs,
skull, and vertebrae. tend to form along
lines of stress, giving the bone strength and
flexibility in that area.
 Parallel Lamellae - lamellae that are
arranged as rods or plates. composed of
bone matrix
 Canaliculi - connect to the adjacent
cavities, instead of a central haversian
canal, to receive their blood supply. It may
appear that the trabeculae are arranged in a
haphazard manner, but they are organized
to provide maximum strength similar to
braces that are used to support a building.
Provide a passageway for nutrients to reach
the osteocytes cells.
Definition, Types & Function
Cartilaginous or
Cartilage Tissues
 Cartilage is a semi – rigid and flexible
connective tissue meaning its neither too
hard like bones and not too soft like
muscle. provides cushioning between your joints. Its job is
to support and connect various parts of your body. Usually,
there’s a layer of connective tissue that wraps around
cartilage called the perichondrium .
Perichondrium - has an outer layer that contains
fibrous connective tissue and blood vessels, and it
has an inner layer that contains chondroblasts .
Chondroblasts - secrete the proteins that make up
the extracellular matrix of the cartilage - which has a
gel-like consistency. Chondroblasts get trapped
inside the very matrix that they create, in small holes
called lacunae. When that happens chondroblasts turn
into chondrocytes .
Chondrocytes - don’t make much extracellular
matrix, instead they maintain and repair the
extracellular matrix.
 Extracellular Matrix - a gel-like consistency.
composed of protein fibers like collagen which
gives it strength and elastin which gives it
flexibility. And these protein fibers are embedded
in a viscous gel, made of water and proteoglycan
aggregates.
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 CHAPTER 3. TISSUE BIOLOGY

Appositional
growth
 Proteoglycan Aggregates - large molecules occurs when
that look a bit like a centipede. A long chain chondroblasts
of secrete
hyaluronic acid molecules called a hyaluronan new matrix along
makes up the body of this proteoglycan aggregate,
existing surfaces and
and hundreds of proteoglycans make up the legs.this causes the
cartilage to expand and

Interstitial growth
chondrocytes secrete
new matrix within the
cartilage and this
causes it to grow in

Cartilage has two patterns of growth:

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CHAPTER 3. TISSUE BIOLOGY

Elastic cartilage TISSUE

Elastic cartilage is the softest and most flexible type of
cartilage. It’s only found in tissue that can be bent or folded
repeatedly without damage like the pinnae, which is this
external part of the ear, and the epiglottis which is the flap that
covers the opening of the larynx when a person eats.

Elastic cartilage is similar to hyaline cartilage except

the extracellular matrix contains its defining feature of a
dense network of elastic fibers, which gives this type of
cartilage its flexibility and elastic characteristics.

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 CHAPTER 3. TISSUE BIOLOGY

 The pinna of the external ear is stained with

Masson’s trichrome and aldehyde fuchsin. The articulating surface of a long
bone, with the articulating
aldehyde fuchsin stain highlights the elastic fibers
surface
dark pink within the matrix of the cartilage.
 elastic cartilage that are similar to hyaline
cartilage, such as the cartilage matrix, which stains
blue; the chondrocytes within lacunae; and also,
the perichondrium at the top, which is stained
purple and dark blue.

a longitudinal section of the

trachea, which is an example
of hyaline cartilage
hyaline
providing structural

cartilage TISSUE
Hyaline cartilage has a medium density of cells and medium
density of protein fiber. The main protein fibers are type II
collagen fibers along with some loosely organized elastin
fibers. This makes hyaline cartilage stronger but less flexible
than elastic cartilage. Hyaline cartilage makes up structures
like the nose which needs to be stiff enough to let the nostrils
stay open, but also flexible enough to let a person squeeze
them shut as a skunk approach. Hyaline cartilage also makes
up the walls of the larynx, and the half ring shaped tracheal
cartilages that hold the trachea open. It also makes up the
articular cartilages which covers the tips of bones that forms
a joint. The hyaline cartilage provides a low friction surface
so that the bones don’t rub against each other every time a
person move. This is also the type of cartilage makes up the
costal cartilages that attaches the ribs to the sternum,
allowing the chest to expand and recoil during respiration.

