1.2. Tissue Level of Organization 2023

1 Introduction
1.2 Tissue level of

organization
José A. Lorente, MD
josloren@ing.uc3m.es
Bioengineering Dept.
Universidad Carlos III de Madrid
Servicio de Medicina Intensiva, Hospital Universitario de Getafe
1
https://www.broadcastmed.com/dermatology/7087/videos/
burns-101-in-the-or
store energy reserves as fat, and help provide the body with
most appropriate treatment. For example, if a biopsy of thyroid tissue
immunity to disease-causing organisms. reveals malignant cells, the surgeon can proceed immediately with
The tissue level of organization

3. Muscular tissues are composed of cells specialized for con-
traction and generation of force. In the process, muscular tis-
the most appropriate procedure. •
sues generate heat that warms the body.

CHECKPOINT
Types of tissues
4. Nervous tissue detects changes in a variety of conditions in-
side and outside the body and responds by generating electri-
1. Define a tissue.
2. What are the four basic types of human tissues?
cal signals called nerve action potentials (nerve impulses) that
Epithelial tissues
activate muscular contractions and glandular secretions. Muscular tissues
• Cover body surfaces.
Epithelial tissues and most types of connective tissues, except 4.2 CELLforJUNCTIONS
Specialized contraction and generation of force.
cartilage, bone, and blood, are more general in nature and have a
• Line hollow organs, body
wide distribution cavities,
in the body.and ducts.
These tissues are components of O B J E C T Itissue
Nervous VE
• Describe the structure and functions of the five main types
• Formsmost body organs and have a wide range of structure and function.
glands. • ofDetects changes in a variety of conditions inside and outside
cell junctions.
We will look at epithelial tissues and connective tissues in some the body.
detail allows
• This tissue in this chapter.
the bodyThe
to general
interactfeatures
with bothof bone tissue and blood
its internal Before looking more specifically at the types of tissues, we will first
will beenvironments.
and external introduced here, but their detailed discussion is pre- examine how cellsbyare
• Responds held together
generating to formsignals
electrical tissues.called
Most epithelial
nerve action
sented in Chapters 6 and 19, respectively. Similarly, the structure cells and some muscle
potentials (nerveand nerve cells
impulses) thatare tightly muscular
activate joined into func-
Connective
and tissues
function of muscular tissues and nervous tissue are introduced units. Cell junctions
tional contractions are contact points between the plasma
and glandular secretions.
• Protecthere
andand examined in detail in Chapters 10 and 12, respectively.
support the body and its organs. membranes of tissue cells. Here we consider the five most impor-
Normally, most cells within a tissue remain anchored to other tantMost
typescells within
of cell a tissuetight
junctions: remain anchored
junctions, to otherjunctions,
adherens cells or
cells ortogether.
• Bind organs structures. Only a few cells, such as phagocytes, move structures.hemidesmosomes, and gap junctions (Figure 4.2).
desmosomes,
• Store energy reserves as fat. Only a few cells, such as phagocytes, move freely through the
body, searching for invaders to destroy.
Figurethe
• Help provide 4.1body
Types of immunity
with tissues. to disease-causing
organisms.
Each of the four types of tissues has different cells that vary in shape, structure, function, and distribution.
(a) Epithelial tissue (b) Connective tissue (c) Muscular tissue (d) Nervous tissue
What are some key differences in function among the four tissue types?
Medical Physiology I
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Cell junctions
4.2 CELL JUNCTIONS 115
Cell junctions are contact points between the plasma membranes of tissue cells.
Figure 4.2 Cell junctions.
Most epithelial cells and some muscle and nerve cells contain cell junctions.
Adjacent plasma
membranes
Adjacent
plasma Intercellular space
membranes (a)
(b)
Connexons Strands of trans-
(composed of Adhesion
membrane proteins
connexins) belt
(e) (c)
Gap between
cells
(a) Tight junctions
Basement
(e) Gap junction membrane
(d)
Adjacent plasma
membranes
Microfilament
Intermediate (actin)
filament Adjacent plasma
(keratin) membranes
Plaque
Intercellular
space
Transmembrane
glycoprotein
(cadherin)
Plaque Adhesion
Intercellular
space belt
Basement
membrane
(b) Adherens junction
Plaque
Plasma membrane Transmembrane
Transmembrane glycoprotein
glycoprotein (integrin) (cadherin)
in extracellular space
Intermediate
filament (keratin)
(d) Hemidesmosome (c) Desmosome
Which type of cell junction functions in communication between adjacent cells?

Cell junctions
ain cell junctions.
Tight Junctions
• Tight junctions consist of weblike strands of transmembrane
Adjacent plasma proteins that fuse together the outer surfaces of adjacent
membranes
plasma membranes to seal off passageways between adjacent
cells.
(a) Intercellular space
• Cells of epithelial tissues that line the stomach, intestines,
(b)
Strands of trans-
and urinary bladder have many tight junctions.
membrane proteins
• They inhibit the passage of substances between cells and
prevent the contents of these organs from leaking into the
(c) blood or surrounding tissues.
Adherens Junctions
(a) Tight junctions • Adherens junctions contain plaque, a dense layer of
proteins on the inside of the plasma membrane that attaches
both to membrane proteins and to micro laments of the
cytoskeleton.
Adjacent plasma
membranes • Transmembrane glycoproteins called cadherins join the
cells.
Microfilament
(actin)
• Each cadherin inserts into the plaque from the opposite side
of the plasma membrane, partially crosses the intercellular
Plaque space, and connects to cadherins of an adjacent cell.
Transmembrane • In epithelial cells, adherens junctions often form extensive

glycoprotein zones called adhesion belts.
(cadherin)
Adhesion • Adherens junctions help epithelial surfaces resist separation
Intercellular
space belt during various contractile activities, as when food moves
through the intestines.
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Most epithelial cells and some muscle and(a) Tightcells
nerve junctions
contain cell junctions.
Basement
membrane
(d)
Adjacent plasma
Cell junctions membranes
Adjacent plasma
membranes
Adjacent Microfilament
plasma (actin) Desmosomes
Adjacent plasma (a) Intercellular space
membranes membranes • Like adherens junctions, desmosomes contain plaque and the
Plaque transmembrane glycoproteins
(b) cadherins.
Intercellular Connexons
space Strands of trans-
(composed of TransmembraneAdhesion
• Cadherins extend into the intercellular space
membrane between adjacent
proteins
connexins) glycoprotein belt cell membranes and attach cells to one another.
(cadherin)
Plaque (e) • Unlike adherens (c)
junctions, the plaque of desmosomes does not
Intercellular Adhesion
Gap between space
attach to micro
belt laments.
Basement
membrane cells • Instead, a desmosome plaque attaches to elements of the
ma membrane cytoskeleton known as intermediate laments, which
(a) Tight consist of
junctions
Transmembrane
glycoprotein the protein keratin.
(cadherin) Basement • The intermediate laments extend from desmosomes on one side
Intermediate of
(d)the cell across the cytosol to desmosomes on the opposite side
filament (keratin) Adjacent plasma
of the cell. membranes
me (c) Desmosome • This structural arrangement contributes to the stability of the cells
unction functions in communication between adjacent cells? and tissue. Microfilament
Intermediate (actin)
filament Adjacent plasma
• In epidermis and cardiac muscle cells in the heart.
(keratin) membranes
• Desmosomes prevent epidermalPlaque
Intercellular
cells from separating under
space tension and cardiac muscle cellsTransmembrane
from pulling apart during
Adherens Junctions contraction. glycoprotein
(cadherin)
Hemidesmosomes
of weblike strands of transmembrane pro- Adherens junctions (ad-HER-ens) contain plaque (PLAK), a
Plaque Adhesion
• Unlike desmosomes, but they do Intercellular
not link adjacent cells.
he outer surfaces of adjacent plasma mem- dense layer of proteins on the inside of the plasma membrane that space belt
Basement
ageways between adjacent cells (Figure attaches both to membrane
membrane proteins and to microfilaments of the
• The transmembrane glycoproteins are integrins rather than
cytoskeleton (Figure 4.2b). Transmembrane glycoproteins (b) Adherens junction
l tissues that line the stomach,Plaque
intestines,
Plasma membrane
cadherins. called
ve many tight junctions. They inhibit the Transmembrane
cadherins join the cells. Each cadherin inserts into the plaque
Transmembrane glycoprotein• On the inside of the plasma membrane, integrins attach to
etween cells and prevent the contents
glycoprotein from the opposite side of the plasma
of(integrin) membrane, partially crosses
(cadherin)
ng into the blood or surroundingin tissues.
extracellular space
intermediate
the intercellular space (the space between the cells), laments made of the protein keratin.
and connects
• On the outside ofIntermediate
the plasma membrane, the integrins attach to
filament (keratin)
the protein laminin, which is present in the basement membrane.
•
Thus, hemidesmosomes anchor cells not to each other but to the
Which type of cell junction functions in communication between adjacent
basement cells?
membrane.
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Most epithelial cells and some muscle and nerve cells contain cell junctions.
Cell junctions
Gap Junctions
• At gap junctions, membrane proteins called connexins
form tiny uid- lled tunnels called connexons that connect
neighboring cells.
Adjacent
• The plasma membranes of gap junctions are not fused
plasma
membranes
together as in tight junctions but are separated by a very (a
narrow intercellular gap (space).
• Through the connexons, ions and small molecules can (b
Connexons diffuse from the cytosol of one cell to another.
• The passage of large molecules such as vital intracellular
belt
connexins) proteins is prevented.
(e)• The transfer of nutrients and wastes takes place through gap (c
junctions in avascular tissues such as the lens and cornea of
the eye.
Gap between
• Gap junctions allow the cells in a tissue to communicate
cells with one another.
• Gap junctions also enable nerve or muscle impulses to
spread rapidly.
Basement
(d)
Intermediate Medical Physiology I

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Epithelial tissue: Structure
Epithelial tissue versus connective tissue
• Major structural differences between an epithelial tissue and a connective tissue are immediately obvious under a light microscope.
JWCL316_c04_113-152.qxd 7/26/10 5:20 PM Page 117
• The number of cells in relation to the extracellular matrix (the substance between cells).
• In an epithelial tissue many cells are tightly packed together with little or no extracellular matrix, whereas in a connective tissue
a large amount of extracellular material separates cells that are usually widely scattered.
• An epithelial tissue has no blood vessels, whereas most connective tissues have signi cant networks of blood vessels.
4.4 EPITHELIAL TISSUES 117
• Because
Figure epithelial tissues
4.3 Comparison betweenlack bloodtissues
epithelial vessels
andand form surfaces,
connective tissues. they are always found immediately adjacent to blood-vessel-
rich connective tissues.
The ratio of cells to extracellular matrix is a major difference between epithelial tissues and connective tissues.
• Epithelial tissues almost always form surface layers and are not covered by another tissue.
(a) Epithelial tissue with many cells tightly packed together and little to no (b) Connective tissue with a few scattered cells surrounded by large amounts
extracellular matrix. of extracellular matrix.
What relationship between epithelial tissues and connective tissues is important for the survival and function of epithelial
tissues?
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Figure 4.4 Surfaces of epithelial cells and the structure and
location of the basement membrane.
The basement membrane is found between
epithelial tissues and connective tissues. • An epithelial tissue consists of cells arranged in
continuous sheets, in either single or multiple layers.
Apical (free) Lateral surfaces
• There is little intercellular space between adjacent plasma
surface
membranes.
• Epithelial tissues form coverings and linings throughout the
body.
• They are rarely covered by another tissue, so they always
have a free surface.
Epithelium • Epithelial tissues have three major functions:
• Selective barriers that limit or aid the transfer of
Basal surface substances into and out of the body.
• Secretory surfaces that release products produced by
Basal lamina the cells onto their free surfaces.
Reticular Basement
membrane • Protective surfaces that resist the abrasive in uences
lamina
of the environment.
Connective
tissue
Nerve Blood vessel
What are the functions of the basement membrane?

