30 The Human Body

The systems of the body enable these swimmers to

move through the water.

858
 S ON
CU

FO
TEKS

10A

The Telltale sample

On the first day of summer football practice,
all players were required to have a physical.
Each student was handed a plastic cup and
directed to the rest room. “Please provide me
with a sample,” the physician requested. Most
of the athletes had no idea how much could
be learned about their health and behavior
from a urine sample.
Immediately after handing over their samples, Philip and
Seth were sent home and told to drink plenty of water before
their next practice and to submit new samples then. The next
day, Andrew was told to see his family physician because
he could have diabetes. Several days later, another student
was dropped from the team for violating the school’s antidrug
policy. How was all of this information gained from a urine
sample? Look for clues throughout the chapter to help you
discover what can be learned about the body by simply
examining what leaves it. Then, solve the mystery.

Never Stop Exploring Your World.

Finding the solution to the Telltale Sample mystery is only
the beginning. Take a video field trip with the ecogeeks of
Untamed Science to see where this mystery leads.

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

READINESS TEKS: 4C  Compare the structures of viruses to cells, describe

viral reproduction, and describe the role of viruses in causing diseases such
as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and influenza. 10A Describe the
interactions that occur among systems that perform the functions of regulation,
nutrient absorption, reproduction, and defense from injury or illness in animals.
SUPPORTING TEKS: 10C  Analyze the levels of organization in biological
systems and relate the levels to each other and to the whole system.
11A Describe the role of internal feedback mechanisms in the maintenance of
homeostasis.

The Human Body  859

 30.1 Organization of the
Human Body
In this lesson you will learn about the organization of the human body (TEKS 10C) as well as how the systems of the
body work together to maintain homeostasis (TEKS 11A).

Key Questions THINK ABOUT IT The batter slaps a ground

How is the human body ball to the shortstop, who fields it cleanly and
organized? throws the ball toward your position—first
base. In a single motion, you extend your
What is homeostasis?
glove hand, catch the ball, and extend
Vocabulary your foot to touch the edge of the base.
An easy out, a routine play. But think
epithelial tissue
connective tissue about how many systems of your
nervous tissue body are involved in making this
muscle tissue type of “routine” play. How do
homeostasis they all work together?
feedback inhibition

Taking Notes Organization of the Body TEKS 10C

Preview Visuals  Examine
Figure 30 –2. For each system,
describe how you think it interacts
with at least one other system.
How is the human body organized?
Every cell in the human body is both an independent unit and an
interdependent part of a larger community—the entire organism.
To complete a successful play, a player at first base has to use her eyes
to watch the ball and use her brain to figure out how to position her
body. With the support of her bones, muscles move her body to first
base. Meanwhile, the player’s lungs absorb oxygen, which her blood
carries to cells for use during cellular respiration. Her brain monitors
the location of the ball and sends signals that guide her glove hand to
make the catch.
How can so many individual cells and parts work together so
efficiently? One way to answer this question is to study the organiza-
tion of the human body. The levels of organization in the body
include cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. At each level of
organization, these parts of the body work together to carry out the
major body functions.
Cells  A cell is the basic unit of structure and function in living things.
As you learned in Chapter 7, individual cells in multicellular organisms
tend to be specialized. Specialized cells, such as bone cells, blood cells,
and muscle cells, are uniquely suited to perform a particular function.
Tissues  A group of cells that perform a single function is called a tissue.
There are four basic types of tissue in the human body—epithelial,
connective, nervous, and muscle. Figure 30–1 shows examples of each
type of tissue.

860
 Epithelial Tissue Connective Tissue Nervous Tissue Muscle Tissue

FUNCTIONS Protection, absorption, and Binding of epithelial tissue to Receiving and transmitting Voluntary and involuntary
excretion of materials structures, support, and nerve impulses movements
transport of substances

Skin, lining of digestive Under skin, surrounding Brain, spinal cord, and Skeletal muscles, muscles
LOCATIONS

system, certain glands organs, blood, bones nerves surrounding digestive tract
and blood vessels, the heart

LM 65 LM 280 SEM 295 LM 275

 Epithelial Tissue  The tissue that lines the interior and exterior Figure 30 –1  Types of Tissues 
body surfaces is called epithelial tissue. Your skin and the lining of The four major types of tissues in the
human body are epithelial tissue,
your stomach are both examples of epithelial tissue.
connective tissue, nervous tissue, and
 Connective Tissue  A type of tissue that provides support for the muscle tissue.  Predict  Which organ
may not contain all four types of
body and connects its parts is connective tissue. This type of tissue tissue?
includes fat cells, bone cells, and even blood cells. Many connective
tissue cells produce collagen, a long, tough fiber-like protein that is the
most common protein in the body. Collagen gives tissues strength and
resiliency, helping them to keep their shape even under pressure.
 Nervous Tissue  Nerve impulses are transmitted throughout the
body by nervous tissue. Neurons, the cells that carry these impulses,
and glial cells, which surround and protect neurons, are both examples
of nervous tissue.
 Muscle Tissue  Movements of the body are possible because of
muscle tissue. Some muscles are responsible for the movements you
control, such as the muscles that move your arms and legs. Some mus­
cles are responsible for movements you cannot control, such as the
tiny muscles that control the size of the pupil in the eye.
Organs  A group of different types of tissues that work together to
perform a single function or several related functions is called an
organ. The eye is an organ made up of epithelial tissue, nervous tissue,
muscle tissue, and connective tissue. As different as these tissues are,
they all work together for a single function—sight.
Organ Systems  An organ system is a group of organs that perform
closely related functions. For example, the brain and spinal cord are
organs of the nervous system. The organ systems interact to maintain
homeostasis in the body as a whole. The organ systems, along with their
structures and main functions, are shown on the next page.

The Human Body 861

 HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS
Figure 30 – 2  Although each of the organ systems
shown here has a different set of functions, they all
work together, as a whole, to maintain homeostasis.

Nervous Integumentary Immune/ Muscular System Circulatory Skeletal System

System System Lymphatic Systems System

White blood cells,

STRUCTURES

Brain, Skin, hair, nails, Skeletal muscle, Heart, blood Bones, cartilage,
spinal cord, sweat and oil thymus, spleen, smooth muscle, vessels, blood ligaments, tendons
nerves glands lymph nodes, cardiac muscle
lymph vessels

Recognizes and Guards against Helps protect Works with Transports Supports the
coordinates infection and the body from skeletal system to oxygen, nutrients, body; protects
FUNCTIONS

the body’s injury and disease; collects produce voluntary and hormones internal organs;
response to ultraviolet fluid lost from movement; helps to cells; fights allows movement;
changes in radiation from blood vessels and to circulate blood infection; removes stores mineral
its internal the sun; helps to returns it to the and move food cell wastes; helps reserves; contains
and external regulate body circulatory system through the to regulate body cells that produce
environments temperature digestive system temperature blood cells

Respiratory System Digestive System Excretory System Endocrine System Reproductive System

Nose, pharynx, larynx, Mouth, pharynx, Skin, lungs, liver, Hypothalamus, Testes, epididymis,
pituitary, thyroid, vas deferens, urethra,
STRUCTURES

trachea, bronchi, esophagus, stomach, kidneys, ureters,

bronchioles, lungs small and large urinary bladder, parathyroids, and penis (in males);
intestines, rectum urethra adrenals, pancreas, ovaries, Fallopian
ovaries (in females), tubes, uterus, vagina
testes (in males) (in females)

Brings in oxygen needed Breaks down food; Eliminates waste Controls growth, Produces gametes; in
FUNCTIONS

for cellular respiration absorbs nutrients; products from the development, females, nurtures and
and removes excess eliminates wastes body and metabolism; protects developing
carbon dioxide from maintains embryo
the body homeostasis

862  Chapter 30 • Lesson 1

Homeostasis TEKS 11A

What is homeostasis?
Room temperature
Some things are easy to observe. When you run or swim decreases.
or even write the answer to a test question, you can see your
body at work. But behind the scenes, your body’s systems are
working constantly to do something that is difficult to see Thermostat senses
and that few people appreciate­—maintain­ing a controlled, OFF temperature change and turns ON
stable internal environment. This stable environment is heating system on or off.
called homeostasis, which means “similar standing.”
Homeostasis describes the relatively constant
internal physical and chemical conditions that organ- Room temperature
isms maintain despite changes in internal and external increases.
environments. Homeostasis may not be obvious, but for a
living organ­ism, it’s literally a matter of life or death.
Feedback Inhibition  If you’ve ever watched someone Figure 30 – 3  Feedback Inhibition
driving a car down a relatively straight road, you may have A home heating system uses a feedback
loop to maintain a stable, comfortable
noticed how the person constantly moves the wheel left or
environment within a house. 
right, adjusting direction to keep the vehicle in the mid­ Interpret Diagrams  What is the stimulus
dle of the lane. In a certain sense, that’s how the systems of in this feedback loop?
the body work, too, keeping internal conditions within a
certain range, and never allowing them to go too far to one
side or the other.
 A Nonliving Example  One way to understand homeo­
stasis is to look at a nonliving system that automatically
keeps conditions within a certain range like a home heating
system. In most homes, heat is supplied by a furnace that
burns oil or natural gas. When the temperature within the
house drops below a set point, a thermostat sensor switches
the furnace on. Heat produced by the furnace warms the
house. When the temperature rises above the set point, the
thermostat switches the furnace off, keeping the tempera­
ture within a narrow range.
A system like this is said to be controlled by feedback
inhibition. Feedback inhibition, or negative feedback, is
the process in which a stimulus produces a response that BUILD Vocabulary
opposes the original stimulus. Figure 30–3 summarizes ACADEMIC WORDS  The
the feedback inhibition process in a home heating system. noun inhibition means “the
When the furnace is switched on, it produces a product act of blocking the action of.”
Therefore, feedback inhibition
(heat) that changes the environment of the house (by refers to a response that blocks
raising the air temperature). This environmental change further actions of a stimulus.
then “feeds back” to “inhibit” the operation of the furnace.
In other words, heat from the furnace eventually raises the
temperature high enough to trigger a feedback signal that
switches the furnace off. Systems controlled by feedback
inhibition are generally very stable.

Online Journal  Describe another example of a

nonliving system that requires constant adjustment.