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 CHAPTER 3. TISSUE BIOLOGY

Fibrocartilage also has scattered fibroblasts that are typically

within the fibrous regions of the tissue. These cells can be
identified by their long and thin nuclei, such as the one seen in
this image.

Fibrocartilage TISSUE
the lowest density of cells and the highest density of protein fiber giving
it the greatest tensile strength. Unlike elastic and hyaline cartilage which
have type II collagen, fibrocartilage chondroblasts secrete type I
collagen which is much tougher and also found in bones. Type I
collagen is densely packed and organized in parallel rows, making it
resistant to compression and stretching, but also a lot less flexible. This
is why. fibrocartilage is found in weight-bearing structures, like the

meniscus between the femur and tibia in the knees, and the
intervertebral discs between the vertebrae in the spine.

Fibrocartilage TISSUE Stature

fibrocartilage has a mixture of features from hyaline cartilage and
dense connective tissue. And similar to articular hyaline cartilage, this
type of cartilage doesn’t have a perichondrium.

 The general structure of fibrocartilage can be seen even at low

magnification, with alternating layers of:
 Purple hyaline cartilage matrix - thick layers of dense
connective tissue that have type I collagen that stains pink.
 The fibers are arranged in the same direction as their functional
stress to maximize their strength and resist deforming.
 chondrocytes within their lacunae in the basophilic matrix,
similar to the other types of cartilage.

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 CHAPTER 3. TISSUE BIOLOGY
Lesson 7
Blood Tissues
Definition, Types & Function
 Fluid connective tissue includes lymph and blood. Various
specialized cells circulate in a watery fluid containing salts,
nutrients, and dissolved proteins.
 Blood consists of blood cells surrounded by a liquid
nonliving matrix called blood plasma. Its cells and
matrix are very different.
 Blood functions as the transport vehicle for the
cardiovascular system, carrying defense cells, nutrients,
wastes, respiratory gases, and many other substances
throughout the body. blood helps us move nutrients and
waste around the body, regulate our pH level, and helps
prevent infections.
COMPONENTS OF BLOOD
 Erythrocytes - are shaped liked thin biconcave discs-meaning
they have a depressed center which makes them flexible enough to
fit through even the smallest blood vessels. This shape also
increases their surface area which helps them conduct gas
exchange efficiently. Erythrocytes lack organelles like the nucleus,
which creates even more room for hemoglobin proteins which
carry oxygen. Erythrocytes don’t have any organelles means that
they only live for about 120 days. So red blood cells are always
being regenerated in the bone marrow.
 erythrocytes are to carry oxygen to tissues and bring carbon
dioxide to the lungs so it can be expired.
45% of the total blood volume made up of erythrocytes. This value
is called the hematocrit.
 Decreased Hematocrit - there are too few erythrocytes, either
because they’re not being made or because they are being
destroyed.
 Increased Hematocrit - can be due to dehydration, because if
there’s less liquid in the blood, then the portion taken up by
erythrocytes would rise or there might simply be too many
erythrocytes being made, which can happen in some diseases.
 Buffy Coat - this is the thin white middle layer just
above the erythrocytes. It contains platelets and
leukocytes, or white blood cells.
 This layer generally accounts for less than 1% of the
volume of whole blood--with most of the volume being
taken up by the leukocytes.
 Platelets - are small pieces that split off of larger
cells called megakaryocytes in the bone marrow. The
main role of platelets is to clump together and form a
plug that helps seal off a damaged blood vessel and
prevent blood loss.
 Leukocytes - which are the only complete cells in
blood--meaning they have all the usual organelles.
There are lots of different types of leukocytes - and
they all help to ward off pathogens like bacteria and
viruses, destroy cancerous cells, and neutralize
toxins.
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 CHAPTER 3. TISSUE BIOLOGY
 Granulocytes - they contain tiny sacs called
granules that are filled with inflammatory
molecules.
- Neutrophils - are the most common
granulocyte, making up about 60% of the
leukocytes and these are usually the first to
respond to an infection.
- Eosinophils - are largely responsible for
fighting off parasitic infections.
- Basophils - are key in allergic reactions
- eosinophils and basophils, but these only
make up about 2-
5% of leukocytes.
 Lymphocytes - are responsible for the adaptive
immune response which includes antibody production
and is what allows our immune system to have
“memory” so that we can effectively respond to
pathogens that have caused infections in the past.
 Lymphocytes include B cells, T cells, and Natural killer
cells, and make up about 35% of leukocytes.
 Monocytes - these cells help gobble up bacteria or
other pathogens via phagocytosis. Unlike the other
blood components, leukocytes have the ability to leave
the blood and enter into tissues using a process called
diapedesis, which is where they slip in between
endothelial cells that line the blood vessels. In way
leukocytes are like a mobile army utilizing the blood
as a highway to get to different areas of the body.
 Monocytes which make up about 5% of the leukocytes
 Plasma - makes up approximately 55% of whole blood and is
acellular, meaning it has no cells. About 90% of plasma is water, and
the rest is composed of proteins, electrolytes, and dissolved gases.
About 90% of plasma is water, and the rest is composed of proteins,
electrolytes, and dissolved gases. The most abundant protein found in
blood is albumin.
 Albumin - is made in the liver and it helps maintain oncotic
pressure. Which is the force that helps to keep water in the
bloodstream. albumin is a transport protein, it shuttles fatty
acids, calcium, lipid soluble hormones, and even some
medications around the body.
 Another group of plasma proteins are globulins which include
gamma globulins
 Gamma globulins - are antibodies that stick to pathogens and
label them for destruction.
 as well as alpha and beta globulins which transport fats,
metal ions, and fat-soluble vitamins.
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 CHAPTER 3. TISSUE BIOLOGY