Surfaces of epithelial cells and the structure and location of the basement membrane.
The basement membrane is found between epithelial tissues and connective tissues.
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location of the basement membrane. The tissue level of organization
The basement membrane is found between
epithelial tissues and connective tissues.
Apical (free) Lateral surfaces • Different surfaces with different functions.

surface
• The apical (free) surface of an epithelial cell
• Faces the body surface, a body cavity, the lumen of an
internal organ, or a tubular duct that receives cell
secretions.
• May contain cilia or microvilli.
Epithelium • The lateral surfaces
• Face the adjacent cells on either side, may contain tight
Basal surface junctions, adherens junctions, desmosomes, and/or gap
junctions.
Basal lamina • The basal surface

Reticular Basement
membrane • Opposite the apical surface.
lamina
• The basal surfaces of the deepest layer of epithelial
Connective
cells adhere to extracellular materials such as the
tissue
basement membrane.
• Hemidesmosomes in the basal surfaces of the deepest
Nerve Blood vessel
layer of epithelial cells anchor the epithelium to the
What are the functions of the basement membrane? basement membrane.
Surfaces of epithelial cells and the structure and location of the basement membrane. • If epithelia presents multiple layers, the term apical
The basement membrane is found between epithelial tissues and connective tissues. layer refers to the most super cial layer of cells, and the
basal layer is the deepest layer of cells.
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Note
Cilia follow a rhythmic movement or movement of cells over the object.
Microvilli just enhance the absorption of nutrients by increasing its surface area.
are closely packed and

ons, there is little inter-
Figure 4.2 Cell junctions. The tissue level of organization
mbranes. Epithelial tis- location of theMost epithelial
basement cells and some muscle and nerve cells contain cell junctions.
membrane.

ut the body. They are
ways have a free sur- The basement membrane is found between
epithelial tissues and connective tissues.
nctions. They serve as
sfer of substances into Apical (free) Lateral surfaces The basement membrane
that release products surface Adjacent plasma
membranes
es; and (3) protective • It is a thin extracellular layer that commonly consists of
Adjacent
f the environment. two layers, the Intercellular
basal lamina
plasma
(a) space and reticular lamina.
ften differ in structure membranes
(free) surface of an • The basal
(b) lamina
cavity, the lumen (in- Connexons Strands of trans-
ular duct that receives • The basal membrane
lamina isproteins
closer to—and secreted by—the
connexins) Epithelium belt
s may contain cilia or epithelial cells.
helial cell, which face (e) (c)
Basal surface
ntain tight junctions, • It contains proteins such as laminin and collagen, as
Gap between
p junctions. The basal cells Basal lamina well as glycoproteins and proteoglycans.
e the apical surface. Reticular Basement
membrane (a) Tight junctions
epithelial cells adhere lamina
• The laminin molecules in the basal lamina adhere to
basement membrane. Connective
he deepest layer of ep- tissue
Basement integrins in hemidesmosomes and thus attach
(e) Gap junction membrane epithelial cells to the basement membrane.
basement membrane (d)
th multiple layers, the Adjacent plasma
Nerve Blood vessel
cial layer of cells, and • The reticular membranes
lamina
What are the functions of the basement membrane?
Intermediate
• The reticular lamina is closer to the underlying
Microfilament
(actin)
filament Adjacent plasma connective tissue and contains proteins such as collagen
(keratin) membranes
produced by connective tissue cells called broblasts.
Plaque
Intercellular
space
• In addition to Transmembrane
attaching to and supporting the overlying
glycoprotein
epithelial tissue, basement membranes have other
(cadherin)
Plaque functions. Adhesion
Intercellular
space belt
Basement
membrane
• They form a surface along which epithelial cells
Plaque migrate during growth or wound healing.
Plasma membrane Transmembrane
Transmembrane glycoprotein
glycoprotein (integrin) (cadherin) • Restrict passage of larger molecules between epithelium
in extracellular space and connective tissue.
Intermediate
filament (keratin)
• Participate in ltration of blood in the kidneys.
Which type of cell junction functions in communication between adjacent cells?

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• Epithelial tissues have their own nerve supply.
• Epithelial tissues are avascular, relying on the blood vessels
of the adjacent connective tissue to bring nutrients and
remove wastes.
• Exchange of substances between epithelial tissues and
connective tissues occurs by diffusion.
• Because epithelial tissues form boundaries between the
body’s organs, or between the body and the external
environment, they are repeatedly subjected to physical
stress and injury.
• A high rate of cell division allows epithelial tissues to
constantly renew and repair themselves by sloughing off
dead or injured cells and replacing them with new ones.
• In addition, epithelial tissues combine with nervous tissue to
form special organs for smell, hearing, vision, and touch.
• Epithelial tissues may be divided into two types:
• Covering and lining epithelium
• forms the outer covering of the skin and some
internal organs.
• It also forms the inner lining of blood vessels,
ducts, and body cavities (peritoneum, pleura), and
the interior of the respiratory, digestive, urinary,
and reproductive systems.
• Glandular epithelium
• It makes up the secreting portion of glands such
as the thyroid gland, adrenal glands, and sweat
glands.
•
es of diabetes mellitus, the basement membrane of Classification of Epithelial Tissues
ssels (capillaries) thickens, especially in the eyes and

se of this the blood vessels cannot function properly Types of covering and lining epithelial tissues are classified ac-
and kidney failure may result. • cording to two characteristics: the arrangement of cells into layers
and the shapes of the cells (Figure 4.5).
Epithelial tissue: Types

Cell shapes and arrangement of layers for covering and lining epithelium.
l shapes and arrangement of layers are the bases for classifying covering and lining epithelium.
Classi cation of Epithelial Tissues
• Types of covering and lining epithelial tissues are classi ed
according to two characteristics:
• arrangement of cells into layers
Arrangement
of layers
• the shapes of the cells.
Arrangement of cells in layers
Simple Pseudostratified Stratified
Basement
membrane • Simple epithelium
• is a single layer of cells that functions in
diffusion, osmosis, ltration, secretion, or
absorption.
• Secretion is the production and release of substances
Cell shape
Basement
such as mucus, sweat, or enzymes.
membrane
• Absorption is the intake of uids or other substances
Squamous Cuboidal Columnar
such as digested food from the intestinal tract.
shape is best adapted for the rapid movement of substances from one cell to another?
Cell shapes and arrangement of layers for covering and lining epithelium. • Pseudostrati ed epithelium
• It appears to have multiple layers of cells because
the cell nuclei lie at different levels and not all cells
reach the apical surface, but it is actually a simple
epithelium because all its cells rest on the basement
membrane.
• Cells that do extend to the apical surface may
contain cilia; others (goblet cells) secrete mucus.
• Strati ed epithelium
• It consists of two or more layers of cells that protect
underlying tissues in locations where there is
considerable wear and tear.
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es of diabetes mellitus, the basement membrane of Classification of Epithelial Tissues
ssels (capillaries) thickens, especially in the eyes and

se of this the blood vessels cannot function properly Types of covering and lining epithelial tissues are classified ac-
and kidney failure may result. • cording to two characteristics: the arrangement of cells into layers
and the shapes of the cells (Figure 4.5).
Epithelial tissue: Types

l shapes and arrangement of layers are the bases for classifying covering and lining epithelium.
Classi cation of Epithelial Tissues
Cell shapes
• Squamous cells are thin, which allows for the rapid passage
of substances through them.
Arrangement
of layers
• Cuboidal cells are as tall as they are wide and are shaped like
cubes or hexagons.They may have microvilli at their apical
Simple Pseudostratified Stratified surface and function in either secretion or absorption.
Basement
membrane
• Columnar cells are much taller than they are wide, like
columns, and protect underlying tissues. Their apical
surfaces may have cilia or microvilli, and they often are
specialized for secretion and absorption.
• Transitional cells change shape, from squamous to
Cell shape
Basement cuboidal and back, as organs such as the urinary bladder
membrane
stretch (distend) to a larger size and then collapse to a
Squamous Cuboidal Columnar
smaller size.
shape is best adapted for the rapid movement of substances from one cell to another?
Types of epithelial tissues: • Strati ed epithelium

• Simple epithelium • Strati ed squamous epithelium
• Simple squamous epithelium • keratinized, when surface cells are dead and become hardened, and
• Simple cuboidal epithelium • nonkeratinized, when surface cells remain alive)
• Simple columnar epithelium (nonciliated and ciliated) • Strati ed cuboidal epithelium
• Pseudostrati ed columnar epithelium (nonciliated and • Strati ed columnar epithelium
ciliated) • Transitional epithelium
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lumen of a hollow organ. The secretions of exocrine glands have parts are tubular glands; those with rounded secretory portions
limited effects and some of them would be harmful if they entered are acinar glands (AS-i-nar; acin- ! berry), also called alveolar
the bloodstream. As you will learn later in the text, some glands glands. Tubuloacinar glands have both tubular and more rounded
of the body, such as the pancreas, ovaries, and testes, are mixed
glands that contain both endocrine and exocrine tissue. The tissue level of organization
secretory parts.
Combinations of these features are the criteria for the follow-
ing structural classification scheme for multicellular exocrine
Structural Classification of Exocrine Glands glands:
Exocrine glands are classified as unicellular or multicellular. As
Epithelial tissue: Glandular Epithelium

the name implies, unicellular glands are single-celled glands.
Goblet cells are important unicellular exocrine glands that secrete
mucus directly onto the apical surface of a lining epithelium.
I. Simple glands
A. Simple tubular. Tubular secretory part is straight and at-
taches to a single unbranched duct. Example: glands in the
Most exocrine glands are multicellular glands, composed of large intestine.
• The function of glandular epithelium is secretion, which is
accomplished by glandular cells that often lie in clusters deep to
Figure 4.6 Multicellular exocrine glands. Pink represents the secretory portion; lavender represents the duct.
the covering and lining epithelium.
Structural classification of multicellular exocrine glands is based on the branching pattern of the duct and the shape of the
secreting portion. • A gland may consist of a single cell or a group of cells that secrete
Duct
substances into ducts (tubes), onto a surface, or into the blood.
• All glands of the body are classi ed as either endocrine or

exocrine.
Secretory
portion
Endocrine glands
• The secretions of endocrine glands inside, called hormones, enter