The Human Body 863


Cold environment
causes body
temperature to
decrease.
Hypothalamus senses temperature
STOP change and sends signals that START
start or stop heat production.
Body temperature
increases.
Warm environment
and exercise cause
body temperature
to increase.
Hypothalamus senses temperature
STOP change and sends signals that START
start or stop cooling mechanisms.
Body temperature
decreases.
Figure 30 – 4  Body Temperature Control  In the human
body, temperature is controlled through various feedback
inhibition mechanisms.  Infer  Why do you think moving
around on a cold day helps to keep you warm?
TEKS 11A
Maintaining Temperature
You will receive a thermometer and three
beakers of water at the following temperatures:
25°C, 35°C, and 40°C. Develop a method to
keep the temperature of the 35°C water within
one degree for a period of fifteen minutes. You
may use the contents of the other two beakers.
864  Chapter 30 • Lesson 1
A Living Example  Could biological systems
achieve homeostasis through feedback inhibition?
Absolutely. All that is needed is a system that regu­
lates some aspect of the cellular environment and
that can respond to feedback from its own activities
by switching on or off as needed. Such mechanisms
are very common, not only in the human body, but
in all forms of life.
One example is the maintenance of body tempera­
ture. The body regulates temperature by a mechanism
that is remarkably similar to that of a home heating
system. You can follow body temperature regulation
in Figure 30–4. A part of the brain called the hypo­
thalamus contains nerve cells that monitor both the
temperature of the skin at the surface of the body and
the temperature of organs in the body’s core.
If the nerve cells sense that the core temperature
has dropped much below 37°C, the hypothalamus
produces chemicals that signal cells throughout the
body to speed up their activities. Heat produced by
this increase in activity, especially cellular respiration,
causes a gradual rise in body temperature, which is
detected by nerve cells in the hypothalamus.
Have you ever been so cold that you began to
shiver? If your body temperature drops well below its
normal range, the hypothalamus releases chemicals
that signal muscles just below the surface of the skin
to contract involuntarily—to “shiver.” These muscle
contractions release heat, which helps the body tem­
perature to rise toward the normal range.
If body temperature rises too far above 37°C, the
hypothalamus slows down cellular activities to reduce
heat production. This is one of the reasons you may
feel tired and sluggish on a hot day. The body also
responds to high temperatures by producing sweat,
which helps to cool the body surface by evaporation.
Analyze and Conclude
1.  Compare and Contrast  Compare this experi­
ment to what happens in your own body during
temperature regulation.
2.  Interpret Visuals  Make a feedback loop similar
to the ones in Figure 30 – 4 that shows how feedback
mechanisms were involved in this activity.
The Liver and Homeostasis  The liver is technically part of the
digestive system because it produces bile, which aids in the digestion
of fats. However, it is also fair to say that the liver is one of the body’s
most important organs for homeostasis.
For example, when proteins are broken down for energy, ammonia,
a toxic by-product, is produced. The liver quickly converts ammonia
to urea, which is much less toxic. The kidneys, as you will read a bit
later, then remove urea from the blood. The liver also converts many
dangerous substances, including some drugs, into compounds that
can be removed from the body safely.
One of the liver’s most important roles involves regulating the level
of a substance we take almost for granted as something completely
harmless—the simple sugar, glucose. Glucose is obtained from the
foods we eat, and cells take glucose from the blood to serve as a source
of energy for their everyday activities. Naturally, right after a meal,
as the body absorbs food molecules, the level of glucose in the blood
begins to rise. That’s where the liver comes in. By taking glucose out
of the blood, it keeps the level of glucose from rising too much. As the
body uses glucose for energy, the liver releases stored glucose to keep
the level of the sugar from dropping too low.
The liver’s role in keeping blood glucose levels within a certain
range is critical. Too little glucose, and the cells of the nervous system
will slow down to the point that you may lose consciousness and pass
out. On the other hand, too much glucose gradually damages cells in
the eyes, kidneys, heart, and even the immune system. Abnormally
high levels of glucose are associated with a disease called diabetes. In
diabetes, changes occur in either the pancreas or body cells that affect
the cells’ ability to absorb glucose. Diabetes, one of the fastest-growing
health problems in the developed world, is the unfortunate result of
failure of homeostasis with respect to blood glucose levels.

30.1 Review Key Concepts TEKS 10C, 11A

1. a. Review  What are the levels of organization in the

human body?
b. Explain  Describe the function of three organ sys­
tems depicted in Figure 30 –2.
c. Classify  Compare the characteristics of two types
of tissues. Identify parts of the body that contain
these types of tissues.
2. a. Review  What is homeostasis?
b. Explain  What are two roles of the liver in
­maintaining homeostasis?
c. Apply Concepts  Do you think that feelings of
hunger and fullness are an example of feedback
inhibition? Explain.
3. Draw a Venn diagram to relate the
four basic levels of organization in the
human body. Provide at least three
examples for each level of organiza­
tion. Hint: Your Venn diagram should
have a nesting structure. One set of
examples could be skin cells, epithelial
tissue, skin, and the integumentary
system.

The Human Body 865

 30.2 Human Body Systems I
In this lesson you will learn the structure and function of some human body systems (TEKS 10A) and how they work
together to maintain homeostasis (TEKS 11A).

Key Question
The Digestive System
What are the structures and
functions of the digestive system,
excretory system, circulatory
system, lymphatic system, and
respiratory system?
Taking Notes
Outline  Before you read, make
an outline of the major headings
in the lesson. As you read, fill
in main ideas and supporting
details for each heading.
Figure 30–5  Digestive Enzymes
TEKS 10A
What are the functions of the digestive system?
The need for food presents every animal with at least two challenges—
how to obtain it and how to convert that food into molecules the body
can use. In humans and many other animals, this is the job of the
digestive system.  The digestive system converts food into small
molecules that can be used by the cells of the body. Food is pro-
cessed by the digestive system in four phases—ingestion, digestion,
absorption, and elimination.
The first step in the process is ingestion, the act of putting food
into your mouth. Food in the digestive system is broken down in two
ways—by mechanical and chemical digestion. Mechanical digestion
is the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces.
These smaller pieces can be swallowed and accessed by digestive
enzymes. During chemical digestion, enzymes break down food into
the small molecules the body can use. Some of the enzymes used in
digestion are shown in Figure 30–5. Once food has been broken into
small molecules, it can be absorbed by cells in the small intestine.
From the small intestine, the molecules enter the circulatory system,
which transports them throughout the body. The digestive system can-
not digest and absorb all the substances in food that enter the body.
Some materials, such as cellulose, travel through the large intestine
and are eliminated from the body as feces.

Effects of Digestive Enzymes

Active Site Enzyme Effect on Food

Mouth Salivary amylase Breaks down starches into disaccharides

Stomach Pepsin Breaks down proteins into large peptides

Small intestine Pancreatic amylase Continues the breakdown of starches

(released from
pancreas) Trypsin Continues the breakdown of proteins

Lipase Breaks down fats

Small Maltase, sucrase, lactase Breaks down remaining disaccharides into monosaccharides
intestine
Peptidase Breaks down dipeptides into amino acids

866
 THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Figure 30–6  Food travels through many organs
as it is broken down into nutrients your body can
use. The time needed for each organ to perform its
role varies based on the type of food consumed.

1 Mouth Teeth tear and grind food

into small pieces. Enzymes in saliva
kill some pathogens and start to
break down carbohydrates. 1 minute
Salivary gland

Pharynx

Epiglottis

Bolus

2 Esophagus The bolus travels from

The cardiac sphincter the mouth to the stomach via the
closes after food passes esophagus. Food is squeezed
into the stomach. through by peristalsis. 2–3 seconds

3 Stomach Muscle contractions

produce a churning motion that
breaks up food and forms a
liquid mixture called chyme.
Protein digestion begins.
Liver
2–4 hours

Pancreas
4 Small Intestine Chyme is slowly
Gallbladder released into the small intestine.
Bile, which is made in the liver, is
released from the gallbladder into
Large intestine the small intestine and aids in fat
digestion. Enzymes from the pan-
creas and duodenum complete
digestion. Nutrients are absorbed
through the small intestine wall.
3–5 hours

5 Large Intestine The large intestine

absorbs water as undigested material
moves through and is eliminated from
SEM 340 the body. 10 hours–several days
Glands in the stomach
lining release hydrochloric
acid, pepsin, and mucus.

The Human Body  867


ABSORPTION IN THE SMALL
INTESTINE
Figure 30–7  The lining of the small
intestine consists of folds that are
covered with tiny projections called
villi. Within each villus there is a
network of blood capillaries and lymph
vessels that absorb and carry away
nutrients.
Small Intestine
Circular folds
868  Chapter 30 • Lesson 2
Absorption and Elimination TEKS 10A
Once the small intestine has completed the digestive process, it’s time to
absorb nutrients. Most nutrients from food are absorbed through
the walls of the small intestine. The large intestine absorbs water and
several vitamins and prepares waste for elimination from the body.
Absorption From the Small Intestine  After leaving the duodenum,
chyme moves along the rest of the small intestine. By this time, most
of the chemical digestion has been completed. The chyme is now a
rich mixture of small- and medium-sized nutrient molecules. The
small intestine’s folded surface provides an enormous surface area for
absorption of nutrients. Its fingerlike projections, called villi (singular:
villus), are covered with tiny projections known as microvilli, which
absorb the nutrients. Figure 30–7 illustrates villi and microvilli.
Nutrient molecules are then passed into the circulatory system.
Sugars and amino acids pass into capillaries, while most fats and fatty
acids are absorbed by lymph vessels. By the time chyme leaves the
small intestine, most nutrients have been absorbed, leaving only water,
cellulose, and other indigestible substances behind.
Absorption From the Large Intestine  When chyme leaves the
small intestine, it enters the large intestine, or colon. The large intes-
tine gets its name due to its diameter, which is greater than the small
intestine. The primary function of the large intestine is to remove
water from the material that is left. Large colonies of bacteria pres-
ent in the large intestine produce compounds that the body is able to
absorb and use, including vitamin K.
Elimination  The concentrated waste material—feces—that remains
after most of the water has been removed passes into the rectum and is
eliminated from the body through the anus. When something happens
that interferes with the removal of water by the large intestine, you
usually become aware of it right away. If not enough water is absorbed,
a condition known as diarrhea occurs. If too much water is absorbed,
constipation occurs.
Villus
Microvilli
Villi Epithelial
Capillaries
Lymph vessel
Vein
Artery
Structures of the Excretory System TEKS 11A

What is the principal role of the structures of

the excretory system?
The chemistry of the human body is a marvelous
thing. However, every living system, including the
human body, produces chemical waste products,
some of which are so toxic that they will cause
death if they are not eliminated. Ammonia, one
of the most toxic of these waste compounds, is
produced when amino acids from proteins are used
Skin
for energy. Ammonia is converted to a less toxic
compound called urea, but it, too, must be elimi-
nated from the body. The process by which these Lung
Ureters transport urine
metabolic wastes are eliminated is called excretion. from each kidney to the
Excretion is one part of the many processes that Liver urinary bladder.
maintain homeostasis.
The excretory system, which includes the Kidneys The urinary bladder
skin, lungs, liver, and kidneys, excretes metabolic stores urine until it is
wastes from the body. The ureters, urinary blad- released from the body.
der, and urethra are also involved in excretion.
Urine is released
Figure 30–8 shows the major organs of excretion. through a tube called
the urethra.
The Skin  The skin excretes excess water, salts, and
a small amount of urea in sweat. By releasing sweat
in very small amounts, this process eliminates wastes
even when you may not think you’re sweating.
The Lungs  The blood transports carbon dioxide,
a waste product of cellular respiration, from the
body cells to the lungs. When you exhale, your lungs
excrete carbon dioxide and small amounts of water
vapor.
The Liver  The liver plays many important roles in
excretion. One of its principal activities is the con-
version of dangerous nitrogen wastes into less toxic
Figure 30–8  The Excretory
urea. Urea is then transported through the blood to System  The organs of the excretory
the kidneys for elimination from the body. system include the skin, lungs, liver,
kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and
The Kidneys  The major organs of excretion are the urethra.
kidneys, a pair of fist-sized organs located on either
side of the spinal column near the lower back. The
kidneys remove excess water, urea, and metabolic
wastes from the blood. The kidneys produce and
excrete a waste product known as urine. Ureters
transport urine from the kidneys to the urinary
bladder, where urine is stored until it is released
through the urethra.

The Human Body  869

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Each kidney contains nearly a million
OF THE KIDNEYS individual processing units called nephrons.
These nephrons are where most of the work
Figure 30–9  Kidneys are made up of nephrons. of the kidney takes place. Blood purification
Blood enters the nephron, where impurities are in the kidneys involves two distinct processes:
filtered out and emptied into the collecting duct. filtration and reabsorption.
Purified blood leaves a nephron through a vein. 

Renal cortex

Renal
medulla
Renal artery
Waste-laden blood
enters kidney.
Kidney
Filtered blood
Renal vein
leaves kidney.
Nephron
Ureter

To the bladder

Bowman’s
capsule Capillaries
Glomerulus 1 Filtration takes place in the glomerulus, a
dense network of capillaries encased in
Bowman’s capsule. Blood pressure forces
Artery
Tubule much of the fluid from the capillaries into
Bowman’s capsule. The result is a filtrate
Vein containing water, urea, glucose, salts,
amino acids, and some vitamins.