 Fibrinogen Lesson 8 abundant plasma protein andFunctional

- another it’s Classification
involved in clot formation for damaged vessels. helpsplatelets
Voluntary
attach to one another to form the initial platelet plug, and then
Involuntary
other clotting factor proteins that are also in the plasma come
along to stabilize the clot.
Types of Muscle
 All of these clotting factor proteins, including fibrinogen, can be
removed from a sample of plasma and when that happens, what
Skeletal Muscle: which is striated and voluntary

remains is called serum. Cardiac Muscle: which is striated and involuntary

 The electrolytes that are found in the plasma include mainly
Smooth Muscle: which is non striated and
sodium, potassium, calcium, bicarbonate, and chloride.involuntary
 These electrolytes play vital roles in maintaining normal acid
base physiology in the blood, and help regulate blood
Muscle Terminology
osmolarity, which is the overall concentration of blood.
Myofiber or Myocyte - a muscle cell
 Other solutes in the plasma include hormones, nutrients like
Sarcolemma - the plasma membrane of a muscle cell
glucose, and respiratory gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide
that are dissolved in the blood. Sarcoplasm - the cytoplasm of the muscle cell

Muscle Tissues
Skeletal, Cardiac & Smooth

Muscle Function
1. Contraction for locomotion and skeletal movement
2. Contraction for propulsion
3. Contraction for pressure regulation
 
Muscle classification: Muscle tissue may be classified Sarcoplasmic Reticulum - the endoplasmic reticulum of a
according to a morphological classification or a muscle cell
Sarcosome - the mitochondria of a muscle cell
functional classification.
Sarcomere - the contractile or functional unit of muscle
 
 Fascicles - are smaller bundles that made up the muscle. These bundles
 Morphological Classification (based on structure) are surrounded by a connective tissue sheath called the perimysium.
 Striated  Myocytes - also be called myofibers or muscle fibers. Muscle cell that
 Non striated or smooth made fascicle

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 CHAPTER 3. TISSUE BIOLOGY

 Endomysium - a connective tissue sheath that surrounded muscle cell.  It is the orderly overlapping of the actin and myosin
important in the physiology of muscle contraction because it electrically filaments that give cardiac and skeletal muscle their
insulates the individual muscle cells from each other. striated appearance (light and dark bands).