Simple tubular Simple branched tubular Simple coiled tubular Simple acinar Simple branched acinar
the interstitial uid and then diffuse directly into the bloodstream
without owing through a duct.
• Endocrine secretions have far reaching effects because they are

distributed throughout the body by the bloodstream.
Exocrine glands
• Exocrine glands secrete their products into ducts that empty onto
the surface of a covering and lining epithelium such as the skin
surface or the lumen of a hollow organ.
Compound tubular Compound acinar Compound tubuloacinar
How do simple multicellular exocrine glands differ from compound ones? • The secretions of exocrine glands have limited effects and some of
them would be harmful if they entered the bloodstream.
• Some glands of the body, such as the pancreas, ovaries, and testes,
Multicellular exocrine glands
are mixed glands that contain both endocrine and exocrine tissue.
Pink represents the secretory portion; lavender represents the duct.
Structural classi cation of multicellular exocrine glands is based on the branching pattern of
the duct and the shape of the secreting portion.
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lumen of a hollow organ. The secretions of exocrine glands have parts are tubular glands; those with rounded secretory portions
limited effects and some of them would be harmful if they entered are acinar glands (AS-i-nar; acin- ! berry), also called alveolar
the bloodstream. As you will learn later in the text, some glands glands. Tubuloacinar glands have both tubular and more rounded
of the body, such as the pancreas, ovaries, and testes, are mixed
glands that contain both endocrine and exocrine tissue. The tissue level of organization
secretory parts.
Combinations of these features are the criteria for the follow-
ing structural classification scheme for multicellular exocrine
Structural Classification of Exocrine Glands glands:
Exocrine glands are classified as unicellular or multicellular. As

the name implies, unicellular glands are single-celled glands.
Goblet cells are important unicellular exocrine glands that secrete
mucus directly onto the apical surface of a lining epithelium.
I. Simple glands
A. Simple tubular. Tubular secretory part is straight and at-
taches to a single unbranched duct. Example: glands in the
Most exocrine glands are multicellular glands, composed of large intestine.
Structural Classi cation of Exocrine Glands
Figure 4.6 Multicellular exocrine glands. Pink represents the secretory portion; lavender represents the duct. • Exocrine glands are classi ed as unicellular or multicellular.
Structural classification of multicellular exocrine glands is based on the branching pattern of the duct and the shape of the
secreting portion. Unicellular exocrine glands
Duct
• Goblet cells are important unicellular exocrine glands that

secrete mucus directly onto the apical surface of a lining
epithelium.
Secretory
portion
Multicellular glands
• Most exocrine glands are multicellular glands, composed of
Simple tubular Simple branched tubular Simple coiled tubular Simple acinar Simple branched acinar many cells that form a distinctive microscopic structure or
macroscopic organ.
• Examples include sudoriferous (sweat), sebaceous (oil), and
salivary glands.
• Multicellular glands are categorized according to two
criteria:
• whether their ducts are branched or unbranched and
Compound tubular Compound acinar Compound tubuloacinar
• the shape of the secretory portions of the gland.
How do simple multicellular exocrine glands differ from compound ones?
• Simple gland: the duct of the gland does not branch.
Multicellular exocrine glands • Compound gland: the duct branches.

Pink represents the secretory portion; lavender represents the duct. • Tubular glands: with tubular secretory parts.
• Acinar glands: with rounded secretory portions.
• Tubuloacinar glands, also called alveolar glands. have both
tubular and more rounded secretory parts.
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4.5 CONNECTIVE TISSUES 129

e 4.7 Functional classification of multicellular exocrine glands.
The functional classification of exocrine glands is based on whether a secretion is a product of a cell or consists of an entire
or a partial glandular cell.
Secretion
Functional Classi cation of Exocrine Glands
Secretory • The functional classi cation of exocrine glands is based on how
vesicle
their secretions are released.
Golgi complex
• Each of these secretory processes begins with the endoplasmic
Salivary
reticulum and Golgi complex working together to form
gland intracellular secretory vesicles that contain the secretory product.
Merocrine glands
(a) Merocrine secretion • Secretions of merocrine glands are synthesized on ribosomes
attached to rough ER; processed, sorted, and packaged by the
Pinched off portion Golgi complex; and released from the cell in secretory vesicles via
of cell is secretion
exocytosis.
Mammary • Most exocrine glands of the body are merocrine glands.
gland
• Examples include the salivary glands and pancreas.
(b) Apocrine secretion
Apocrine glands
• Apocrine glands accumulate their secretory product at the apical
Mature cell dies
and becomes
surface of the secreting cell.
secretory product
Sebaceous
• Then, that portion of the cell pinches off by exocytosis from the
(oil) gland rest of the cell to release the secretion.
Cell division
replaces lost cell
• The remaining part of the cell repairs itself and repeats the process.
Skin • Secretion of milk fats in the mammary glands.
Holocrine glands
(c) Holocrine secretion
Functional
hat class of glands classi
are sebaceous cationSalivary
(oil) glands? of multicellular
glands? exocrine glands • The cells of holocrine glands accumulate a secretory product in
The functional classi cation of exocrine glands is based on whether a secretion is a product of
their cytosol.
a cell or consists of an entire or a partial glandular cell. • As the secretory cell matures, it ruptures and becomes the
mature class of cells with a name ending in -blast, which mostly involved in monitoring and maintaining the extracellular
“to bud or sprout.” These immature cells are called fibro- matrix.
secretory product.
n loose and dense connective tissue (described shortly), The types of cells in connective tissues vary according to the
oblasts in cartilage, and osteoblasts in bone. Blast cells type of tissue and include the following (Figure 4.8):
• Because the cell ruptures in this mode of secretion, the secretion
he capacity for cell division and secrete the extracellular contains large amounts of lipids from the plasma membrane and
that is characteristic of the tissue. In cartilage and bone, 1. Fibroblasts (FĪ-brō-blasts; fibro- ! fibers) are large, flat cells with intracellular membranes.
e extracellular matrix is produced, the immature cells dif- branching processes. They are present in all the general connective
te into mature cells with names ending in -cyte, namely, tissues, and usually are the most numerous. Fibroblasts migrate
ocytes and osteocytes. Mature cells have reduced capaci- through the connective tissues, secreting the Medical
fibers and Physiology
certain I• One example of a holocrine gland is a sebaceous gland of the skin.
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Connective tissues
General characteristics
• Connective tissues are one of the most abundant and widely
distributed tissues in the body.
• In their various forms, connective tissues have a variety of
functions.
• They bind together, support, and strengthen other tissues.
• Protect and insulate internal organs.
• Compartmentalize structures such as skeletal muscles.
• Serve as the major transport system within the body (blood, a
uid connective tissue).
• Are the primary locations of stored energy reserves (adipose,
or fat, tissue).
• And are the main source of immune responses.
• Highly vascular.
• Exceptions include cartilage (avascular), and tendons (scanty
blood supply).
• Supplied with nerves (except for cartilage).
• Each type of connective tissue has unique properties, based on the
speci c extracellular materials between the cells.
• For instance, in cartilage, the extracellular matrix is rm
but pliable.
• The extracellular matrix of bone, by contrast, is hard and
in exible.
Structure
• Connective tissues consist of two basic elements:
• extracellular matrix (protein bers + ground substance)
Medical Physiology I • cells
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Connective Tissue Cells
130 CHAPTER 4 • THE TISSUE LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION

• Each major type of connective tissue contains an immature
class of cells with a name ending in -blast, which means “to
Figure 4.8 Representative cells and fibers present in connective tissues. bud or sprout.”
Fibroblasts are usually the most numerous connective tissue cells.
• These immature cells are called bro-blasts in loose and
Reticular
dense connective tissue, chondroblasts in cartilage, and
fiber
osteoblasts in bone.
Macrophage Fibroblast
• Blast cells retain the capacity for cell division and secrete the
Collagen
fiber Eosinophil extracellular matrix that is characteristic of the tissue.
Elastic
fiber Mast cell
• In cartilage and bone, once the extracellular matrix is
Ground
substance produced, the immature cells differentiate into mature cells
Blood vessel
Neutrophil with names ending in -cyte, namely, chondrocytes and
Adipocyte Plasma cell osteocytes.
• Mature cells have reduced capacities for cell division and
What is the function of fibroblasts? extracellular matrix formation and are mostly involved in
monitoring and maintaining the extracellular matrix.
Representative
2. Macrophages (MAK-rō-fā-jez; macro-cells and -phages
! large; bers present
! in connective
conditions tissues.
they migrate from blood into connective tissues.
eaters) develop from monocytes, a type of white blood cell. For example, neutrophils gather at sites of infection, and • The types of cells in connective tissues vary according to the
Macrophages have an irregular shape with short branching pro- eosinophils migrate to sites of parasitic invasions and allergic type of tissue.
jections and are capable of engulfing bacteria and cellular debris responses.
by phagocytosis. Fixed macrophages reside in a particular tis-
sue; examples include alveolar macrophages in the lungs or
splenic macrophages in the spleen. Wandering macrophages Connective Tissue Extracellular Matrix
have the ability to move throughout the tissue and gather at sites Each type of connective tissue has unique properties, based on
of infection or inflammation to carry on phagocytosis. the specific extracellular materials between the cells. The extra-
3. Plasma cells are small cells that develop from a type of white cellular matrix consists of two major components: (1) the ground
blood cell called a B lymphocyte. Plasma cells secrete antibod- substance and (2) the fibers.
ies, proteins that attack or neutralize foreign substances in the
Ground Substance
body. Thus, plasma cells are an important part of the body’s
immune response. Although they are found in many places in As noted earlier, the ground substance is the component of a con-
the body, most plasma cells reside in connective tissues, espe- nective tissue between the cells and fibers. The ground substance
cially in the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts. They are may be fluid, semifluid, gelatinous, or calcified. It supports cells,
also abundant in the salivary glands, lymph nodes, spleen, and binds them together, stores water, and provides a medium for
red bone marrow. exchange of substances between the blood and cells. It plays an
active role in how tissues develop, migrate, proliferate, and change
4. Mast cells are abundant alongside the blood vessels that sup-
Medical
shape, and in how they carry out their metabolic Physiology I
functions.
ply connective tissue. They produce histamine, a chemical that
Ground substance contains water and an assortment of large
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Connective tissues
Connective Tissue Cells
Fibroblasts
• Fibroblasts are large, at cells with branching processes.
• They are present in all connective tissues, and usually are the most numerous.
• Fibroblasts migrate through the connective tissues, secreting the bers and certain
components of the ground substance of the extracellular matrix.
Macrophages
• Macrophages develop from monocytes, a type of white blood cell.
• Macrophages have an irregular shape with short branching projections and are
capable of engul ng bacteria and cellular debris by phagocytosis.
• Fixed macrophages reside in a particular tissue (examples include alveolar
macrophages in the lungs or splenic macrophages in the spleen).
• Wandering macrophages have the ability to move throughout the tissue and gather
at sites of infection or in ammation to carry on phagocytosis.
Plasma cells
• Plasma cells develop from a type of WBC called a B lymphocyte.
• Plasma cells secrete antibodies, proteins that attack or neutralize foreign
substances in the body. Thus, plasma cells are an important part of the body’s
immune response. Although they are found in many places in the body, most
plasma cells reside in connective tissues, especially in the gastrointestinal and
respiratory tracts. They are also abundant in the salivary glands, lymph nodes,
spleen, and red bone marrow.
Mast cells
• Mast cells are abundant alongside the blood vessels that supply connective tissue.
• They produce histamine, a chemical that dilates small blood vessels as part of the
in ammatory response, the body’s reaction to injury or infection.
• Mast cells can also bind to, ingest, and kill bacteria.
Adipocytes
• Adipocytes (or fat cells or adipose cells), store triglycerides (fats).
• They are found deep to the skin and around organs such as the heart and kidneys.
White blood cells
• WBC are not found in signi cant numbers in normal connective tissues.
• In response to certain conditions they migrate from blood into connective tissues.
For example, neutrophils gather at sites of infection, and eosinophils migrate to
sites of parasitic invasions and allergic responses.
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Connective tissues
Extracellular Matrix
• Extracellular matrix is the material located between its widely spaced
cells.
• The extracellular matrix consists of
• protein bers
• ground substance (the material between the cells and the bers).
Ground Substance
• It is the component of a connective tissue between the cells and bers.
• The ground substance may be uid, semi uid, gelatinous, or calci ed.
• It supports cells, binds them together, stores water, and provides a
medium for exchange of substances between the blood and cells.
• It plays an active role in how tissues develop, migrate, proliferate, and
change shape, and in how they carry out their metabolic functions.
• Ground substance contains
• Water
• An assortment of large organic molecules, many of which are
complex combinations of polysaccharides and proteins.
• The polysaccharides include hyaluronic acid, chondroitin
sulfate, dermatan sulfate, and keratan sulfate.
• Collectively, they are referred to as glycosaminoglycans.
• Also present in the ground substance are adhesion proteins.
• They are for linking components of the ground
substance to one another and to the surfaces of cells.
• The main adhesion protein of connective tissues is
bronectin.
• Fibronectin binds to both collagen bers and ground
substance, linking them together.
Medical Physiology I • Fibronectin also attaches cells to the ground substance.
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Connective tissues
Ground Substance
• Except for hyaluronic acid, the GAGs are associated with proteins called
proteoglycans.
• The proteoglycans form a core protein and the GAGs project from the
protein like the bristles of a brush.
• One of the most important properties of GAGs is that they trap water,
making the ground substance more jellylike.
Glycosaminoglycans
• Hyaluronic acid
• Hyaluronic acid is a viscous, slippery substance that binds cells
together, lubricates joints, and helps maintain the shape of the
eyeballs.
• White blood cells, sperm cells, and some bacteria produce
hyaluronidase, an enzyme that breaks apart hyaluronic acid, thus
causing the ground substance of connective tissue to become more
liquid.
• The ability to produce hyaluronidase helps white blood cells move
more easily through connective tissues to reach sites of infection
and aids penetration of an oocyte by a sperm cell during
fertilization.
• It also accounts for the rapid spread of bacteria through connective
tissues.
• Chondroitin sulfate provides support and adhesiveness in cartilage,
bone, skin, and blood vessels.
• Dermatan sulfate in skin, tendons, blood vessels, and heart valves.
• Keratan sulfate in bone, cartilage, and the cornea of the eye contain.
Connective tissues
Figure 4.8 Representative cells and fibers present in connective tissues.
Fibroblasts are usually the most numerous connective tissue cells.
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Reticular Extracellular Matrix
fiber
Macrophage Fibroblast Fibers

Collagen
fiber
135
4.5 CONNECTIVE TISSUES Eosinophil
• Three types of bers are embedded in the extracellular matrix
Elastic
fiber Mast cell
between the cells: collagen bers, elastic bers, and reticular
TABLEGround
4.5 bers.
substance
Mature Connective Tissues: Dense Connective Tissues
Blood vessel
D. DENSE REGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE Neutrophil • They function to strengthen and support connective tissues.
Description
AdipocyteShiny white extracellular matrix; mainly collagen fibers regularly arranged in bundles with fibroblasts in rows between bundles. CollagenPlasma
fibers cell
are not living (are protein structures secreted by fibroblasts), so damaged tendons and ligaments heal very slowly.
Location Forms tendons (attach muscle to bone), most ligaments (attach bone to bone), and aponeuroses (sheetlike tendons that attach muscle to muscle
Collagen bers
or muscle to bone).
Function Provides strong attachment between various structures. Tissue structure withstands pulling (tension) along long axis of fibers.
What is the function of fibroblasts?
• Collagen bers are very strong and resist pulling forces
LM 400x
(tension), but they are not stiff, which allows tissue exibility.
2. Macrophages (MAK-rō-fā-jez; macro- ! large; -phages ! conditions they migrate from blood into connective tissues.
eaters) develop from monocytes, a type of white blood cell. Collagen
For example, neutrophils gather at sites of infection, and
• The properties of different types of collagen bers vary from
fiber
Macrophages have an irregular shape with short branching pro- eosinophils migrate to sites of parasitic invasions and allergic tissue to tissue.
jections and are capable of engulfing bacteria and cellular debris responses.
by phagocytosis. Fixed macrophages reside in a particular tis-
Tendon
sue; examples include alveolar macrophages in the lungs or
• For example, the collagen bers found in cartilage and bone
splenic macrophages in the spleen. Wandering macrophages Connective Tissue Extracellular Matrix form different associations with surrounding molecules. As a
have theSkeletal
ability to move throughout the tissue and gather at sites Nucleus of
Each type of connective tissue has unique properties, based on
muscle
of infection or inflammation to carry on phagocytosis.
fibroblast
the specific extracellular materials between the cells. The extra-
result of these associations, the collagen bers in cartilage are
3. Plasma cells are small cells that develop from a type of white cellularCollagen
matrix consists of two major components: (1) the ground
fiber
surrounded by more water molecules than those in bone, which
blood cell called a B lymphocyte. Plasma cells secrete antibod- substance and (2) the fibers.
ies, proteins that attack or neutralize foreign substances in the
gives cartilage a more cushioning effect.
Ground Substance
body. Thus, plasma cells are an important part of the LMbody’s
200x
immune response.Sectional Although viewthey are regular

of dense foundconnective
in many places in As noted earlier, the ground Densesubstance is thetissue
regular connective component of a con-• Collagen bers often occur in parallel bundles (dense regular
tissue of a tendon
the body, most plasma cells reside in connective tissues, espe- nective tissue between the cells and fibers. The ground substance
cially in the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts. They are may be fluid, semifluid, gelatinous, or calcified. It supports cells, connective tissue).
also abundant in theCONNECTIVE
salivary glands, lymph nodes, spleen, and binds them together, stores water, and provides a medium for
E.DENSE REGULAR
DENSE IRREGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE TISSUE exchange of substances between the blood and cells. It plays an•
red bone marrow.
Description Collagen fibers; usually irregularly arranged with a few fibroblasts. active role in how tissues develop, migrate, proliferate, and change
The bundle arrangement adds great tensile strength to the tissue.
4.Description:
Mast cellsShiny white extracellular
are abundant alongside the matrix;
blood mainly
vesselscollagen
that sup-bers regularly arranged in bundles with broblasts in rows
Location
between Often occurs
bundles. tissue.
Collagen in sheets, such as fasciae (tissue beneath skin and around shape,
muscles andandotherin how they
organs), carry
reticular out
(deeper)their
regionmetabolic
of dermis of functions.
skin,
ply connective Theybers are not
ofproduce
living (area chemical
histamine, protein structures
that secreted by broblasts), so damaged tendons and
ligaments heal
fibrous pericardium
very slowly.
heart, periosteum of bone, perichondrium of cartilage,Ground
joint capsules, membrane
substance capsules around
contains watervarious
and an assortment of large•
organs Chemically, collagen bers consist of the protein collagen,
dilates small blood
(kidneys, vessels
liver, as part
testes, lymph ofalso
nodes); thein inflammatory
heart valves. re-
organic molecules, many of which are complex combinations of
sponse, Forms
Function
Location: theProvides
body’s reaction
tensile
tendons tomuscle
(pulling)
(attach injury in
strength or infection.
tomany
bone), mostInligaments
directions. addition, (attach bone to bone), and aponeuroses (sheetlike tendons
polysaccharides and proteins. The polysaccharides include
which is the most abundant protein in your body, representing
researchers have recently discovered that mast cells can bind
that attach muscle to muscle or muscle to bone).
to, ingest, and kill bacteria.
hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, dermatan sulfate, and keratan about 25% of the total.
sulfate.Collagen
Collectively,
fiber:
they are referred to as glycosaminoglycans
5.Function: Provides
Adipocytes strong attachment
(AD-i-pō-sı̄ts), between
also called fatvarious
cells or structures.
adiposeTissue structure withstands
(glı̄-kōs-a-mē"-nō-GLĪ-kans)
pulling (tension) along long
or GAGs. Except for hyaluronic
axis of bers.
cells, are connective tissue cells thatofstore
Nucleus triglycerides (fats).
fibroblast
Longitudinal
GAGs are associated with proteins called proteoglycans
acid, the section
• Collagen bers are found in most types of connective tissues,
They are found deep to the skin and around organs such as the (prō-tē-ō-GLĪ-kans).
Transverse The proteoglycans form a core protein and especially bone, cartilage, tendons (which attach muscle to
heart and kidneys. the GAGssection project from the protein like the bristles of a brush. One
6. White blood cells are not found in significant numbers in of the most important properties of GAGs is that they trap water, bone), and ligaments (which attach bone to bone).
normal connective tissues. However, in response to certain making the ground substance more jellylike. Medical Physiology I
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Connective tissues
Fibers
Elastic bers
• Smaller in diameter than collagen bers.
• Branch and join together to form a brous network within a connective
tissue.
• An elastic ber consists of molecules of the protein elastin surrounded by
a glycoprotein named brillin, which adds strength and stability.
• Because of their unique molecular structure, elastic bers are strong but
can be stretched up to 150% of their relaxed length without breaking.
• Elastic bers have the ability to return to their original shape after being
stretched (elasticity).
• Elastic bers are plentiful in skin, blood vessel walls, and lung tissue.
Reticular bers
• Reticular bers consist of collagen arranged in ne bundles with a
coating of glycoprotein.
• They provide support in the walls of blood vessels.
• They form a network around the cells in some tissues, such as areolar
connective tissue, adipose tissue, nerve bers, and smooth muscle tissue.
• Produced by broblasts.
• Much thinner than collagen bers.
• Form branching networks.
• Like collagen bers, reticular bers provide support and strength.
• Reticular bers are plentiful in reticular connective tissue, which forms
the stroma or supporting framework of many soft organs (e.g., spleen,
lymph nodes).
• These bers also help form the basement membrane.
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Connective tissues
Classi cation of Connective Tissues
• Embryonic connective tissues
• Mesenchyme
• Mucous connective tissue
• Mature connective tissues
• Loose connective tissues
• Areolar connective tissue
• Adipose tissue
• Reticular connective tissue
• Dense connective tissues
• Dense regular connective tissue
• Dense irregular connective tissue
• Elastic connective tissue
• Cartilage
• Hyaline cartilage
• Fibrocartilage
• Elastic cartilage
• Bone tissue
• Liquid connective tissue
• Blood tissue
• Lymph
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fat that may enter blood vessels broken during the procedure and
obstruct blood flow, infection, loss of feeling in the area, fluid deple- sion can be slowed or even halted.
tion, injury to internal structures, and severe postoperative pain. •
TABLE 4.4
Mature Connective Tissues: Loose Connective Tissues
Description Connective tissues

A. AREOLAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
One of the most widely distributed connective tissues; consists of fibers (collagen, elastic, reticular) arranged randomly and several kinds of
cells (fibroblasts, macrophages, plasma cells, adipocytes, mast cells, and a few white blood cells) embedded in semifluid ground substance
(hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, dermatan sulfate, and keratan sulfate).
Location In and around nearly every body structure (thus, called “packing material” of the body): in subcutaneous layer deep to skin; papillary Classi cation of Connective Tissues
(superficial) region of dermis of skin; lamina propria of mucous membranes; around blood vessels, nerves, and body organs.
Function Strength, elasticity, support. Mature Connective Tissues
Fibroblast
Collagen LM 1000x • The second major subclass of connective tissues, mature

fiber connective tissues, are present in the newborn.
Macrophage
Collagen
Skin fiber • Their cells arise primarily from mesenchyme.
Plasma cell
Fibroblast • The ve types of mature connective tissues are
Elastic
fiber
Reticular • loose connective tissues
Subcutaneous
fiber
layer
Mast cell
LM 400x
• dense connective tissues
Sectional view of subcutaneous areolar connective tissue Areolar connective tissue
• cartilage
T A B L E 4.4 CONTINUES
• bone tissue
AREOLAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Description • liquid connective tissue (blood tissue and lymph).
One of the most widely distributed connective tissues; consists of bers (collagen, elastic, reticular) arranged Loose Connective Tissues
randomly and several kinds of cells ( broblasts, macrophages, plasma cells, adipocytes, mast cells, and a
few white blood cells) embedded in semi uid ground substance (hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate,
dermatan sulfate, and keratan sulfate).
• The bers of loose connective tissues are loosely arranged
between cells.
Location
In and around nearly every body structure (thus, called “packing material” of the body): in subcutaneous • The types of loose connective tissues are
layer deep to skin; papillary (super cial) region of dermis of skin; lamina propria of mucous membranes;
around blood vessels, nerves, and body organs. • areolar connective tissue
Function
Strength, elasticity, support.
• adipose tissue
• reticular connective tissue.
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TABLE 4.4 C O N T I N U E D
TABLE 4.4 C O N T I N U E D
B. ADIPOSE TISSUE
B. ADIPOSE TISSUE
Description
Description Has
Cellcells
fills derived
up withfrom fibroblasts
a single, large triglyceride droplet, and
Has cells derived from fibroblasts (called adipocytes) that are specialized for storage of triglycerides (fats) as a large, centrally located droplet.
(called adipocytes) thatcytoplasm
are specialized for storage
and nucleus of triglycerides
are pushed (fats)
to periphery ofas a large,
cell. With centrally located
weight gain, droplet.
amount of
Cell fills up
adipose withincreases
tissue a single,and
large
newtriglyceride droplet,
blood vessels form.and cytoplasm
Thus, andperson
an obese nucleus
hasare pushed
many moretoblood
periphery of cell.
vessels thanWith
does weight gain, amount
a lean person, of
a situation
adipose
that cantissue
causeincreases
high bloodandpressure,
new blood vessels
since form.has
the heart Thus, an obese
to work person
harder. Mosthas manytissue
adipose more in
blood vessels
adults thanadipose
is white does a tissue
lean person, a situation
(just described).
Connective tissues
that can cause high blood pressure, since the heart has to work harder. Most adipose tissue in adults is white adipose tissue
Brown adipose tissue (BAT) is darker due to very rich blood supply and numerous pigmented mitochondria that participate in aerobic cellular (just described).
Brown adipose
respiration. BAT tissue (BAT) is darker
is widespread in thedue toand
fetus veryinfant;
rich blood
adultssupply and numerous
have only pigmented mitochondria that participate in aerobic cellular
small amounts.
respiration. BAT is widespread in the fetus and infant; adults have only small amounts.
Location Wherever areolar connective tissue is located: subcutaneous layer deep to skin, around heart and kidneys, yellow bone marrow, padding around
Location Wherever
joints andareolar
behindconnective tissue
eyeball in eye is located: subcutaneous layer deep to skin, around heart and kidneys, yellow bone marrow, padding around
socket.
joints and behind eyeball in eye socket. Loose Connective Tissues
Function Reduces heat loss through skin; serves as an energy reserve; supports and protects organs. In newborns, BAT generates heat to maintain proper
Function Reduces heat loss through skin; serves as an energy reserve; supports and protects organs. In newborns, BAT generates heat to maintain proper
body temperature.
body temperature.
ADIPOSE TISSUE
Plasma membrane
Plasma membrane
Heart Description
Heart Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
Cells derived from broblasts (called adipocytes) that are specialized for storage of
Fat-storage area triglycerides (fats) as a large, centrally located droplet. Cell lls up with a single,
Fat-storage area
Nucleus
large triglyceride droplet, and cytoplasm and nucleus are pushed to periphery of cell.
Nucleus With weight gain, amount of adipose tissue increases and new blood vessels form.
LM 630x
LM 630x Thus, an obese person has many more blood vessels than does a lean person, a
situation that can cause high blood pressure, since the heart has to work harder. Most
Blood vessel
Blood vessel Adipose tissue adipose tissue in adults is white adipose tissue (just described). Brown adipose tissue
Adipose tissue
Fat (BAT) is darker due to very rich blood supply and numerous pigmented mitochondria
Fat
LM 200x that participate in aerobic cellular respiration. BAT is widespread in the fetus and
LM 200x
Sectional view of adipose tissue showing adipocytes of infant; adults have only small amounts.
Sectional viewdetails
white fat and of adipose
of antissue showing adipocytes of
adipocyte
white fat and details of an adipocyte Location
C. RETICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE Wherever areolar connective tissue is located: subcutaneous layer deep to skin,
C. RETICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Description Fine interlacing network of reticular fibers (thin form of collagen fiber) and reticular cells. around heart and kidneys, yellow bone marrow, padding around joints and behind
Description Fine interlacing network of reticular fibers (thin form of collagen fiber) and reticular cells.
Location Stroma (supporting framework) of liver, spleen, lymph nodes; red bone marrow; reticular lamina of basement membrane; around blood vessels eyeball in eye socket.
Location Stroma (supporting framework) of liver, spleen, lymph nodes; red bone marrow; reticular lamina of basement membrane; around blood vessels
and muscles.
and muscles. Function
Function Forms stroma of organs; binds smooth muscle tissue cells; filters and removes worn-out blood cells in spleen and microbes in lymph nodes.
Function Forms stroma of organs; binds smooth muscle tissue cells; filters and removes worn-out blood cells in spleen and microbes in lymph nodes.
Reduces heat loss through skin; serves as an energy reserve; supports and protects
LM 640x
organs. In newborns, BAT generates heat to maintain proper body temperature.
LM 640x
RETICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Reticular
Reticular
fiber
fiber Description
Fine interlacing network of reticular bers (thin form of collagen ber) and reticular
Lymph node cells.
Lymph node Nucleus of
Nucleus
reticularofcell
reticular cell Location
Reticular fiber
Reticular fiber
Stroma (supporting framework) of liver, spleen, lymph nodes; red bone marrow;
LM 400x
LM 400x Reticular connective tissue
Reticular connective tissue
reticular lamina of basement membrane; around blood vessels and muscles.
Sectional view of reticular connective tissue of a
Sectional view of reticular connective tissue of a
lymph node
lymph node
Function
Forms stroma of organs; binds smooth muscle tissue cells; lters and removes worn-
out blood cells in spleen and microbes in lymph nodes.
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TABLE 4.5
Connective tissues
D. DENSE REGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Description Shiny white extracellular matrix; mainly collagen fibers regularly arranged in bundles with fibroblasts in rows between bundles. Collagen fibers
are not living (are protein structures secreted by fibroblasts), so damaged tendons and ligaments heal very slowly.
Location Forms tendons (attach muscle to bone), most ligaments (attach bone to bone), and aponeuroses (sheetlike tendons that attach muscle to muscle
or muscle to bone). Classi cation of Connective Tissues
Function Provides strong attachment between various structures. Tissue structure withstands pulling (tension) along long axis of fibers.
Mature Connective Tissues
LM 400x
Dense connective tissues
Collagen
fiber • Dense connective tissues contain more bers, which are
thicker and more densely packed.
Tendon • Have considerably fewer cells than loose connective tissues.
Skeletal Nucleus of
• There are three types:
muscle fibroblast
• dense regular connective tissue
Collagen
fiber
• dense irregular connective tissue
LM 200x • elastic connective tissue.
Sectional view of dense regular connective Dense regular connective tissue
tissue of a tendon
DENSE REGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE

E. DENSE IRREGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Description
Description Collagen fibers; usually irregularly arranged with a few fibroblasts.
Location Often occurs in sheets, such as fasciae (tissue beneath skin and around muscles and other organs), reticular (deeper) region of dermis of skin,
Shiny white extracellular matrix; mainly collagen bers regularly arranged in bundles with broblasts in
fibrous pericardium of heart, periosteum of bone, perichondrium of cartilage, joint capsules, membrane capsules around various organs
rows between
(kidneys, liver, testes,bundles. Collagen
lymph nodes); also in heartbers
valves.are not living (are protein structures secreted by broblasts), so
Function damaged
Provides tensile (pulling) strength in many directions.very slowly.
tendons and ligaments heal
Location
Collagen fiber:
Forms tendons (attach Longitudinal
Nucleus muscle to bone), most ligaments (attach
of fibroblast section
bone to bone), and aponeuroses (sheetlike
tendons that attach muscle to muscle or muscle to bone). Transverse
section
Function
Provides strong attachment between various structures. Tissue structure withstands pulling (tension) along
Skin long axis of bers. LM 640x
Blood vessel
Nucleus of
fibroblast
Dermis
LM 200x
Sectional view of dense irregular connective tissue Dense irregular connective tissue
of reticular region of dermis
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Sectional view of dense regular connective

tissue of a tendon The tissue level of organization Dense regular connective tissue
E. DENSE IRREGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Description
Location Connective tissues
Collagen fibers; usually irregularly arranged with a few fibroblasts.
Often occurs in sheets, such as fasciae (tissue beneath skin and around muscles and other organs), reticular (deeper) region of dermis of skin,
fibrous pericardium of heart, periosteum of bone, perichondrium of cartilage, joint capsules, membrane capsules around various organs
(kidneys, liver, testes, lymph nodes); also in heart valves.
Function Provides tensile (pulling) strength in many directions. DENSE IRREGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Collagen bers; usually irregularly arranged with a few broblasts.

Collagen fiber:
Longitudinal Often occurs in sheets, such as fasciae (tissue beneath skin and around muscles and
Nucleus of fibroblast section
Transverse other organs), reticular (deeper) region of dermis of skin, brous pericardium of heart,
section periosteum of bone, perichondrium of cartilage, joint capsules, membrane capsules
around various organs (kidneys, liver, testes, lymph nodes); also in heart valves.
c04_113-152.qxd 7/23/10 7:23 AM Page 136
Provides tensile (pulling) strength in many directions.
Skin
LM 640x
Blood vessel
Nucleus of
36 CHAPTER 4 • THE TISSUE LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION fibroblast
Dermis
LM 200x
TABLE 4.5 C O N T I N U E D Sectional view of dense irregular connective tissue Dense irregular connective tissue
of reticular region of dermis
F. ELASTIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Description Predominantly elastic fibers with fibroblasts between fibers; unstained tissue is yellowish.
Location Lung tissue, walls of elastic arteries, trachea, bronchial tubes, true vocal cords, suspensory ligaments of penis, some ligaments between
vertebrae.
Function Allows stretching of various organs; is strong and can recoil to original shape after being stretched. Elasticity is important to normal
functioning of lung tissue (recoils in exhaling) and elastic arteries (recoil between heartbeats to help maintain blood flow).
Aorta LM 400x
ELASTIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Predominantly elastic bers with broblasts between bers; unstained tissue is

yellowish.
Elastic lamellae
(sheets of Lung tissue, walls of elastic arteries, trachea, bronchial tubes, true vocal cords,
elastic material)
suspensory ligaments of penis, some ligaments between vertebrae.
Nucleus of
fibroblast
Allows stretching of various organs; is strong and can recoil to original shape after
Heart
being stretched. Elasticity is important to normal functioning of lung tissue (recoils in
exhaling) and elastic arteries (recoil between heartbeats to help maintain blood ow).
LM 50x
Sectional view of elastic connective tissue Elastic connective tissue

of aorta
The cells of mature cartilage, called chondrocytes (KON-drō- Repair and Growth of Cartilage
ts; chondro- ! cartilage), occur singly or in groups within Metabolically, cartilage is a relatively inactive tissue that grows
paces called lacunae (la-KOO-nē ! little lakes; singular is slowly. When injured or inflamed, cartilage repair proceeds slowly,
cuna, pronounced la-KOO-na) in the extracellular matrix. A Medical
in large part because cartilage is avascular. Substances Physiology
needed for I
overing of dense irregular connective tissue called the perichon- repair and blood cells that participate in tissue repair must diffuse
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Connective tissues
Classi cation of Connective Tissues
Mature Connective Tissues
Cartilage
• Cartilage consists of a dense network of collagen bers and elastic
bers rmly embedded in chondroitin sulfate, a gel-like
component of the ground substance.
• Cartilage can endure considerably more stress than loose and dense
connective tissues.
• The strength of cartilage is due to its collagen bers, and its
resilience (ability to assume its original shape after deformation) is
due to chondroitin sulfate.
• Like other connective tissues, cartilage has few cells and large
quantities of extracellular matrix.
• It differs from other connective tissues, however, in not having
nerves or blood vessels in its extracellular matrix.
• Interestingly, cartilage does not have a blood supply because it
secretes an antiangiogenesis factor, a substance that prevents blood
vessel growth.
• Because of this property, antiangiogenesis factor is being studied
as a possible cancer treatment.
• If cancer cells can be stopped from promoting new blood vessel
growth, their rapid rate of cell division and expansion can be
slowed or even halted.
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Connective tissues
Cartilage
• Metabolically, cartilage is a relatively inactive tissue that grows slowly.
• When injured or in amed, cartilage repair proceeds slowly, in large
part because cartilage is avascular.
• Substances needed for repair and blood cells that participate in tissue
repair must diffuse or migrate into the cartilage.
• The growth of cartilage follows two basic patterns: interstitial growth
and appositional growth.
• In interstitial growth, there is growth from within the tissue.
• When cartilage grows by interstitial growth, the cartilage
increases rapidly in size due to the division of existing
chondrocytes and the continuous deposition of increasing
amounts of extracellular matrix by the chondrocytes.
• As the chondrocytes synthesize new matrix, they are pushed
away from each other.
• These events cause the cartilage to expand from within like
bread rising, which is the reason for the term interstitial.
• This growth pattern occurs while the cartilage is young and
pliable, during childhood and adolescence.
• In appositional growth, there is growth at the outer surface of the
tissue.
• When cartilage grows by appositional growth, cells in the inner
cellular layer of the perichondrium differentiate into
chondroblasts.
• As differentiation continues, the chondroblasts surround
themselves with extracellular matrix and become chondrocytes.
• As a result, matrix accumulates beneath the perichondrium on
the outer surface of the cartilage, causing it to grow in width.
• Appositional growth starts later than interstitial growth and
Medical Physiology I continues through adolescence.
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TABLE 4.6
Mature Connective Tissues: Cartilage

A. HYALINE CARTILAGE
Connective tissues
Description Hyaline (hyalinos ! glassy) cartilage contains a resilient gel as ground substance and appears in the body as a bluish-white, shiny substance
(can stain pink or purple when prepared for microscopic examination). Fine collagen fibers are not visible with ordinary staining techniques;
prominent chondrocytes are found in lacunae surrounded by perichondrium (exceptions: articular cartilage in joints and cartilage of epiphyseal
plates, where bones lengthen during growth).
Location Most abundant cartilage in body; at ends of long bones, anterior ends of ribs, nose, parts of larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchial tubes, embryonic
and fetal skeleton. Cartilage
Function Provides smooth surfaces for movement at joints, flexibility, and support; weakest type of cartilage.
• The cells of mature cartilage, called chondrocytes, occur
Perichondrium singly or in groups within spaces called lacunae (little lakes)
in the extracellular matrix.
• A covering of dense irregular connective tissue called the
Skeleton Lacuna
perichondrium surrounds the surface of most cartilage and
containing
chondrocyte
contains blood vessels and nerves and is the source of new
Nucleus of
cartilage cells.
LM 400x chondrocyte
• Since cartilage has no blood supply, it heals poorly following
Ground
Fetus
substance an injury.
LM 200x
• The cells and collagen-embedded extracellular matrix of
Sectional view of hyaline cartilage Hyaline cartilage cartilage form a strong, rm material that resists tension
of a developing fetal bone
(stretching), compression (squeezing), and shear (pushing in
B. FIBROCARTILAGE opposite directions).
Description Chondrocytes scattered among clearly visible thick bundles of collagen fibers within extracellular matrix; lacks perichondrium.
Location
HYALINE CARTILAGE
Pubic symphysis (where hip bones join anteriorly), intervertebral discs, menisci (cartilage pads) of knee, portions of tendons that insert into
• The chondroitin sulfate in the extracellular matrix is largely
cartilage.
Hyaline cartilage contains a resilient gel as ground substance and appears in the body as a bluish-white, shiny
responsible for cartilage’s resilience.
Function Support and joining structures together. Strength and rigidity make it the strongest type of cartilage.
substance (can stain pink or purple when prepared for microscopic examination). Fine collagen bers are not visible
with ordinary staining techniques; prominent chondrocytes are found in lacunae surrounded by perichondrium
• Because of these properties, cartilage plays an important role
Nucleus
(exceptions: articular cartilage of chondrocyte
in joints and cartilage of epiphyseal plates,LM 400xwhere bones lengthen during growth). as a support tissue in the body.
Most abundant cartilage in body; at ends of long bones, anterior ends ofLacuna
ribs, nose, parts of larynx, trachea, bronchi,
containing
• It is also a precursor to bone, forming almost the entire
bronchial tubes, embryonic and fetal skeleton.
Vertebra
chondrocyte
embryonic skeleton.
Provides smooth surfaces for movement at joints, exibility, and support; weakest type of cartilage. • Though bone gradually replaces cartilage during further
Collagen fibers
in ground development, cartilage persists after birth as the growth
substance
Nucleus of
plates within bone that allow bones to increase in length
chondrocyte
during the growing years.
Intervertebral disc Lacuna
containing
chondrocyte • Cartilage also persists throughout life as the lubricated
LM 200x
Sectional view of fibrocartilage of intervertebral disc Fibrocartilage