Collecting 2 Reabsorption Dissolved salts and other

duct materials are removed from the filtrate by
active transport and reabsorbed by
Nephron capillaries, causing nearly all of the
filtered water to follow by osmosis. In
effect, the kidney first throws away nearly
everything and then takes back only what
the body needs. The loop of Henle
conserves water and minimizes the
volume of filtrate.

To ureter
3 Urine Excretion The fluid entering collect-
ing ducts is now known as urine. From the
Loop of collecting ducts, urine flows to the ureter
Henle of each kidney. The ureters carry urine to
the urinary bladder for storage until the
urine leaves the body through the urethra.

870  Chapter 30 • Lesson 2

The Kidneys and Homeostasis TEKS 11A
How do the kidneys help maintain homeostasis?
The kidneys play an important role in maintaining homeostasis. Besides
removing wastes, the kidneys also maintain blood pH and regulate the
water content of the blood. The kidneys respond directly to the
composition of the blood. They are also influenced by the endocrine
system. Disruption of proper kidney function can lead to serious
health problems.
To a large extent, the activity of the kidneys is controlled by the
composition of the blood itself. For example, if you eat salty food, the
kidneys will respond to the excess salt in your blood by returning less
salt to your blood during reabsorption. If the blood is too acidic, then
the kidneys excrete more hydrogen ions in the urine. If your blood
glucose levels rise past a certain point, the kidneys will even excrete
glucose into the urine. This is one of the danger signals of diabetes, a
disease caused by the body’s inability to control the concentration of
glucose in the blood.
Glands release hormones that also influence kidney function. For
example, if you have not consumed enough fluids or if you have sweat
excessively, your pituitary gland releases antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
into your blood. This hormone causes the kidneys to reabsorb more
water and to excrete less water in the urine. If the blood contains
excess water, ADH secretion stops and more water is excreted. Did
you know that the color of your urine is an indicator of how hydrated
you are? A pale yellow color indicates that you are well hydrated
because your kidneys are releasing a good amount of water. A darker
color indicates that the water level in your blood is low, causing your
kidneys to conserve water.

Concentrations of Selected Substances

The Composition of Urine in Blood and Urine
Substance Average Concentration Average Concentration
The kidneys are selective filters. As blood in Blood (g/mL) in Urine (g/mL)
passes through them, urea, other impurities,
Calcium 0.01 0.02
and excess salts are removed from the
blood. But important substances such as Glucose 0.10 0.00

water, protein, and glucose remain in cir- Potassium 0.02 0.20

culation. The collected waste products are Sodium
excreted in urine. The concentrations of Urea
certain substances in the blood compared
to their concentration in urine reveal the
important work of the kidneys.
1.  Interpret Data  Which substances listed have
the highest and lowest concentrations in the
blood? Which substances have the highest and
lowest concentrations in the urine?
0.32 0.60
0.03 2.00
2.  Calculate  Approximately how many times
more concentrated is urea in urine than in the
blood?
3.  Infer  Recall that urea is a by-product of
amino acid breakdown. How might the urea
concentration vary in the blood and urine as the
result of high protein diets? Explain.

The Human Body  871


Figure 30–10  The Heart The
human heart has four chambers:
the right atrium, the right ventricle,
the left atrium, and the left ventricle.
Valves located between the atria and
ventricles and between the ventricle
and vessels leaving the heart prevent
blood from flowing backward
between heartbeats.
Functions of the Circulatory System
What are the functions of the circulatory system?
Some animals are so small that all of their cells are in direct contact with
the environment. Diffusion and active transport across cell membranes
supply their cells with oxygen and nutrients and remove waste products.
The human body, however, contains millions of cells that are not in direct
contact with the external environment. Because of this, humans need
a circulatory system. The circulatory system transports oxygen,
nutrients, and other substances throughout the body, and removes
wastes from tissues.
Blood is pumped through the body by the heart, a hollow organ
composed almost entirely of muscle. An adult’s heart contracts on
average 72 times a minute, pumping about 70 milliliters of blood with
each contraction. As Figure 30–10 shows, the heart is divided into
four chambers. A wall called the septum separates the right side of
the heart from the left side. The septum prevents oxygen-poor and
oxygen-rich blood from mixing. On each side of the septum is an
upper and lower chamber. Each upper chamber, or atrium (plural:
atria), receives blood from the body. Each lower chamber, or ventricle,
pumps blood out of the heart.

Aorta
Carries oxygen-rich
blood from the left Pulmonary Arteries
ventricle to the body Carry oxygen-poor
blood to the lungs
Superior Vena Cava
Brings oxygen-poor blood LEFT ATRIUM
from the upper body to Accepts oxygen-rich
the right atrium blood from the lungs

Right Pulmonary Veins Left Pulmonary Veins

Bring oxygen-rich Bring oxygen-rich
blood from the right blood from the left
lung to the left atrium lung to the left atrium

Mitral Valve
RIGHT ATRIUM
Accepts oxygen-poor Pulmonary Valve
blood from the body Aortic Valve
RIGHT VENTRICLE
LEFT VENTRICLE
Pumps oxygen-poor
Pumps oxygen-rich
blood to the lungs
blood to the body
Tricuspid Valve

Inferior Vena Cava Septum

Brings oxygen-poor blood from
the lower body to the right atrium

872  Chapter 30 • Lesson 2

Circulation Capillaries of
head and arms
The heart functions as two pumps. One pump Superior
pushes blood to the lungs, while the other pushes Pulmonary
vena cava Aorta artery
blood to the rest of the body.

The right side of the heart pumps oxygen-poor

blood from the heart to the lungs through the
pulmonary circulation. In the lungs, carbon dioxide
diffuses from the blood, and oxygen is absorbed.
Oxygen-rich blood then flows to the left side of the
Pulmonary
heart. Capillaries vein Capillaries
of right lung of left lung
The left side of the heart pumps oxygen-rich blood
Inferior
to the rest of the body through the systemic circula-
tion. Cells absorb much of the oxygen and load the
vena cava
blood with carbon dioxide by the time it returns to
the heart. Capillaries of Systemic
abdominal organs Pulmonary
and legs

Blood Vessels

Blood leaving the heart passes through the aorta, the
first of a series of vessels that carries blood through
the systemic circulation. As blood flows through the
circulatory system, it moves through three types of
blood vessels—arteries, capillaries, and veins.
Arteries  Arteries are large vessels that carry blood
from the heart to the tissues of the body. Except for
the pulmonary arteries, all arteries carry oxygen-rich
blood. Arteries have thick elastic walls.
Capillaries  The smallest blood vessels are the capil-
laries. Most capillaries are so narrow that blood cells
pass through them in single file. Their thin walls allow
oxygen and nutrients to diffuse from blood into tissues,
and carbon dioxide and other waste products to move
from tissues into blood.
Veins  After blood passes through the capillaries, it
returns to the heart through veins. Many veins are
located near and between skeletal muscles. When you
move, the contracting skeletal muscles squeeze the
veins, pushing blood toward the heart. Many veins
contain valves, which ensure blood flows in one direc-
tion through these vessels.

ARTERY CAPILLARY VEIN

Venule
Arteriole Endothelium
Connective Tissue Very small vessels
Very small arteries
Helps vessels, that form when
that deliver blood
especially arteries, capillaries unite;
to capillaries
expand under venules unite
pressure and and form veins
connects them to
surrounding tissue Connective tissue

Smooth muscle
Smooth Muscle
Regulates the Endothelium
diameter of arteries; Lines the walls of
only a thin layer all blood vessels
present in veins Endothelium Valve

The Human Body  873

 Blood

In addition to serving as the body’s transportation system, components of

blood also help regulate body temperature, fight infections, and produce
clots to minimize the loss of body fluids from wounds.

Plasma  The human body contains 4 to 6 liters of blood. About 55 percent

of total blood volume is a fluid called plasma. Plasma is about 90 percent
water and 10 percent dissolved gases, salts, nutrients, enzymes, hormones,
waste products, plasma proteins, cholesterol, and other compounds.
Plasma proteins consist of three types—albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen.
Albumin and globulins transport substances such as fatty acids, hormones,
and vitamins. Albumin also plays an important role in regulating osmotic
pressure. Some globulins fight viral and bacterial infections. Fibrinogen is
necessary for blood to clot.

Red Blood Cells  The most numerous cells in blood are red blood cells,
or erythrocytes (eh rith roh syts). The main function of red blood cells is to
transport oxygen. They get their crimson color from the iron in hemoglo-
bin, a protein that binds oxygen. Red blood cells are produced by cells
in the bone marrow. As they mature and fill with hemoglobin, nuclei and
other organelles are forced out.

White Blood Cells  White blood cells, or leukocytes (loo koh syts), are
the “army” of the circulatory system. White blood cells guard against
infection, fight parasites, and attack bacteria. A sudden increase in white
blood cells is a sign that the body is fighting a serious infection. Different
types of white blood cells perform different protective functions. For ex-
ample, macrophages engulf pathogens. Lymphocytes are involved in the
immune response. B lymphocytes produce antibodies that fight infection
and provide immunity. T lymphocytes help fight tumors and viruses. In a
healthy person, white blood cells are outnumbered by red blood cells by
almost 1000 to 1.

Platelets  As you know, a minor cut or scrape may bleed for a bit, but
then the bleeding stops. Why? Because blood can clot. Blood clotting is
made possible by plasma proteins and cell fragments called platelets.
When platelets come in contact with the edges of a broken blood vessel,
their surfaces becomes sticky, and they release proteins called clotting fac-
tors that start reactions to produce a solid clot.
Blood Clot (SEM 2200×)

1 Capillary Wall Breaks 2 Platelets Take Action 3 Clot Forms

A blood vessel is injured
by a cut or scrape.
Platelets clump at the site and release
the clotting factor thromboplastin,
which triggers a series of reactions.
Thromboplastin converts the protein
prothrombin into the enzyme thrombin.
Thrombin converts the soluble plasma
protein fibrinogen into insoluble, sticky
fibrin filaments, which form the clot.
The clot seals the damaged area and
prevents further loss of blood.

874  Chapter 30 • Lesson 2

The Lymphatic System TEKS 10A
What is the function of the lymphatic system?
As blood passes through capillaries, some blood cells
and components of plasma move through capillary
walls and into the fluid between cells. Each day about Subclavian
veins
3 liters of fluid leaves the blood in this way. Most of
this fluid, known as lymph, is reabsorbed into capil-
laries, but not all of it. The rest goes into the lymphatic
system. The lymphatic system is a network of
Thymus
vessels, nodes, and organs that collects the lymph
that leaves capillaries, “screens” it for microorgan- Heart
isms, and returns it to the circulatory system.
Spleen
Role in Circulation  Lymph collects in a system
of lymphatic capillaries that slowly conducts it
into larger lymph vessels. Pressure on lymph ves- Lymph
sels from surrounding skeletal muscles helps move nodes
lymph through the system into larger and larger
ducts. Lymph vessels have valves, similar to the
Lymph
valves in large veins that prevent lymph from flow-
vessels
ing backward. These ducts return lymph to the
blood through openings in veins just below the
shoulders. When injury or disease blocks lymphatic
vessels, lymph can accumulate in tissues, causing
swelling called edema.
Role in Nutrient Absorption  The lymphatic
system, shown in Figure 30–11, also plays an impor-
tant role in the absorption of nutrients. A system
of lymph vessels runs alongside the intestines. The
vessels pick up fats and fat-soluble vitamins from the
digestive tract and transport these nutrients into the
bloodstream.
Role in Immunity  Hundreds of small bean-shaped
­enlargements—called lymph nodes—are scattered
along lymph vessels throughout the body. Lymph
nodes act as ­filters, trapping microorganisms, stray Figure 30–11  The Lymphatic
cancer cells, and debris. White blood cells inside System  The lymphatic system is
a network of vessels, nodes, and
lymph nodes destroy this cellular “trash.” When organs that recycles fluids from
large numbers of microorganisms are trapped in tissues and plays a role in nutrient
lymph nodes, the nodes become enlarged. absorption and immunity. Infer  Why
The thymus and spleen also play important roles do you think your doctor feels your
neck for swollen lymph nodes when
in the immune functions of the lymphatic system. you are sick?
T lymphocytes mature in the thymus before they
can function in the immune system. The functions
of the spleen are similar to those of lymph nodes.
However, instead of lymph, blood flows through the
spleen, where it is cleansed of microorganisms and
other debris. The spleen also removes old or dam-
aged blood cells and stores platelets.