- At the ends of the muscle all of the connective tissue sheaths

(epimysium, perimysium, and endomysium) converge to form a
tendon which will connect the muscle to its attachment site.
- The
Each muscle fiber (muscle cell) contains all of the organelles that we A band is the dark band and corresponds to the length
find in other cell types. of a bundle of myosin filaments. Because muscle
- Although these organelles are the same as in other cells, they arecontraction is a sliding of the myofilaments past each other
given special names. Note: that the prefixes sarco- and myo- both we do not see any of the myofilaments actually shorten.
refer to muscle. Therefore, if you see a word with either of theseHowever, the width of the banding patterns changes as the
prefixes you should immediately think MUSCLE.
degree of overlap changes. Because the A band corresponds
to the length of the myosin filaments, and these filaments do
 Sarcolemma - is the name given to the plasma membrane of thenot shorten, the width of the A band also does not shorten.
muscle cell. There are specialized invaginations of the sarcolemma that
run transversely across the cell. These invaginations are known as The
T light bands are known as I bands. The I bands are
tubules (short for transverse tubules). composed mainly of actin filaments. Each I band is bisected
 T tubules - are essential for carrying the depolarization brought tobythea protein disc known as the Z-line. Actin filaments are
cell by a motor nerve impulse down into the muscle cell where it cananchored into the Z-line. During muscle contraction the
have an effect on the terminal cisternae. actin filaments slide over the myosin filaments which
 Cytosol - is the cytoplasm of the muscle cell. results in a shortening of the I band.
 The Sarcoplasmic Reticulum - is the endoplasmic reticulum In of the
the middle of the A band is a somewhat lighter area
muscle cell.
known as the H zone. This zone corresponds to the area
 Terminal Cisternae - are sac-like regions of the sarcoplasmic
where we have myosin not overlapped by actin (the area
reticulum. Act as calcium storage sites. The calcium ions stored in the
terminal cisternae are essential in muscle contraction. between the thin filaments). During muscle contraction the
o In skeletal muscle two terminal cisternae are associated with aactin
T sliding over the myosin encroaches into this area so
tubule to form a structure known as a triad. This differs from that the H zone shortens.
cardiac muscle where one terminal cisterna associates with one T
tubule to form a diad.
In the middle of the H zone, we see a dark band known as
 Mitochondria - are sites of energy production (ATP synthesis) in the
muscle cell as in all other cells of the body, except for mature red blood
cells.
 Myofibril - is a cylindrical bundle of contractile proteins found within
the muscle cell.
o Note: that there are several myofibrils within each muscle cell. It is
the arrangement of the contractile proteins within the myofibril that
cause the striated appearance of skeletal and cardiac muscle.
o Myofibrils are composed of individual contractile proteins
called myofilaments. These myofilaments are generally divided
into thick and thin myofilaments.
 The thin myofilaments - are composed mainly of a protein
known as actin. Actin filaments are anchored into the z-line
of a sarcomere.
 The thick myofilaments - are composed mainly of the
protein myosin.

the M line. The M line is comprised of protein fibers that

function to anchor the myosin filaments.

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 CHAPTER 3. TISSUE BIOLOGY

 The area between two Z lines is known as a sarcomere. The contraction of muscle fibers so that we may control the
sarcomere is the functional or contractile unit of muscle. strength and extent of muscle contraction. Without motor
units a nerve impulse to the muscle would result in the
entire muscle contracting to its full extent. That would
The neuromuscular system make every motion that we make an “all or none”
motion. This type of movement would make life nearly
The brain, nerves and skeletal muscles work together to cause impossible.
movement. This is collectively known as the neuromuscular
system. A typical muscle is serviced by anywhere between 50 and
200 (or more) branches of specialised nerve cells called motor Types of muscel Tissue
neurones. These plug directly into the skeletal muscle. The tip of
each branch is called a presynaptic terminal. The point of contact
between the presynaptic terminal and the muscle is called the
neuromuscular junction.