The Human Body  875

 Structures of the Respiratory System
What is the function of the respiratory system? TEKS 11A
For multicellular organisms, respiration means the process of gas
exchange with the environment. The respiratory system picks
up oxygen from the air we inhale and releases carbon dioxide as we
exhale. With each breath, air enters the body through the air passage-
ways and fills the lungs, where gas exchange takes place, passing oxygen
to the circulatory system. The respiratory system consists of the nose,
pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs. You can see these organs in
Figure 30-12.
Air Flow  As air enters the respiratory system, it is filtered, moist-
ened, and warmed. Incoming air is warmed and filtered in the inner
nasal cavity and sinuses. Air then moves from the nose to a cavity at
the back of the mouth called the pharynx, or throat, and then into
the trachea, or windpipe. A flap of tissue called the epiglottis covers
the entrance to the trachea, ensuring that food or liquid goes into the
esophagus instead. Between the pharynx and the trachea is the larynx,
which contains two highly elastic folds of tissue known as the vocal
cords. Your ability to speak, shout, and sing comes from these tissues.
Mucus produced in the trachea traps inhaled particles, which cilia
then sweep away from the lungs toward the pharynx.
From the trachea, air moves into two large tubes called bronchi
(singular: bronchus) leading to the lungs. These tubes divide into
smaller bronchi, then into even smaller bronchioles. Bronchi and
bronchioles are surrounded by smooth muscles that regulate the size
of air passageways. The bronchioles lead to millions of tiny air sacs
called alveoli (singular: alveolus). Alveoli are grouped in clusters, like
bunches of grapes. A delicate network of capillaries surrounds each
alveolus.
Gas Exchange and Transport  As air enters the alveoli, oxygen dis-
solves in their moist surfaces and diffuses across thin capillary walls
into the blood. Meanwhile, carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite
direction. When you inhale, a muscle called the diaphragm contracts
and flattens, creating a partial vacuum inside the tightly sealed chest
cavity. Atmospheric pressure does the rest, filling the lungs as air
rushes into the breathing passages.
Diffusion of oxygen from alveoli into capillaries is a passive pro-
cess. But hemoglobin in red blood cells actively binds oxygen, increas-
ing the blood’s oxygen-carrying capacity more than 60 times. Most
carbon dioxide enters red blood cells and combines with water, form-
ing carbonic acid. The rest of it dissolves in plasma or binds to hemo-
globin and proteins in plasma.

Online Journal  In your own words, compare and contrast

cellular respiration and respiration at the organism level.

876  Chapter 30 • Lesson 2

 THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Figure 30–12  Air moves through the
nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and
bronchi into the lungs.

Nose
1 Nose As air enters, the lining of
the nose starts the filtering process
by trapping large particles.
Epiglottis Pharynx Incoming air is warmed in the
inner nasal cavity and sinuses.
Larynx
These areas produce mucus that
Trachea moistens the air and catches even
Lung more dust particles.
Bronchus
2 Pharynx, Larynx, and Trachea
Bronchioles The pharynx serves as a
passageway for both air and
food. Air moves from the pharynx
into the trachea, or windpipe.
When you swallow food or
liquid, a flap of tissue called the
epiglottis covers the entrance to
the trachea, ensuring that the
food or liquid goes into the
esophagus. The larynx contains
Diaphragm two highly elastic folds of tissue
known as the vocal cords. When
muscles pull the vocal cords
together, the air moving between
Pulmonary artery them causes the cords to vibrate
Bronchiole Alveoli and produce sounds.

Capillary O2 3 Lungs Tubes called bronchi

carry air to the lungs, dividing
Alveolus into smaller and smaller
CO2 passageways that end in
alveoli, where gas exchange
with the bloodstream takes
place. Alveoli are grouped in
Capillaries clusters, like bunches of grapes.
A delicate network of capillar-
Pulmonary ies surrounds each alveolus.
vein

The Human Body  877

 Breathing

Surprisingly, there are no

muscles in our lungs or con- Air inhaled Air exhaled
nected directly to them that
participate in breathing. The
force that drives air into the
lungs comes from ordinary Rib cage Rib cage
air pressure, the diaphragm, rises lowers
and muscles associated with
the ribs. Movements of the
diaphragm and rib cage
change air pressure in the Diaphragm Diaphragm
chest cavity during inhalation contracts relaxes
and exhalation.
Inhalation Exhalation

Breathing and Homeostasis

You can control your breathing almost any time you want, to blow up a bal-
loon or to play a trumpet. But this doesn’t mean that breathing is purely volun-
tary. Your nervous system has final control of your breathing muscles whether
you are conscious or not. This is why people who drown have water in their
lungs. When they lose consciousness, they “breathe” water into their lungs.
Breathing is initiated by the breathing center in the part of the brain stem
called the medulla oblongata. Sensory neurons in or near the medulla and in
some large blood vessels gather information about carbon dioxide levels in
the body and send the information to the breathing center. When stimulated,
the breathing center sends nerve impulses that cause the diaphragm and chest
muscles to contract, bringing air into the lungs. The higher the blood carbon
dioxide level, the stronger the impulses. If the blood carbon dioxide level
reaches a critical point, the impulses become so powerful that you cannot
keep from breathing.

30.2 Review Key Concepts TEKS 4B, 10A, 11A

1. a. Review  Explain the function of the digestive
system.
b. Apply Concepts  What impact do the folds and
villi of the small intestine have on absorption?
2. a. Review  List the organs involved in excretion.
b. Explain  How do the kidneys maintain water
balance?
3. a. Review  List the structures of the circulatory
system and explain their roles.
b. Review  Describe the two paths of blood circula-
tion through the body.
c. Explain  Describe the functions of three types
of blood vessels in the circulatory system.
d. Review  List the main function of plasma,
red blood cells, white blood cells, and
platelets.
4. Describe  What is the role of the lymphatic
system?
5. a. Review  Explain the function of the respi-
ratory system.
b. Review  Describe the process of gas
exchange in the lungs.
c. Review  Explain the process of breathing.

878  Chapter 30 • Lesson 2

30.3 Human Body Systems II
In this lesson you will learn the structure and function of the rest of the human body systems (TEKS 10A) and how they
work together to maintain homeostasis (TEKS 11A).

The Nervous System Key Questions

What are the structures and
What are the functions of the nervous system?
functions of the nervous system,
The nervous system is our window on the world. The nervous skeletal system, integumentary
system collects information about the internal and external envi- system, endocrine system, and
ronment, processes that information, and responds to it. All these the male and female reproduc-
messages are carried by electrical signals called impulses, through tive systems?
nerve cells called neurons. The neurons and supporting cells that form
Taking Notes
the peripheral nervous system collect information about the body’s
Outline  As you read this lesson,
external and internal environment. The brain and spinal cord form the
continue adding to the outline
central nervous system, which processes and creates a response to that you started in Lesson 30.2.
information, which is carried to muscles, glands, and other tissues by
the peripheral nervous system.
The billions of messages sent through your body at any given
moment may tell you to laugh at a joke, or tell you that it’s cold outside.
These messages enable the organs of the body to act together and also
to react to external conditions.

Neurons

Neurons can be classified into three types. Sensory neurons carry impulses from
sense organs, such as eyes and ears, to the central nervous system. Motor neurons
carry impulses from the central nervous system to muscles and glands. Interneurons
process information from sensory neurons and send commands to other interneu-
rons or motor neurons. All neurons have certain features in common. These include
a cell body, dendrites, an axon, and, in many neurons, a myelin sheath.

The cell body contains the nucleus The myelin sheath is an insulating membrane that surrounds
and much of the cytoplasm. some axons, leaving gaps called nodes that expose the axon
membrane. Impulses jump from node to node, traveling faster
than they would through an axon without a myelin sheath.

Nucleus

Dendrites receive impulses
from other neurons and carry
impulses to the cell body.
Nodes
The axon carries impulses
away from the cell body.
Axon terminals at the end of the axon
transmit information to other nerve cells,
glands, or muscles.

879
 The Nerve Impulse

Outside of Cell

Gated sodium channel Sodium-potassium Gated potassium

protein (closed) protein pump channel protein
Cell membrane (closed)

ATP
Na+
K+ ADP
Inside of Cell

Neurons carry information by using specialized pro-

teins in their cell membranes to create small electrical
Cell body Axon currents. But nerve cells do not carry electric currents
– – – – – – – the way that telephone wires do. To understand how
neurons work, we need to examine a neuron at rest
– – – – – – – (see above).

Neurons at rest have an electrical charge of −70 mil-

1 At rest livolts (mV), called the resting potential, between
the inside and outside of their cell membranes. This
Na+ charge is produced by membrane proteins that pump
sodium ions (Na+) out of the cell and potassium ions
+ + – – – – – (K+) into it. Separate potassium channel proteins
make it easier for K+ ions than Na+ ions to diffuse
+ + – – – – –
back across the membrane. Because the pumps
Action Potential create a higher concentration of K+ ions inside the
cell, positively charged K+ ions diffuse out of the cell.
2 At the leading edge of the impulse, gated sodium The inside of the cell therefore becomes negatively
channels open. Na+ ions flow into the cell, reversing charged compared to the outside.
the potential between the cell membrane and its
surroundings. This rapidly moving reversal of charge When a neuron receives a large enough stimulus, it
is called an action potential. this resting potential changes suddenly, producing
Na+ a nerve impulse called an action potential. The
smallest stimulus that can produce an action potential
– – + + – – – is called a threshold stimulus. Stimuli weaker than
– – + + – – – threshold will not produce an action potential.
Action Potential
K+ Nerve impulses are not created by a flow of elec-
trons down the axon. Instead, each action potential
is produced by a sudden reversal of the resting
potential. This charge reversal travels down the axon
like ripples passing down the surface of a stream.
3 As the action potential passes, gated potassium
channels open, allowing K+ ions to flow out,
restoring the resting potential inside the axon.

880  Chapter 30 • Lesson 3

The Central Nervous System Brain
Spinal cord
The central nervous system, which includes the brain and
spinal cord, is contained almost entirely inside the bony
structures of the skull and vertebral column. Most infor-
mation processing occurs in the major brain regions—
cerebrum, cerebellum, and brain stem. Different parts
of the brain perform different functions. Sensations from
various body areas are “felt” by specific brain regions.
Commands to muscles originate in other brain areas. The
spinal cord, which contains most neurons that enter and
leave the brain, links the brain to the rest of the body.

The Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system contains nerves and associated cells that are not part of the
brain or spinal cord, and has two major divisions—sensory and motor. The sensory division
consists of receptor cells that gather information, and sensory neurons, which transmit im-
pulses from sense organs to the central nervous system. The motor division transmits impulses
from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands. These messages are relayed
through networks called the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

Somatic Nervous System  The somatic nervous system

regulates activities such as movement of skeletal muscles.
Some somatic nervous system actions are under voluntary Interneuron
control. When you lift your finger or wiggle your toes, impulses
originating in the brain are carried through the spinal cord to Sensory
motor neurons, which stimulate muscles. Other somatic nervous neuron
system actions occur automatically. If you step on a tack with
your bare foot, your leg may recoil before you are aware of Motor
the pain. This rapid response (a reflex) is produced by impulses neuron
that travel through a pathway known as a reflex arc, as shown Spinal cord
in the figure. Information about the injury is also sent to the
brain, even though your leg and foot have already moved.
Effector
Autonomic Nervous System  The autonomic nervous system (responding
regulates activities that are not under conscious control. For muscle)
instance, when you start to run, the autonomic nervous system
speeds up your heart rate and blood flow to skeletal muscles,
stimulates sweat glands, and slows down contractions of
smooth muscles in the digestive system. The autonomic nervous
system consists of two equally important parts, the sympathetic
nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system, which
usually have opposite effects. For example, the sympathetic
nervous system increases heart rate, and the parasympathetic Sensory
nervous system decreases it. This enables precise control of receptors
body systems, in the same way that using both the gas pedal
and the brake enables a driver to control the speed of a car. In
general, the sympathetic system prepares the body for intense
activity—the so-called “fight or flight” reaction. The parasympa-
thetic system produces the “rest and digest” response.

The Human Body  881

 The Skeletal System
What are the functions of the skeletal system?
The skeletal system, shown in Figure 30–13, supports and shapes the
body like an internal wooden frame supports a house. The skel-
eton supports the body, protects internal organs, assists movement,
stores minerals, and is a site of blood cell formation. Bones also act
as rigid rods on which muscles exert force to produce movement. In
addition, bones contain reserves of minerals, such as calcium salts.
The 206 bones in the adult human skeleton form the axial skeleton
and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton—the skull, the ver-
tebral column, and the rib cage—supports the body’s central axis. The
bones of the arms, legs, pelvis, and shoulder area make up the appen-
dicular skeleton.

Figure 30–13  The Skeleton The

human skeleton is divided into the
Axial axial skeleton and the appendicular
skeleton
skeleton.
Appendicular
skeleton

Bones
Bones are living tissue made up of a solid network of
living cells and protein fibers surrounded by deposits of
calcium salts. Bones are surrounded by tough connective
tissue called periosteum (pehr ee ahs tee um). Beneath
the periosteum is a thick layer of compact bone. Nerves
and blood vessels run through compact bone in chan-
nels called Haversian canals. A less dense tissue known
as spongy bone may be found under the compact
bone, especially in the ends of long bones. Despite its
name, spongy bone is quite strong.
Near the ends of bones where force is applied, spongy
bone forms latticework structures that resemble sup-
porting girders in a bridge. This adds strength without
excess mass.
Inside many bones are cavities containing one of two
types of bone marrow. Yellow marrow consists primar-
ily of cells that store fat. Red marrow contains stem cells
that produce most types of blood cells.

Haversian Canals These Spongy Bone The tiny

canals contain blood structures of spongy bone are
vessels and nerves. Yellow arranged in such a way that
Osteoclasts and osteo- Periosteum bone marrow they can support a lot of force.
blasts line the canals. Red bone marrow is found in
the spaces of spongy bone.

Compact Bone Dense

SEM 180× compact bone, found
Osteocyte under the periosteum,
Spongy contains networks of Growth Plate Growth plates contain
Periosteum bone tubes through which dividing cartilage cells that increase
Blood vessels Compact bone blood vessels and the size of a bone until a person
nerves travel. reaches his or her adult height.

882  Chapter 30 • Lesson 3

Joints

A place where one or more bones meet each other is called a joint. Joints
contain connective tissue that holds bones together and permits bones to move
without damaging each other. Joints can be classified as immovable, slightly
movable, or freely movable.

Immovable Joints  Immovable joints, often called fixed joints, allow no

movement. The bones at an immovable joint are interlocked and grow to-
gether until they are fused. Most bones in the skull meet at immovable joints.

Slightly Movable Joints  Slightly movable joints permit a small amount of

movement. Unlike the bones of immovable joints, the bones of slightly movable
joints are separated from each other. The joints between the two bones of the
lower leg and the joints between vertebrae are examples of slightly movable
joints.

Freely Movable Joints  Freely movable joints, like the shoulder joint, permit
movement in two or more directions. Freely movable joints are grouped ac-
cording to the shapes of the surfaces of the adjacent bones. Several types of
freely movable joints are shown below.

Ball-and-Socket Found in the

shoulders and hips, these joints
allow for movement in many
directions. They are the most
freely movable joints.

Hinge These joints permit Pivot These joints allow

back-and-forth motion, like the one bone to rotate or
opening and closing of a door. turn around another.
They are found in the elbows, Pivot joints allow you
knees, and ankles. to turn your arm at
your elbow and shake
Saddle These joints allow
your head to say no.
one bone to slide in two
directions. Saddle joints
allow a thumb to move
across a palm.

The Human Body  883

 The Muscular System
What are the principal types of muscle tissue?
Despite the fantasies of Hollywood horror films, a skeleton cannot
move by itself. Muscles generate the force needed to power
movement—from a leap in the air to the hint of a smile. There
are three different types of muscle tissue that are specialized for
different functions: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle. The
three types of muscles and where they are found in the body are
shown in Figure 30–14.
Skeletal muscles are usually attached to bones. They are responsible
for voluntary movements. When viewed under a microscope at high
Skeletal Muscle magnification, skeletal muscle appears to have alternating light and
LM 275×
Skeletal Muscle dark bands called “striations.” For this reason, skeletal muscle is said
Skeletal
LM 275Muscle
× to be striated. Most skeletal muscle movements are consciously con-
LM 275× trolled by the central nervous system. Skeletal muscle cells are large,
have many nuclei, and vary in length. Because skeletal muscle cells are
long and slender, they are often called muscle fibers.
Smooth muscle cells are so named because they don’t have stria-
tions and, therefore, look “smooth” under the microscope. These cells
are spindle-shaped and usually have a single nucleus. Smooth muscle
movements are usually involuntary. They are found throughout the
body and form part of the walls of hollow structures such as the
stomach, blood vessels, and intestines. Most smooth muscle cells can
function without direct stimulation by the nervous system.
Cardiac muscle is found in just one place in the body—the heart.
Smooth Muscle Cardiac muscle is striated like skeletal muscle, although its cells are
LM 450×
Smooth Muscle
smaller and usually have just one or two nuclei. Cardiac muscle is
Smooth
LM 450Muscle
× similar to smooth muscle because it is not under the direct control of
LM 450× the central nervous system.

Muscle Contraction and Movement

The structure of a muscle is shown at the top of the next page.
Muscles produce movements by shortening, or contracting, from
end to end. Skeletal muscle fibers contain units called sarcomeres,
which contain filaments composed of the proteins myosin and actin.
Interactions between myosin and actin make it possible for muscles
Cardiac Muscle
to generate force.
LM 370×
Cardiac Muscle Together, myosin and actin form tiny force-producing engines. Dur-
Cardiac
LM 370Muscle
× ing a muscle contraction, myosin filaments form cross-bridges with
LM 370× actin filaments. The cross-bridges then change shape, pulling the ac-
tin filaments toward the center of the sarcomere. This action decreas-
es the distance between the ends of the sarcomeres, so the fiber
shortens. Then the cross-bridge detaches from actin and repeats the
cycle by binding to another site on the actin filament. This is called
Figure 30–14  Muscle Tissue  The three the sliding-filament model of muscle contraction. Muscle contraction
types of muscle tissue look different under produces force only by contracting, but muscles are organized in
a microscope, but all muscle tissue has groups and pairs that work against each other around joints.
the ability to produce movement.

884  Chapter 30 • Lesson 3

 Sliding Filament Model
1 When a muscle is relaxed, Actin Relaxed myofibril
Z line Z line
myosin and actin filaments
are not attached.

Myosin Sarcomere

Binding sites Contracting myofibril

2 During contraction, myosin
attaches to binding sites on
actin, forming cross-bridges.
Using ATP, the cross-bridges Cross-bridge
pull the actin toward the ATP
center of the sarcomere.

3 The cross-bridges break, Contracted myofibril

myosin binds to another
site, and the cycle begins
again until the muscle
fiber is contracted.

The Human Body  885


Figure 30–15  Structure of the
Skin  The skin has an outer layer called
the epidermis and an inner layer called
the dermis. Infer Why do you think a
slight scratch on the surface of the skin
does not bleed?
The Integumentary System TEKS 10A
What are the principal functions of the integumentary system?
The integumentary system includes the skin, hair, and nails.
The integumentary system serves as a barrier against infection
and injury, helps to regulate body temperature, removes wastes
from the body, gathers information, and produces vitamin D. The
skin is made up of two layers—the epidermis and the dermis. Beneath
the dermis is a layer of fat (the hypodermis) and loose connective
tissue that helps insulate the body. Figure 30–15 shows many of the
structures that make up the skin.

Hair is produced by cells at the base

of structures called hair follicles.
Sweat pores

Epidermis

Dermis

Hair follicle
Hypodermis
When the body needs to conserve
heat on a cold day, the blood
vessels in the dermis narrow. This Muscle Sebaceous glands
helps bring blood closer to the Fat in the skin release an oily
body’s core and prevents heat forms an insulating substance that
from escaping through the skin. Sensory nerves helps keep the skin
in the skin detect layer that retains
On hot days, the blood vessels body heat. flexible and
widen, bringing heat from the pressure, heat, waterproof.
body’s core to the skin. cold, and pain, Because it is
and transit that acidic, it can kill
information to Sweat glands help in bacteria on the
the nervous temperature regulation. surface of the skin.
system. Excess heat is released when
sweat glands produce
perspiration. When sweat
evaporates, it takes heat
away from body.

886  Chapter 30 • Lesson 3

The Endocrine System
What are the components of the endocrine system?
The endocrine system produces chemicals called hormones that affect
many parts of the body. The glands of the endocrine system
release hormones that travel through the blood and control the
actions of cells, tissues and organs. Endocrine glands usually release
their hormones directly into the blood. The location of the major
Figure 30–16  Major Endocrine
endocrine glands is shown in Figure 30–16. Exocrine glands release Glands  Endocrine glands produce
sweat, tears, and digestive enzymes through tubelike structures (called hormones that affect many parts of
ducts) either out of the body or directly into the digestive system. the body.

Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus makes hormones
that control the pituitary gland and
hormones that are stored in the
pituitary gland.

Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland produces hormones Pineal Gland
that regulate many of the other endocrine The pineal gland releases
glands and some organs. Hormones melatonin, which is
released: Follicle-stimulating hormone involved in rhythmic
(FSH), Luteinizing hormone (LH), activities, such as daily
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), sleep-wake cycles.
Adreno-corticotrophic hormone
(ACTH), Growth hormone (GH), Thyroid
Prolactin, Melanocyte-stimulating The thyroid produces
hormone (MSH) thyroxine, which regulates
metabolism throughout the
body. The thyroid also
produces calcitonin.
Parathyroid Glands
These four glands release Pancreas
parathyroid hormone, The pancreas produces
which regulates the level of insulin and glucagon,
calcium in the blood. which regulate the level of
glucose in the blood. The
pancreas also secretes
digestive hormones.
Thymus
Ovaries
During childhood, the
Ovaries produce estrogens
thymus releases thymosin,
and progesterone.
which stimulates T cell
Estrogens are required for
development and proper
the development of female
immune response.
secondary sex
characteristics and for the
development of eggs.
Progesterone prepares
Adrenal Glands the uterus for a
The adrenal glands fertilized egg.
release hormones
that help the body Testes
respond to stress. Hormones The testes produce
released: More than two dozen testosterone, which is
steroid hormones called responsible for sperm
corticosteroids (including production and the
aldosterone and cortisol), development of male
epinephrine, norepinephrine secondary sex
characteristics.