To move a particular body part:

1. The brain sends a message to the motor neurones.

2. This triggers the release of the chemical
acetylcholine from the presynaptic terminals.
3. The muscle responds to acetylcholine by contracting.

Muscles contract when they receive a motor impulse

from a motor nerve. These nerve impulses serve only a
limited number of muscle fibers. The muscle fibers
served by a single motor neuron make up a structure
known as a motor unit. Motor units allow for selective

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 CHAPTER 3. TISSUE BIOLOGY

Skeletal Muscle - are elongated or tubular. They have tissue, which you can control. It does this through
multiple nuclei and these nuclei are located on the periphery of specialized cells called pacemaker cells. These control
the cell. Skeletal muscle is striated. Enable humans to move the contractions of your heart.
and perform daily activities. They play an essential role in
respiratory mechanics and help in maintaining posture and
balance. They also protect the vital organs in the body.

Shapes of skeletal muscles:

1. Parallel or fusiform: as their name implies their fibers
run parallel to each other.  These muscles contract over a
great distance and usually have good endurance but are not
very strong.  Examples: Sartorius muscle and rectus
Smooth Muscle - are described as spindle shaped.
That is, they are wide in the middle and narrow to
almost a point at both ends. Smooth muscle cells have
a single centrally located nucleus. Smooth muscle cells
do not have visible striations although they do contain
the same contractile proteins as skeletal and cardiac
muscle, these proteins are just laid out in a different
pattern. found in the walls of hollow organs like your
intestines and stomach. They work automatically
without you being aware of them. Smooth muscles are
involved in many 'housekeeping' functions of the
body. The muscular walls of your intestines contract to
push food through your body.

abdominus muscle.
2. Convergent: the muscle fibers converge on the insertion
to maximize the force of muscle contraction.  Examples:
Deltoideus muscle and Pectoralis Major muscle.
3. Pennate: many fibers per unit area.  These types of
muscles are strong but they tie or quickly.  
There are three types of pennate muscle.
 Unipennate
 Bipennate
 Multipennate
4. Circular: the muscle fibers surrounded opening to act as a
sphincter.  Examples: Orbicularis oris and Orbicularis oculi
muscles.
Cardiac Muscle - are not as long as skeletal
muscles cells and often are branched cells. Cardiac
muscle cells may be mononucleated or binucleated. In
either case the nuclei are located centrally in the cell.
Cardiac muscle is also striated. In addition, cardiac
muscle contains intercalated discs. works to keep your
heart pumping through involuntary movements. This is
one feature that differentiates it from skeletal muscle