The Human Body  887

 Hormone Action

Hormones fall into two general groups—steroid

hormones and nonsteroid hormones. Steroid and
nonsteroid hormones work in different ways, but both
affect cells by binding to specific chemical receptors
located either on cell membranes or within cells.
Cells that have receptors for a particular hormone
are called target cells. If a cell does not have recep-
tors for a particular hormone, the hormone has no
effect on it.
Steroid Hormone Action  Because steroid hor-
mones are lipids, they can easily cross cell mem-
branes. Once in the cell, steroid hormones can enter
the nucleus and change the pattern of gene expres-
sion in a target cell. The ability to alter gene expres-
sion makes the effects of many steroid hormones
especially powerful and long lasting.
1 A2 4 5 enters
3 hormone
steroid 6 a7cell8by passing
9
directly across the cell membrane.
1 2 Once 4 5 the6hormone
3 inside, 7 8binds 9 to a receptor
(found only in the hormone’s target cells) and forms a
hormone-receptor complex.
1 2 3 The 5 6 7 8complex
4 hormone-receptor 9 enters the nucleus
of the cell, where it binds to regions of DNA that
control gene expression.
2 3 5 binding
4 This 6 7initiates
8 9 the transcription of specific
Steroid Hormone Action
genes to messenger RNA (mRNA).
3 4 5 The 6 mRNA7 8 moves 9 into the cytoplasm and directs
protein synthesis.
Nonsteroid Hormone Action Nonsteroid
hormones generally cannot pass through the cell
membrane of their target cells. Nonsteroid hormones
bind to receptors on cell membranes and cause the
release of secondary messengers that affect cell
activities.
1 A2 5 6binds
3 4 hormone
nonsteroid 7 to 8receptors
9 on the
cell membrane.
1 2 The 4 5of the
3 binding 6 hormone
7 8 activates
9 enzymes on
the inner surface of the cell membrane.
1 2 3 These 5 6 release
4 enzymes 7 8 secondary
9 messengers
such as calcium ions, nucleotides, and even fatty
acids to relay the hormone’s message within the cell.
One common secondary messenger is cAMP (cyclic
AMP), which is produced from ATP.
2 3 5 secondary
4 These 6 7 8messengers
9 can activate or
inhibit a wide range of cell activities.

Nonsteroid Hormone Action

888  Chapter 30 • Lesson 3

Control of the Endocrine System TEKS 10A, 11A

How are endocrine glands controlled?

The endocrine system is one of the master control systems of the body.
Like most body systems, the endocrine system is regulated by
negative feedback mechanisms that function to maintain homeo-
stasis. Recall that negative feedback, also called feedback inhibition,
occurs when an increase in a substance (or other product of a system)
“feeds back” in a way that inhibits that system. Concentrations of
hormones, and their effects on other body systems are controlled in
similar ways.
Maintaining Water Balance  Water balance in the body is one
example of how the endocrine system maintains homeostasis. When
you exercise, you sweat and lose water. If this water loss continued,
your body would soon become dehydrated. But your hypothalamus
contains cells that monitor blood water content. As you lose water,
concentrations of dissolved materials in blood rise. The hypothalamus
responds in two ways. First, it signals the posterior pituitary gland to
release antidiuretic hormone (ADH). ADH molecules are carried to
the kidneys, where they slow removal of water from blood. In addi-
tion, you experience a sensation of thirst.
When you drink quickly, you might take in a liter of fluid, most of See the Modeling Blood LAB
which is quickly absorbed. That much water could dilute the blood Glucose Regulation lab
enough to disturb the equilibrium between blood and body cells. on p. 983. A

K
H
NDBO

O
When blood water content rises, the pituitary releases less ADH. TEKS 3E, 11A
As ADH concentrations fall, the kidneys remove more water from
the blood, restoring its proper concentration. This homeostatic
system sets both upper and lower limits for blood water content. Figure 30–17  Blood Glucose
Regulation  Insulin and glucagon
Blood Glucose Regulation  Glucose concentration in the blood- are opposing hormones that
ensure blood glucose levels stay
stream is controlled by insulin and glucagon. When blood glucose
within a normal range.
concentration rises, the pancreas releases
insulin. Insulin stimulates liver and
skeletal muscle cells to convert blood
glucose to glycogen, and stimulates fat
Food intake increases
cells to convert glucose to lipids. These blood glucose level.
actions together prevent blood glucose
concentrations from rising too rapidly.
They also store energy for future use.
In-between meals, when blood glu- GLUCAGON
Pancreas releases insulin INSULIN
cose concentration drops, the pancreas (promotes
or glucagon in response to (promotes
releases glucagon. Glucagon stimulates breakdown of glucose uptake)
blood glucose levels.
glycogen)
liver and skeletal muscle cells to break
down glycogen and release glucose into
the blood. Glucagon also causes fat cells
to break down fats so they can be con-
verted to glucose. These actions raise Between meals, blood
blood glucose concentrations back to glucose level drops.
normal. Figure 30–17 shows this feed-
back loop.

The Human Body  889

 The Male Reproductive System TEKS 10A

What are the main functions of the male reproductive system?

Figure 30–18  Male Reproductive
System  The main structures of the
male reproductive system produce
and deliver sperm.
As males approach puberty, their hypothalamus signals their pituitary
to produce two hormones—luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH). LH stimulates the testes to produce
testosterone. Testosterone directs all the male physical changes associ-
ated with puberty and, together with FSH, stimulates sperm develop-
ment. When puberty is complete, the male reproductive system
is fully functional, meaning that it can produce and release active
sperm. The male reproductive system is shown in Figure 30–18.
The testes (singular: testis) are located in a sac called the scrotum
outside the body cavity where a slightly lower temperature promotes
proper sperm development. Specialized cells in seminiferous tubules
within the testes undergo meiosis to form haploid sperm nuclei.
Sperm then move into the epididymis, where they mature and are
stored. A mature sperm cell consists of a head, which contains a highly
condensed nucleus; a midpiece, packed with energy-releasing mito-
chondria; and a tail, or flagellum, which propels the cell forward. At
the tip of the head is a small cap containing enzymes vital to fertiliza-
tion. Some sperm are moved into tubes called vas deferens, which
empty into the urethra.
Glands lining the reproductive tract, including seminal vesicles, the
prostate, and bulbourethral glands—produce nutrient-rich seminal
fluid. Seminal fluid nourishes sperm and protects them from acidity in
the female reproductive tract. The combination of sperm and seminal
fluid is known as semen. Between 50 million and 130 million sperm
are present in 1 milliliter of semen. That’s about 2.5 million sperm per
drop! When a male is sexually aroused, the autonomic nervous system
stimulates the penis to become erect. Semen is ejected through the ure-
thra by contractions of smooth muscles lining the reproductive tract in
a process called ejaculation.

Front View Side View

Urinary bladder
Seminal
vesicle Vas deferens Rectum
Prostate Seminal
gland Urethra
vesicle
Bulbourethral Penis Prostate
gland gland
Epididymis
Bulbourethral
Seminiferous gland
tubules

Testis

890  Chapter 30 • Lesson 3

The Female Reproductive System TEKS 10A

What are the main functions of the female reproductive

system?
In females, FSH release during puberty stimulates the ovaries to
produce estrogen and start producing egg cells. Female reproduc-
tive organs include the ovaries, Fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, and
the vagina, as shown in Figure 30–19. The main functions of
the female reproductive system are to produce egg cells, or ova
(singular: ovum), and to prepare the body to nourish a develop-
ing embryo. Eggs develop within clusters of cells in the ovary called
follicles. Each ovary contains as many as 400,000 primary follicles, but
ovaries release only about 400 mature eggs over a lifetime.
In females, as in males, puberty begins when the hypothalamus
signals the pituitary gland to release FSH and LH. FSH and LH together
stimulate the maturation of a follicle containing an egg cell. The cells of
the follicle also produce estrogen. Eggs develop within clusters of cells in
the ovary called follicles. Each ovary releases an egg every 28 days or so.
Egg release is part of the menstrual cycle, a regular sequence of events
involving the interaction of the reproductive system and the endocrine
system. Meanwhile, estrogens stimulate the uterus to grow new blood
vessels in preparation to receive a fertilized egg.
If an egg is not fertilized, or if it fails to attach to the uterine wall,
it is discharged. The new blood vessels and thickened lining of the
uterus deteriorate, and are also discharged. A new menstrual cycle
then begins. Figure 30–19  Female
If an egg is fertilized, embryonic development begins. If the devel- Reproductive System  The main
function of the female reproductive
oping fertilized egg successfully attaches to the wall of the uterus, the system is to produce ova. The
menstrual cycle ceases, and tissues from both the developing embryo ovaries are the main organs of
and the mother’s uterus form a new organ called the placenta. Preg- the female reproductive system.
nancy begins. Predict  Which structure is most likely
lined with cilia that push an egg
toward the uterus? Explain.

Front View Side View

Fallopian tube

Ovary
Uterus
Urinary bladder

Cervix
Urethra

Vagina

Rectum

The Human Body  891

 Fertilization and Early Development
Human development begins with the fusion of sperm and egg. The fusion of a sperm with an egg cell is called
fertilization. During intercourse, semen containing millions of sperm is ejaculated into the vagina. Sperm swim
through the uterus into the Fallopian tubes. If an egg is present, its chances of being fertilized are good. The outer
layer of the egg contains binding sites to which sperm can attach. If a sperm attaches, it releases enzymes that
break down the protective layer. The haploid (N) sperm nucleus enters the haploid egg, and their two nuclei fuse
to form a single diploid (2N) nucleus. The fertilized egg is called a zygote.
The zygote then undergoes mitosis. A cavity forms in the center, and the embryo becomes a hollow ball of cells
known as a blastocyst. About six or seven days after fertilization, if the blastocyst attaches to the wall of the uterus,
it grows into the mother’s tissues. This process is known as implantation. Cells in the blastocyst then begin to dif-
ferentiate, producing different body tissues. A cluster of cells within the blastocyst cavity develops into the body of
the embryo. Other blastocyst cells differentiate into tissues that support and protect the embryo. Key events in early
development include gastrulation, which produces the three cell layers of the embryo, and neurulation, which leads
to the formation of the nervous system.

Gastrulation 
Gastrulation forms three germ
layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and Amniotic
endoderm. The ectoderm will cavity
Ectoderm
develop into the skin and the
nervous system. Mesoderm cells Ectoderm
develop into many of the body’s Mesoderm
internal structures, including bones,
Endoderm
muscle, blood cells, and gonads.
During gastrulation, some cells
Endoderm forms the linings of Endoderm
migrate from the ectoderm
organs in the digestive system, such Yolk cavity and form the mesoderm.
as the stomach and intestines, as
well as respiratory and excretory
systems.

892  Chapter 30 • Lesson 3

 The Placenta  The amnion, a sac filled
Neurulation  with amniotic fluid, cushions and pro-
tects the developing embryo. Another
The process of neurula- sac, the chorion, just outside the amnion,
tion marks the beginning is in contact with the uterus. Small,
of nervous system devel-
opment. Some mesoder- fingerlike projections called chorionic
mal tissue differentiates villi form on the outer surface of the
into a notochord. Nearby chorion and extend into the uterine lin-
ectoderm thickens and ing. The chorionic villi and uterine lining
forms the neural plate,
neural folds, and neural
together form the placenta, the vital
crest. The neural folds connection between mother and embryo.
form the neural tube, The mother’s blood and the embryo’s
from which the spinal blood flow past each other in the cho-
cord and brain develop. rionic villi, but do not mix. Oxygen
Neural crest cells become
nerve cells, skin pigment and nutrients diffuse from the mother’s
cells, and other structures blood to the embryo’s blood, and carbon
such as the lower jaw. dioxide and metabolic wastes diffuse
from the embryo’s blood to the mother’s
blood. The umbilical cord connects the
embryo to the placenta.
After eight weeks, the embryo is
called a fetus. By the end of three months
of development, most of the major
organs and tissues of the fetus are fully
formed. The fetus may begin to move
and show signs of reflexes. The fetus is
about 8 centimeters long and has a mass
of about 28 grams.

30.3 Review Key Concepts TEKS 10A, 11A

1. a. Review  Describe the functions of the nervous
system.
b. Review  What happens when a neuron is stimu-
lated by another neuron?
c. Explain  Is a reflex part of the central nervous
system, the peripheral nervous system, or both?
2. a. Review  List the different functions of the skel-
etal system.
b. Explain  Describe the structure of a typical
bone.
c. Use Analogies  Which type of freely moveable
joint would you compare to a doorknob? Explain
your answer.
3. a. Review  List the three types of muscle tissue.
b. Explain  Describe how a muscle contracts.
4. Review  List the functions of the integumentary
system.
5. a. Review  What is the function of the endo-
crine system?
b. Apply Concepts  Use what you learned
in Chapter 7 about how materials cross cell
membranes to explain the actions of steroid
hormones and nonsteroid hormones.
c. Explain  Describe how the endocrine sys-
tem helps maintain homeostasis.
6. a. Review  Describe the function of the male
reproductive system.
b. Review  Describe the function of the
female reproductive system.
c. Relate Cause and Effect  How do the
outcomes of gastrulation and neurulation
contribute to human development?

The Human Body  893

 30.4 Immunity and Disease
In this lesson you will learn about the causes of disease (TEKS 4C), and how the systems of the body work together to
fight disease (TEKS 10A).

Key Questions Think About It  What causes disease? People once believed that
What causes infectious diseases were caused by curses, evil spirits, or vapors rising from foul
disease? marshes. In fact, malaria was actually named after the Italian word for
“bad air.” These bad guesses shouldn’t be all that surprising, because
What are the body’s non-
until microscopes were invented, most causes of disease were invisible
specific defenses against patho-
gens?
to the human eye!

What is the function of the

immune system’s specific Causes of Infectious Disease
defenses? What causes infectious disease?
What health problems During the mid-nineteenth century, French chemist Louis
result when the immune system Pasteur and German bacteriologist Robert Koch proposed that
does not function properly?
infectious diseases occur when microorganisms disrupt normal body
What causes AIDS and how functions. Microorganisms were commonly called “germs,” so this
is it spread? conclusion was called the germ theory of disease.
Since we no longer regard germ as a scientific term, how should we
Vocabulary describe the causes of infectious disease? Infectious diseases are
infectious disease  usually caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi, “protists”, and parasites.
inflammatory response 
Except for parasites, we call most of these agents of disease.
antigen 
humoral immunity  Infectious diseases can be spread in a number of ways. Some
cell-mediated immunity  diseases are spread through coughing, sneezing, physical contact, or
exchange of body fluids. Some diseases are spread through contami-
nated water or food. Many bacteria and viruses are spread by indirect
contact, including coughing and sneezing. Others are spread by direct
contact with skin or even sports equipment.
Figure 30–20  Agents of Disease

Agent Characteristics Diseases Caused

Viruses Nonliving, replicate by inserting their genetic material into a host cell and taking Common cold, chicken-
over many of the host cell’s functions. pox, warts
Bacteria Break down the tissues of an infected organism for food, or release toxins that Streptococcus infections,
interfere with normal activity in the host. diphtheria, botulism,
anthrax, tuberculosis
Fungi Cause infections on the surface of the skin, mouth, throat, fingernails, and Ringworm, thrush, athlete’s
toenails; dangerous infections may spread from lungs to other organs. foot
“Protists” May infect people through contaminated water and insect bites; they take Malaria, African sleeping
nutrients from their host; most inflict damage to cells and tissues. sickness, intestinal diseases
Parasitic May enter through the mouth, nose, anus, or skin; most reside in the intestinal Trichinosis, schistosomia-
Worms tract where they absorb nutrients from the host. sis, hookworm,
elephantiasis

894
Nonspecific Defenses TEKS 10A
See the Modeling
Disease Transmission
LAB

What are the body’s nonspecific defenses against pathogens? lab on p. 984. A

K
H
TEKS 3E, 4C, 10A, 11C NDBO

O
With pathogens all around us, how do we stay healthy most of the
time? The reason is that our bodies have a series of defenses that
protect us against infection. The first of these are called nonspecific
defenses because they act against a wide range of pathogens.
Nonspecific defenses include the skin, tears and other
secretions, the inflammatory response, and fever.
First Line of Defense  The most widespread nonspecific defense is
the physical barrier we call skin. Very few pathogens can penetrate the
layers of dead cells that form the skin’s surface. But openings in the
skin are protected, too. Saliva, mucus, and tears contain lysozyme, an
enzyme that breaks down bacterial cell walls, while stomach secre-
tions destroy many pathogens that are swallowed.
Second Line of Defense  If pathogens make it into the body,
through a cut in the skin, for example, the body’s second line of
defense swings into action. These mechanisms include the inflamma-
tory response and fever.
The inflammatory response causes infected areas to become red
and painful, or inflamed. The response begins when pathogens stimu-
late cells called mast cells to release chemicals known as histamines
Figure 30–21  The Inflammatory
that increase the flow of blood to the affected area (Figure 30–21). Response  The inflammatory response
White blood cells then move into infected tissues, engulfing and is a nonspecific defense reaction to
destroying bacteria. tissue damage caused by injury or
The immune system also releases chemicals that increase body infection. When pathogens enter the
temperature, producing a fever. Increased body temperature may slow body, phagocytes move into the area
and engulf the pathogen. Infer  What
down or stop the growth of some pathogens. Higher body tempera- part of the inflammatory response
ture also speeds up several parts of the immune response. leads to redness around a wounded
area?

Skin Splinter

Bacteria
Histamines

Capillary Phagocytes

1 In response to the wound and 2 Local blood vessels dilate. Fluid 3 Phagocytes engulf and destroy
invading pathogens, mast cells leaves the capillaries and causes the bacteria and damaged cells.
release histamines, which stimulate swelling. Phagocytes move into
increased blood flow to the area. the tissue.

The Human Body  895

 Specific Defenses: The Immune
System TEKS 10A
What is the function of the immune system’s specific defenses?
The body also has specific defenses, which respond to particular
pathogens. The immune system’s specific defenses distinguish
between “self ” and “other,” inactivating or killing foreign sub-
stances or cells.
Recognizing “Self” and “Nonself”  A healthy immune system
recognizes the cells that belong in the body and treats these as “self.”
These cells carry chemical markers that act like passwords saying, “I
belong here. Don’t attack me!” This ability to recognize “self ” keeps
Antigen the immune system from turning against the body’s own cells. Once
the immune system recognizes a bacterium or virus as an “other,” it
uses cellular and chemical weapons to attack them. In addition, after
encountering an invader, the immune system “remembers” it. This
immune “memory” enables a more rapid and effective response if that
Antibody same pathogen, or a similar one, attacks again.

Antigen-binding Antigens  Specific immune defenses are triggered by antigens.

sites An antigen is any foreign substance that can stimulate an immune
response. Typically, antigens are located on the outer surfaces of bac-
Antibody Structure teria, viruses, or parasites. The immune system responds to antigens
by producing cells that attack the invaders directly or that produce
proteins called antibodies that tag antigens for destruction.
Lymphocytes  The main working cells of the immune response are B
lymphocytes (B cells) and T lymphocytes (T cells). B cells are pro-
duced in the bone marrow. T cells are produced in the bone marrow
but mature in the thymus. Each B cell and T cell is capable of recog-
nizing one specific antigen. Although both types of cells recognize
antigens, they go about it differently. B cells, with their embedded
antibodies, discover antigens in body fluids. T cells must be presented
B Lymphocyte with an antigen by infected body cells or immune cells that have
encountered antigens.
The Immune System in Action  B cells and T cells continu-
ally search the body for antigens or signs of antigens. The specific
immune response has two main styles of action: humoral immu-
nity and cell-mediated immunity. Humoral immunity depends on
the action of antibodies that circulate in the blood and lymph. When
an antigen binds to an antibody carried by a B cell, T cells stimulate
T Lymphocyte
the B cell to grow and divide rapidly. That growth and division pro-
duces plasma cells and memory B cells. Another part of the immune
response is called cell-mediated immunity. This part of the immune
system defends the body against some viruses, fungi, and single-celled
pathogens. Cytotoxic, or “killer” T cells hunt down body cells infected
with a particular antigen and kills the cells. The two types of immune
response are shown in Figure 30–22.

896  Chapter 30 • Lesson 4

 SPECIFIC IMMUNE RESPONSE
Figure 30–22  In humoral immunity,
antibodies bind to antigens in body fluids
and tag them for destruction by other parts
of the immune system. In cell-mediated
immunity, body cells that contain antigens
are destroyed.
Virus invades body
HUMORAL IMMUNITY CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY
1 Antigen binds to antibodies. Primary Response 1 Macrophage consumes virus and
displays antigen on its surface.
Helper T cells bind to macrophages
B cell Helper and are activated.
T cell
Macrophage Helper T cell
He

2 Activated B cells grow and

lp
er

divide rapidly. el
T

ls 2 Activated helper T cells divide.

c

ac
tiv
at
eB
ce
lls.

3 B cells produce plasma cells and memory B cells. 3 Helper T cells activate B cells, activate cytotoxic
T cells, and produce memory T cells.

Memory
Infected T cell
cell

Cytotoxic
4 Plasma cells release antibodies that capture antigens T cell
and mark them for destruction.
4 Cytotoxic T cells bind to infected body cells and
destroy them.

Memory
Memory Same virus T cell
B cell invades body

Secondary Response

Helper T cells

5 Memory B cells respond more quickly than 5 Memory T cells respond more quickly than
B cells in the primary response. helper T cells in the primary response.

The Human Body  897

 Immune System Disorders
What health problems result when the immune system does not
function properly?
Failure of the immune system to react to pathogens can be life threaten-
ing. But the immune system can also cause problems when it overreacts
to harmless antigens found in pollen, dust mites, pet dander, and even
one’s own cells. Problems with immune system function can result
in allergies, asthma, autoimmune disease, and AIDS.
Antigens that cause allergic reactions are called allergens. Allergens
can trigger an inflammatory response causing sneezing, watery eyes,
a runny nose, and other irritations. Drugs called antihistamines help
relieve allergy symptoms by counteracting these effects.
Allergic reactions in the respiratory system can create a danger-
ous condition called asthma. Asthma is a chronic disease in which air
passages narrow, causing wheezing, coughing, and difficulty breath-
ing. Asthma attacks can be triggered by respiratory infections, exercise,
stress, and certain medications as well as by allergens. Inhaled medica-
tions can relax smooth muscles around the airways and relieve asthma
symptoms, preventing lung damage.
When the immune system attacks the body’s own cells, it produces
an autoimmune disease. Type I diabetes is an autoimmune disease
in which the immune system attacked insulin-producing cells in the
pancreas. Other autoimmune diseases include rheumatoid arthritis
and lupus. People with Type I diabetes can take insulin, while other
autoimmune diseases can be treated with medications that suppress the
immune response.

HIV and AIDS TEKS 4C, 10A

What causes AIDS and how is it spread?

During the late 1970s, physicians began reporting serious infections
produced by microorganisms that didn’t normally cause disease.
Researchers concluded that these illnesses were symptoms of a new dis-
order they called acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
  In 1983, researchers identified the cause of AIDS—a virus
they called human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). HIV attacks key
cells within the immune system, leaving the body with inadequate
protection against pathogens. HIV is a retrovirus that carries its genetic
information in RNA, rather than DNA. Figure 30–23 shows how HIV
attacks an immune system cell. Over time, HIV destroys T cells, crip-
pling the ability of the immune system to fight HIV itself and other
pathogens. When an HIV-infected person’s T cell count reaches about
one sixth the normal level, he or she is diagnosed with AIDS.
HIV is deadly, but it is not transmitted through coughing, sneezing,
sharing clothes, or other forms of casual contact. HIV can only be trans-
mitted through contact with infected blood, semen, vaginal secretions,
or breast milk. The four main ways that HIV is transmitted are sexual
intercourse with an infected person; sharing needles with an infected
person; contact with infected blood or blood products; or from an
infected mother to her child during pregnancy, birth, or breast-feeding.