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 CHAPTER 3. TISSUE BIOLOGY
Lesson 9
Nervous Tissues
Definition, Types & Function
 Nervous tissue is the term for groups of organized cells in
the nervous system, which is the organ system that
controls the body’s movements, sends and carries signals
to and from the different parts of the body, and has a role
in controlling bodily functions such as digestion. Nervous
tissue is grouped into two main categories:
o Neurons or nerves - transmit electrical impulses.
o Neuroglia - supporting and protecting neurons.
Function of Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue makes up the nervous system. The nervous
system is subdivided in several overlapping ways.
 Central Nervous System (CNS) - composed of the brain
and spinal cord, which coordinates information from all
areas of the body and sends nerve impulses that control all
bodily movements.
 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - consists of peripheral
nerves that branch all throughout the body. It connects the
CNS to the rest of the body and is directly responsible for
controlling movements of specific parts of the body
subdivision of the nervous system
 Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) - activates in order to
stimulate a fight-or-flight response in an organism when
that organism encounters a threat and must decide whether
to fight or flee from it. The nerves of the SNS have diverse
effects on different parts of the body. Activation of the SNS
causes the pupils of the eyes to dilate, inhibits digestion,
increases sweat secretion, and increases the heart rate.
 Parasympathetic Nervous System (PSNS) - activated
during moments of “rest and digest”, when an organism is
not facing an immediate threat. Nerves of the PSNS work to
stimulate activities that can occur at rest such as digestion,
waste excretion, and sexual arousal, and they also decrease
the heart rate.
 Enteric Nervous System (ENS) - controls the
gastrointestinal tract (digestive tract).
 Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) -. regulates activities
that are performed unconsciously.
Somatic Nervous System (SoNS) controls voluntary body
movements. It is made up of afferent and efferent nerves
that send signals to and from the CNS, causing voluntary
muscle contraction to occur.
Neurons
Neurons are cells that can transmit signals called nerve
impulses, or action potentials. An action potential is a
quick rise and fall in the electrical membrane potential
of the neuron, which transmits signals from one neuron
to the next. These are the different types of neurons:
 Sensory or afferent neurons - relay information
from the PNS to the CNS; different types of sensory
neurons can detect temperature, pressure, and light.
 Motor or efferent neurons - send signals from the
CNS to the PNS; these signals provide information to
sensory neurons to “tell” them what to do (e.g., initiate
muscle movement).
 Interneurons - connect sensory and motor neurons
to the brain and spinal cord; they act as connectors to
form neural circuits and are involved with reflex
actions and higher brain functions like decision-
making.
Neuroglia
Neuroglia, or glial cells, are cells that support neurons,
supply them with nutrients, and get rid of dead cells and
pathogens such as bacteria. They also form insulation
between neurons so that electrical signals do not get
crossed, and can also aid the formation of synaptic
connections between neurons. There are several types of
neuroglia:
 Astro glial cells or astrocytes - are star-shaped cells
found in the brain and spinal cord. They provide
nutrients to neurons, maintain ion balance, and remove
unneeded excess neurotransmitters from the synaptic
cleft.
 Ependymal cells - are also found sin the CNS. There
are two types of ependymal cells. Non-ciliated
ependymal cells form cerebrospinal fluid, while
ciliated ependymal cells help the cerebrospinal fluid
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 CHAPTER 3. TISSUE BIOLOGY

circulate. Cerebrospinal fluid cushions the brain and

spinal cord.
 Oligodendrocytes - are found in the CNS and provide
physical support to neurons. They form a myelin
sheath around some neurons in the CNS. The myelin
sheath is a fatty substance wrapped around the axons
of some neurons; it provides electrical insulation.
 Schwann cells - also form myelin sheaths around
some neurons, but they are only found in the PNS.
Neurons that are myelinated can conduct electrical
impulses faster than non-myelinated neurons.
 Microglial cells or microglia - are small macrophage
cells in the CNS that protect against disease by
engulfing pathogens through phagocytosis (“cell
eating”). They can also destroy infected neurons and
promote the regrowth of neurons. All of the other
types of neuroglia above are larger and collectively
called macroglia.

 Cell body - Also known as a soma, the cell body is the

neuron’s core. The cell body carries genetic information,
maintains the neuron’s structure, and provides energy to
drive activities. Like other cell bodies, a neuron’s soma
contains a nucleus and specialized organelles. It’s enclosed
by a membrane which both protects it and allows it to
interact with its immediate surroundings.

 Axon – The long, thin structure in which action potentials

are generated; the transmitting part of the neuron. After
initiation, action potentials travel down axons to cause
release of neurotransmitter.

 Dendrite – The receiving part of the neuron. Dendrites

receive synaptic inputs from axons, with the sum total of
dendritic inputs determining whether the neuron will fire an
action potential.

 Spine – The small protrusions found on dendrites that are,

for many synapses, the postsynaptic contact site.

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CHAPTER 3. TISSUE BIOLOGY

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