898  Chapter 30 • Lesson 4

 You can choose behaviors that reduce your risk of becoming
infected with HIV. The best ways to avoid HIV infection are
abstinence from sexual activity and avoidance of illegal intrave-
nous drug use. Within a committed relationship, such as marriage,
sexual fidelity between two uninfected partners presents the least risk
of becoming infected with HIV. People who share needles to inject
themselves with drugs are at a high risk for contracting HIV. For this Figure 30–23  HIV Infection  HIV
reason, people who have sex with drug abusers are at high risk. travels through the blood, where
At present, there is neither a cure for nor a reliable vaccine against it binds to receptors on helper T
AIDS. However, a steady stream of new drugs makes it possible to cells. Inside the cell, the viral DNA
directs the cell to produce many new
survive HIV infection for years. Unfortunately, these successful drugs viruses. These new viruses are quickly
have given some the misconception that HIV is not serious. That idea released back into the blood, where
is dead wrong, and HIV remains a major killer. they infect more cells.

Reverse
Viral RNA transcriptase

6 The new viruses

Cytoplasm bud off from the host
cell membrane.

1 Virus attaches to host cell

membrane by recognizing specific 5 Viral mRNA directs
molecules on the cell surface. Nucleus the host cell to
assemble viral proteins.
mRNA
2 Viral coat fuses with
cell membrane and viral
RNA enters the cell. 4 Viral DNA enters the nucleus and
RNA inserts itself into host DNA. There it may
Viral begin directing the synthesis of viral
DNA RNA and mRNA.
3 Reverse transcriptase
uses viral RNA as a
template to make viral DNA.

30.4 Review Key Concepts TEKS 4B, 4C, 10A

1. a. Review  List the types of organisms that can
cause disease.
b. Review  What are the ways in which infectious
diseases are spread?
2. a. Review  List the body’s nonspecific defenses against
pathogens.
b. Sequence  Describe the steps of the inflammatory
response.
3. a. Review  How does the immune system identify a
pathogen?
b. Describe  What are the two main styles of action
of the specific immune response?
c. Apply Concepts  Why would a dis-
ease that destroys helper T cells also
compromise the humoral response?
4. Review  What are three immune system
disorders?
5. a. Review  What virus causes AIDS?
Describe how it is spread.
b. Infer  What aspect of HIV infection
causes difficulty in fighting off other
infections?

The Human Body  899

 Y TH
PL
E
AP

TEKS

10A

The Telltale sample

For centuries, people have used urine for clues to health and
disease. The Greeks, for example, knew that diabetics had
excessive sugar in their urine and called the disease diabetes
mellitus. Mellitus is the Greek word for honey.
• Physical Examination  During this step, the color and
clarity are examined. The lighter yellow urine is, the more
water that is being released by the kidneys. Urine of a color
other than yellow could indicate the presence of blood. Or,
it could simply indicate someone has eaten a lot of beets.
Urine should be clear, rather than cloudy.
• Microscopic Examination  The presence of mucus, white
blood cells, or microorganisms in urine indicates a prob-
able infection. Cloudy urine may also be caused by crystals,
which could indicate kidney stones or a metabolic problem.
• Chemical Examination  Hundreds of chemical tests can
be performed on urine. Chemical dipsticks are used that
change color in the presence of other chemicals. These tests
can reveal a lot about kidney function, liver function, and
overall homeostasis in the body.

1. Identify  The lab test of Andrew’s urine sample
showed an abnormal amount of a certain sub-
stance. What substance do you think it was?
2. Describe  Urine is a product of the excretory sys-
tem, but it reveals interactions that occur among
that and other body systems. How does urine
reveal so much about human body systems?
3. Describe  A few healthy athletes drank a great
deal of water before and during practice. What
color do you think their urine was?
4. Apply Concepts  As part of the nutrient absorp-
tion process, ketones are produced by the break-
down of fat for energy. Ketones in the urine can
be an indication of diabetes. Why do you think
this is?
5. Form an Opinion  Most drug urine tests per-
formed for schools do not test for alcohol or
tobacco. Why do you think this is the case? Do
you agree or disagree? Explain.

900  Chapter 30 • Solve the Chapter Mystery

 30 TEKS Practice
Review Content
1. The process of maintaining a relatively constant
internal environment despite changes in the ex-
ternal environment is called
a. regulation. c. synapse.
b. homeostasis. d. stimulation.
2. Where does mechanical digestion begin?
a. the esophagus c. the mouth
b. the large intestine d. the small intestine
3. Urine is excreted from the body through the
a. ureter. c. urethra.
b. urinary bladder. d. renal vein.
4. The upper chambers of the heart are the
a. ventricles. c. myocardium.
b. septa. d. atria.
5. Cells that protect the body by engulfing foreign
cells or producing antibodies are
a. red blood cells. c. platelets.
b. cilia. d. white blood cells.
6. The tiny hollow air sacs in the lungs where gas
exchange takes place are the
a. alveoli. c. capillaries.
b. lymph nodes. d. bronchioles.
7. The basic units of structure and function in the
nervous system are
a. neurons. c. dendrites.
b. axons. d. neurotransmitters.
8. The network of channels that runs through
compact bone is called the
a. periosteum. c. Haversian canals.
b. joint. d. marrow.
9. In which part of the body would you find skeletal
muscle tissue?
a. thigh c. blood vessels
b. stomach d. heart
10. The outer layer of skin is called the
a. dermis. c. epidermis.
b. keratin. d. melanin.
11. Which choice is a chemical messenger that can
directly influence gene expression?
a. nonsteroid hormone c. ATP
b. steroid hormone d. cAMP
TEKS 2H, 10A, 10C
12. Another name for a fertilized egg is a
a. gastrula. c. zygote.
b. placenta. d. blastocyst.
13. The body’s most widespread nonspecific defense
against pathogens is (are)
a. tears. c. saliva.
b. mucus. d. skin.
Understand Concepts
14. Why is it important for an organism to maintain
homeostasis?
15. How is the structure of the villi adapted to their
function?
16. What is the role of the skin in excretion?
17. What materials are filtered from blood in
the kidney? What materials do not leave the
bloodstream?
18. Name the three types of neurons and describe
their function in the nervous system.
19. Which type of freely movable joint allows for the
most range of motion?
20. Describe the primary function of each of the three
types of muscle tissue.
21. Describe three ways the integumentary system
performs the function of protection.
22. What are the primary functions of the lymphatic
system?
23. How does a feedback mechanism regulate the
activity of the endocrine system?
24. Trace the development of a zygote from fertiliza-
tion through implantation.
25. Distinguish between humoral immunity and cell-
mediated immunity.
Think Critically
26. Predict  Infections may lead to an immune
response that results in a high fever. Considering
what you have learned about the action of
enzymes, predict what may happen if a person’s
body temperature remains abnormally high.
  901
TEKS Practice
IEW TH

REV
Biology Chapter 30

TEKS
27. Relate Relate the levels of organization in bio-
logical systems to the whole system. Why is it
important for the systems of an organism to work
together? What might be the result if the different
systems did not coordinate with one another?
28. Analyze  What are the levels of organization in
biological systems, starting with the simplest
level? Analyze how organs and organ systems are
related.
29. Describe  In what ways do the digestive and respi-
ratory systems depend on the circulatory system
to carry out the functions of obtaining nutrients?
30. Relate  How do the levels of organization in
biological systems relate to each other? Use the
example of the stomach’s role in the digestive
system in your answer.
31. Relate  How can your lungs be considered part of
both the circulatory system and respiratory sys-
tem? Relate the levels of organization in biological
systems to each other.
32. Infer  When there is too much fluid in the blood,
the heart must pump harder. Diuretics are sub-
stances that stimulate the kidneys to remove more
fluid from the body. Why do you think diuretics
are used to treat high blood pressure?
33. Communicate Valid Conclusions Although
exercising can increase your strength and endur-
ance, over-exercising can have adverse effects on
the body. Use resources in the library or on the
Internet to find out what these adverse effects are.
Communicate your conclusions in a brief report,
supported by the data you found.
34. Predict  Explain how the removal of someone’s
lymph nodes can affect his or her ability to fight
disease.
35. Describe  Describe the role of internal feedback
mechanisms in the maintenance of homeostasis.
Use the example of blood glucose regulation in
your answer.
36. Describe  Describe the interactions that occur
among systems that perform the function of
reproduction in animals. Use humans as your
example.
37. Describe  Describe the interactions that occur
among systems that perform the function of de-
fense from illness in humans.
E
Lesson 1
The levels of organization in the body include
cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. Basic
structure and function for each of the body systems
was explained. Body systems must work together
to maintain homeostasis—the relatively constant
internal physical and chemical conditions that
organisms maintain despite changes in internal
and external environments.
Supporting TEKS: 10C, 11A
Lesson 2
This lesson provides an overview of the digestive,
excretory, circulatory, respiratory, and lymphatic
systems. Details about the structure and function of
the system as well as how it contributes to overall
homeostasis in the body was also reviewed.
Readiness TEKS: 10A
Supporting TEKS: 11A
Lesson 3
This lesson provides an overview of the nervous,
skeletal, muscular, integumentary, endocrine, as
well as the male and female reproductive systems.
Details about the structure and function of the
system as well as how it contributes to overall
homeostasis in the body was also reviewed.
Readiness TEKS: 10A
Supporting TEKS: 11A
Lesson 4
This lesson discusses the various causes of disease.
In addition, how the immune system responds
to pathogens and disease was covered. Finally,
immune disorders including allergies, asthma, and
HIV infection were covered.
Readiness TEKS: 4C, 10A

902  Chapter 30 • TEKS Practice

★ TEKS Practice: Chapter Review
1 The graph shows the relationship between HIV concentration and helper T cell concentration
during the course of HIV infection.

Course of HIV Infection

Concentration in Blood (per mm³)

900
800 Relative HIV concentration
Helper T cell concentration
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Years Since First Infected With HIV

Using the information in the graph, what can be inferred about concentrations of cytotoxic
T cells during the same time period?

A The cytotoxic T cell concentration would decrease until year 4 and then begin to increase.

B The cytotoxic T cell concentration would follow a trend similar to the trend for helper
T cells.

C After an initial decrease in concentration in year 1, cytotoxic T cell contraction would

increase steadily.

D The cytotoxic T cell concentration would follow a trend similar to the trend for HIV
concentration.

The Human Body  903

 2 In human females, the ovaries play a role in several body systems and the interactions among
these systems. Which body system would be most affected by damage to the ovaries?

F Endocrine system

G Reproductive system

H Immune system

J Both endocrine and reproductive systems

3 The model shows an example of a negative feedback loop in a nonliving system.

Room temperature
decreases.

Thermostat senses
OFF temperature change and turns ON
heating system on or off.

Room temperature
increases.

What change would be required to adapt this model to show how the human body regulates
body temperature to maintain homeostasis?

A Change the shape of the diagram from a loop to a straight line.

B Change the information about the thermostat to information about the hypothalamus.

C Remove the “off” step caused by feedback inhibition.

D Remove the “on” step that is triggered by a change in conditions.

904  Chapter 30 • TEKS Practice

★ TEKS Practice: Cumulative Review
4 Dormancy is a seasonal cycle of behavior related to environmental changes. The graph shows
that the metabolism and body temperature of ground squirrels declines during periods of
dormancy.

Body Temperature of a Ground Squirrel

40
Body Temperature (˚C)
30

20

10

0
Se

O
N

De

Fe
M

M
A

A
Ja

Ju

Ju
pr

ug
ov
ct

ar

ay

ne

ly
n.
b.
pt

c.
.

.
.
.

.
.

Month

When metabolism decreases, the body’s need for resources such as food declines.
How does dormancy improve the evolutionary fitness of ground squirrels?

F It allows squirrels to survive time periods in which resources are scarce.

G It increases the variety of metabolism rates in the squirrel population.

H It decreases the amount of resources available to squirrel offspring.

J It changes the size of the territory a squirrel needs.

If You Have Trouble With . . .

Question 1 2 3 4
See Lesson 30.4 30.4 30.1 29.2
TEKS 4C, 2G 4C 11A 7D

The Human Body  905