articular surfaces of most joints.
T A B L E 4.6 CONTINUES • There are three types of cartilage: hyaline cartilage,
brocartilage, and elastic cartilage.
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Fetus Ground
substance
LM 200x
Sectional view of hyaline cartilage
of a developing fetal bone
The tissue level of organization Hyaline cartilage
Connective tissues
B. FIBROCARTILAGE
Description Chondrocytes scattered among clearly visible thick bundles of collagen fibers within extracellular matrix; lacks perichondrium.
Location Pubic symphysis (where hip bones join anteriorly), intervertebral discs, menisci (cartilage pads) of knee, portions of tendons that insert into
cartilage.
Function Support and joining structures together. Strength and rigidity make it the strongest type of cartilage. FIBROCARTILAGE
Nucleus of chondrocyte
LM 400x Chondrocytes scattered among clearly visible thick bundles of
Lacuna collagen bers within extracellular matrix; lacks perichondrium.
containing
chondrocyte
Vertebra Pubic symphysis (where hip bones join anteriorly),
intervertebral discs, menisci (cartilage pads) of knee, portions of
Collagen fibers
in ground tendons that insert into cartilage.
_c04_113-152.qxd 7/23/10 7:24 AM Page 138 substance
Nucleus of
chondrocyte Support and joining structures together. Strength and rigidity
Lacuna
Intervertebral disc
containing make it the strongest type of cartilage.
chondrocyte
LM 200x
Sectional view of fibrocartilage of intervertebral disc Fibrocartilage
TABLE 4.6 CONTINUED
Mature Connective Tissues: Cartilage

C. ELASTIC CARTILAGE
Description Chondrocytes in threadlike network of elastic fibers within extracellular matrix; perichondrium present.
Location Lid on top of larynx (epiglottis), part of external ear (auricle), auditory (eustachian) tubes.
Function Provides strength and elasticity; maintains shape of certain structures.
Perichondrium
Lacuna containing chondrocyte
LM 640x
ELASTIC CARTILAGE
Auricle of ear
Elastic fiber Chondrocytes in threadlike network of elastic bers within
in ground
substance extracellular matrix; perichondrium present.
Nucleus of
chondrocyte Lid on top of larynx (epiglottis), part of external ear (auricle),
Elastic fiber
in ground
auditory (eustachian) tubes.
substance
Lacuna
containing Provides strength and elasticity; maintains shape of certain
chondrocyte
LM 400x structures.
Sectional view of elastic cartilage of auricle of ear Elastic cartilage
eneath the perichondrium on the outer surface of the cartilage, 3. Projecting from the lacunae are canaliculi (kan-a-LIK-ū-lı̄ !
ausing it to grow in width. Appositional growth starts later than little canals), networks of minute canals containing the
nterstitial growth and continues through adolescence. processes of osteocytes. Canaliculi provide routes for nutrients
to reach osteocytes and for wastes to leave them.
Bone Tissue
4. A central (haversian) canal contains blood vessels and
Cartilage, joints, and bones make up the skeletal system. The nerves. Medical Physiology I
keletal system supports soft tissues, protects delicate structures,
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Connective tissues
Liquid Connective Tissue
Blood tissue
• It is a connective tissue with a liquid extracellular matrix and formed
elements.
• The extracellular matrix is called blood plasma.
• The blood plasma is a pale yellow uid that consists mostly of water with
a wide variety of dissolved substances—nutrients, wastes, enzymes,
plasma proteins, hormones, respiratory gases, and ions.
• Suspended in the blood plasma are formed elements—red blood cells
(erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), and platelets
(thrombocytes).
• Red blood cells transport oxygen to body cells and remove some carbon
dioxide from them.
• White blood cells are involved in phagocytosis, immunity, and allergic
reactions.
• Platelets participate in blood clotting.
Lymph
• Lymph is the extracellular uid that ows in lymphatic vessels.
• It is a connective tissue that consists of several types of cells in a clear
liquid extracellular matrix that is similar to blood plasma but with much
less protein.
• The composition of lymph varies from one part of the body to another.
• For example, lymph leaving lymph nodes includes many
Note lymphocytes.
• Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils also have a multilobed nucleus. As a result they are also called polymorphonuclear
• In contrast to lymph from the small intestine, which has a high
leukocytes or "polys." content of newly absorbed dietary lipids.
• The nuclei of neutrophils also appear to be segmented, so they may also be called segmented neutrophils or "segs."
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The tissue level of organization 4.6 MEMBRANES 141
Figure 4.9 Membranes.
Membranes
A membrane is a flat sheet of pliable tissues that covers or lines a part of the body.
Goblet cell Mucus
Small intestine
(inner lining)
Epithelium
Concepts
• Membranes are at sheets of pliable tissue that cover
Lamina propria
or line a part of the body.
(areolar connective tissue)
(a) Mucous membrane
• The majority of membranes consist of an epithelial
Parietal pleura
Visceral pleura layer and an underlying connective tissue layer and are
Serous fluid
Mesothelium
called epithelial membranes.
Areolar connective tissue
• The principal epithelial membranes of the body are
(b) Serous membrane

• mucous membranes
Epidermis
• serous membranes
Skin
• cutaneous membrane (skin).

Dermis
• synovial membrane, lines joints and contains

connective tissue but no epithelium.
(c) Skin (cutaneous membrane)
Synoviocytes
Articulating
bone Collagen fiber
Synovial
membrane Areolar
Synovial (joint) (secretes connective tissue
cavity (contains synovial fluid)
synovial fluid)
Adipocytes
Articulating
bone
(d) Synovial membrane
What is an epithelial membrane?
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Membranes
Goblet cell Mucus
Small intestine
(inner lining)
Epithelium
Mucous Membranes
• A mucous membrane or mucosa lines a body cavity that opens directly to the
exterior.
Lamina propria
• Mucous membranes line the
(a) Mucous membrane
• digestive
Parietal pleura
• respiratory
Visceral pleura • reproductive tracts
Serous fluid
Mesothelium • much of the urinary tract.

Areolar connective tissue • They consist of a lining layer of epithelium and an underlying layer of connective
tissue.
• Usually, tight junctions connect the cells, so materials cannot leak in between them.
(b) Serous membrane • The connective tissue layer of a mucous membrane is areolar connective tissue and is
called the lamina propria, so named because it belongs to (is owned by) the mucous
Epidermis
membrane.
Skin
• The lamina propria supports the epithelium, binds it to the underlying structures,
allows some exibility of the membrane, and affords some protection for underlying
Dermis
structures.
• It also holds blood vessels in place and is the vascular source for the overlying
epithelium.
• Oxygen and nutrients diffuse from the lamina propria to the covering epithelium;
carbon dioxide and wastes diffuse in the opposite direction.
Synoviocytes
• The epithelia of mucous membranes vary greatly in different parts of the body.
Articulating
bone Collagen fiber
• The mucous membrane of the small intestine is nonciliated simple columnar
Synovial
membrane
epithelium.
Areolar
Synovial (joint) (secretes connective tissue
cavity (contains synovial fluid) • The large airways to the lungs consist of pseudostrati ed ciliated columnar
synovial fluid) epithelium.
Adipocytes • Functions:
Articulating
bone
• Barrier that microbes and other pathogens have dif culty penetrating.
What is an epithelial membrane? • Goblet cells and other cells secrete mucus, and this slippery uid prevents the
cavities from drying out.
• It traps particles in the respiratory passageways.
• It lubricates food as it moves through the gastrointestinal tract.
• It secretes some of the enzymes needed for digestion.
Medical Physiology I • It the site of food and uid absorption in the gastrointestinal tract.
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Membranes
Goblet cell Mucus
Small intestine
(inner lining)
Epithelium
Serous Membranes
• A serous membrane or serosa lines a body cavity that
Lamina propria
does not open directly to the exterior (thoracic or
(a) Mucous membrane
abdominal cavities).
Parietal pleura
Visceral pleura • It covers the organs that are within the cavity.
Serous fluid
Mesothelium
• Serous membranes consist of areolar connective tissue
covered by mesothelium (simple squamous epithelium).
(b) Serous membrane

• Serous membranes have two layers:
Epidermis
• Parietal layer, attached to and lining the cavity wall
Skin
• Visceral layer, that covers and adheres to the organs

Dermis
within the cavity is the.

• The mesothelium of a serous membrane secretes serous
uid, a watery lubricant that allows organs to glide easily
Synoviocytes
Articulating
over one another or to slide against the walls of cavities.
bone Collagen fiber
Synovial
membrane
(secretes
Areolar • The serous membrane lining the thoracic cavity and
Synovial (joint) connective tissue
cavity (contains
synovial fluid)
synovial fluid)
covering the lungs is the pleura.
Adipocytes
Articulating
bone
• The serous membrane lining the heart cavity and
covering the heart is the pericardium.
• The serous membrane lining the abdominal cavity and

covering the abdominal organs is the peritoneum.
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Membranes
Goblet cell Mucus
Small intestine
(inner lining) Cutaneous Membrane
Epithelium
• The cutaneous membrane or skin covers the entire surface of the
body and consists of
Lamina propria
• A super cial portion called the epidermis
(a) Mucous membrane • The epidermis consists of keratinized strati ed squamous
Parietal pleura epithelium, which protects underlying tissues.
Visceral pleura
Serous fluid • A deeper portion called the dermis.
Mesothelium
• The dermis consists of dense irregular connective tissue
and areolar connective tissue.
Synovial Membranes
(b) Serous membrane
• Synovial membranes (Syn, together, referring here to a place where
bones come together; ova, egg, because of their resemblance to the
Epidermis
Skin
slimy egg white of an uncooked egg).
• They line the cavities of freely movable joints (joint cavities).
Dermis
• Like serous membranes, synovial membranes line structures that do

not open to the exterior.
• Unlike mucous, serous, and cutaneous membranes, they lack an
epithelium and are therefore not epithelial membranes.
Synoviocytes
Articulating • Synovial membranes are composed of
bone Collagen fiber
Synovial • a discontinuous layer of cells called synoviocytes, which are

membrane Areolar
Synovial (joint) (secretes
synovial fluid)
connective tissue closer to the synovial cavity (space between the bones),
cavity (contains
synovial fluid)
• a layer of connective tissue (areolar and adipose) deep to the
Adipocytes
Articulating
synoviocytes.
bone
(d) Synovial membrane • Synoviocytes secrete some of the components of synovial uid.
• Synovial uid lubricates and nourishes the cartilage covering the
bones at movable joints and contains macrophages that remove
microbes and debris from the joint cavity.
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Epithelial tissue:
tissue Examples of Types
LE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
on Single layer of flat cells that resembles a tiled floor when viewed from apical surface; centrally located nucleus that is flattened and oval or

spherical in shape.
Most commonly (1) lines the cardiovascular and lymphatic system (heart, blood vessels, lymphatic vessel linings), where it is known as
endothelium (en!-dō-THĒ-lē-um; endo- " within; -thelium " covering), and (2) forms the epithelial layer of serous membranes (peritoneum,
pleura, pericardium), where it is called mesothelium (mez!-ō-THĒ-lē-um; meso- " middle). Also found in air sacs of lungs, glomerular
(Bowman’s) capsule of kidneys, inner surface of tympanic membrane (eardrum).
Epithelial tissue:
tissue Examples of Types
Present at sites of filtration (such as blood filtration in kidneys) or diffusion (such as diffusion of oxygen into blood vessels of lungs) and at site
of secretion in serous membranes. Not found in body areas subject to mechanical stress (wear and tear).
SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM

Plasma membrane
• Description
Peritoneum Nucleus of simple squamous cell
• Single layer of at cells that resembles a tiled oor
Cytoplasm when viewed from apical surface.
LM 450x • Centrally located nucleus that is attened and oval or

spherical in shape.
LM 150x
• Location
Surface view of simple squamous epithelium
of mesothelial lining of peritoneum • Most commonly lines the cardiovascular and lymphatic
system (heart, blood vessels, lymphatic vessel linings),
Flat nucleus of simple
where it is known as endothelium
squamous cell
• Forms the epithelial layer of serous membranes
Connective tissue
(peritoneum, pleura, pericardium), where it is called
mesothelium.
Muscular tissue
Small LM 630x
• Also found in air sacs of lungs, glomerular (Bowman’s)
intestine
Sectional view of simple squamous epithelium (mesothelium)
capsule of kidneys, inner surface of tympanic
of peritoneum of small intestine membrane (eardrum).
Simple squamous
• Function
cell
Basement membrane • Present at sites of
Connective tissue • ltration (such as blood ltration in kidneys) or
Simple squamous epithelium

• diffusion (such as diffusion of oxygen into blood
vessels of lungs) and
• at site of secretion in serous membranes.
• Not found in body areas subject to mechanical stress
(wear and tear).
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B. SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM
Description Single layer of cube-shaped cells; round, centrally located nucleus. Cuboidal cell shape is obvious when tissue is sectioned and viewed from the side.
(Note: Strictly cuboidal cells could not form small tubes; these cuboidal cells are more pie-shaped but still nearly as high as they are wide at the base.)
Location
Epithelial tissue: Examples of Types
Covers surface of ovary; lines anterior surface of capsule of lens of the eye; forms pigmented epithelium at posterior surface of retina of the eye;
lines kidney tubules and smaller ducts of many glands; makes up secreting portion of some glands, such as thyroid gland and ducts of some
glands such as pancreas.
Function Secretion and absorption.
Blood capillary with

red blood cells
SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM
Connective
tissue
• Description
Nucleus of simple
cuboidal cell
Simple cuboidal cell • Single layer of cube-shaped cells; round, centrally
LM 500x
Kidney Lumen
of tubule
located nucleus.
Connective
tissue
• Cuboidal cell shape is obvious when tissue is sectioned
Basement
Lumen membrane and viewed from the side.
of tubule
Connective
tissue
LM 100x
• (Note: Strictly cuboidal cells could not form small
Simple cuboidal epithelium
Sectional view of simple cuboidal epithelium tubes; these cuboidal cells are more pie-shaped but still
of urinary tubules
nearly as high as they are wide at the base.)
C. NONCILIATED SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
Description Single layer of nonciliated columnlike cells with oval nuclei near base of cells; contains (1) columnar epithelial cells with microvilli at apical surface
and (2) goblet cells. Microvilli, fingerlike cytoplasmic projections, increase surface area of plasma membrane (see Figure 3.1), thus increasing cell’s • Location
rate of absorption. Goblet cells are modified columnar epithelial cells that secrete mucus, a slightly sticky fluid, at their apical surfaces. Before
release, mucus accumulates in upper portion of cell, causing it to bulge and making the whole cell resemble a goblet or wine glass.
Location Lines gastrointestinal tract (from stomach to anus), ducts of many glands, and gallbladder.
• Covers surface of ovary; lines anterior surface of
Function Secretion and absorption; larger columnar cells contain more organelles and thus are capable of higher level of secretion and absorption than capsule of lens of the eye; forms pigmented epithelium
are cuboidal cells. Secreted mucus lubricates linings of digestive, respiratory, and reproductive tracts, and most of urinary tract; helps prevent
destruction of stomach lining by acidic gastric juice secreted by stomach. at posterior surface of retina of the eye; lines kidney
Microvilli Mucus in tubules and smaller ducts of many glands; makes up
goblet cell
secreting portion of some glands, such as thyroid gland
and ducts of some glands such as pancreas.
Lumen of jejunum
Microvilli
• Function
Small Nucleus of Mucus in
intestine absorptive goblet cell
cell • Secretion and absorption.
Nucleus of LM 1500x Absorptive
goblet cell cell
Basement Nonciliated Basement
membrane simple columnar membrane
epithelium
Connective Connective
tissue tissue
LM 500x
Sectional view of nonciliated simple columnar Nonciliated simple columnar epithelium

epithelium of lining of jejunum of small intestine
Simple cuboidal epithelium
Sectional view of simple cuboidal epithelium
of urinary tubules
C. NONCILIATED SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM

Description The tissue level of organization
Single layer of nonciliated columnlike cells with oval nuclei near base of cells; contains (1) columnar epithelial cells with microvilli at apical surface
and (2) goblet cells. Microvilli, fingerlike cytoplasmic projections, increase surface area of plasma membrane (see Figure 3.1), thus increasing cell’s
rate of absorption. Goblet cells are modified columnar epithelial cells that secrete mucus, a slightly sticky fluid, at their apical surfaces. Before
release, mucus accumulates in upper portion of cell, causing it to bulge and making the whole cell resemble a goblet or wine glass.
Location
Function Epithelial tissue: Examples of Types
Lines gastrointestinal tract (from stomach to anus), ducts of many glands, and gallbladder.
Secretion and absorption; larger columnar cells contain more organelles and thus are capable of higher level of secretion and absorption than
are cuboidal cells. Secreted mucus lubricates linings of digestive, respiratory, and reproductive tracts, and most of urinary tract; helps prevent
destruction of stomach lining by acidic gastric juice secreted by stomach.
Microvilli Mucus in
goblet cell
NONCILIATED SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
• Description
Lumen of jejunum
Microvilli • Single layer of nonciliated column like cells with oval
nuclei near base of cells.
Small Nucleus of Mucus in
intestine absorptive goblet cell
cell • Contains
Nucleus of LM 1500x Absorptive
cell
goblet cell • columnar epithelial cells with microvilli at apical
Basement Nonciliated Basement
membrane simple columnar
epithelium
membrane surface
tissue
tissue
LM 500x • goblet cells.
Sectional view of nonciliated simple columnar Nonciliated simple columnar epithelium
epithelium of lining of jejunum of small intestine • Microvilli, ngerlike cytoplasmic projections, increase
T A B L E 4.1 CONTINUES surface area of plasma membrane, thus increasing cell’s
rate of absorption.
• Goblet cells are modi ed columnar epithelial cells that
secrete mucus, a slightly sticky uid, at their apical
surfaces.
• Before release, mucus accumulates in upper portion of cell,
causing it to bulge and making the whole cell resemble a
goblet or wine glass.
• Location
• Lines gastrointestinal tract (from stomach to anus), ducts of
many glands, and gallbladder.
• Function
• Secretion and absorption.
• Secreted mucus lubricates linings of digestive, respiratory,
and reproductive tracts, and most of urinary tract; helps
prevent destruction of stomach lining by acidic gastric juice
secreted by stomach.
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TABLE 4.1 CONTINUED
Epithelial Tissues: Covering and Lining Epithelium

D. CILIATED SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
Description Single layer of ciliated columnlike cells with oval nuclei near base of cells. Goblet cells are usually interspersed among ciliated columnar epithelia.
Location
Function
Lines some bronchioles (small tubes) of respiratory tract, uterine (fallopian) tubes, uterus, some paranasal sinuses, central canal of spinal cord,
and ventricles of brain.
Cilia beat in unison, moving mucus and foreign particles toward throat, where they can be coughed up and swallowed or spit out. Coughing and
sneezing speed up movement of cilia and mucus. Cilia also help move oocytes expelled from ovaries through uterine (fallopian) tubes into uterus.
Lumen of
uterine tube CILIATED SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
Cilia Nucleus of ciliated
Uterine tube simple columnar cell
• Description
LM 630x
Cilia
• Single layer of ciliated column like cells with
oval nuclei near base of cells.
Mucus in
Ciliated simple goblet cell
columnar
epithelium
Basement
membrane
• Goblet cells are usually interspersed among
Connective
tissue
Connective
tissue
ciliated columnar epithelia.
LM 500x
Sectional view of ciliated simple columnar epithelium

of uterine tube
Ciliated simple columnar epithelium • Location
E. PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
Description Appears to have several layers because cell nuclei are at various levels. All cells are attached to basement membrane in a single layer, but some
• Lines some bronchioles (small tubes) of
cells do not extend to apical surface. When viewed from side, these features give false impression of a multilayered tissue (thus the name
pseudostratified; pseudo ! false).
respiratory tract, uterine (fallopian) tubes, uterus,
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium contains cells that extend to surface and secrete mucus (goblet cells) or bear cilia.
Pseudostratified nonciliated columnar epithelium contains cells without cilia and lacks goblet cells.
some paranasal sinuses, central canal of spinal
Location Ciliated variety lines airways of most of upper respiratory tract; nonciliated variety lines larger ducts of many glands, epididymis, and part of
male urethra.
cord, and ventricles of brain.
Function Ciliated variety secretes mucus that traps foreign particles, and cilia sweep away mucus for elimination from body; nonciliated variety
functions in absorption and protection. • Function
LM 630x Mucus in Cilia Lumen of Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
Cilia goblet cell trachea
Mucus in • Cilia beat in unison, moving mucus and foreign
goblet cell Ciliated columnar cell
particles toward throat, where they can be
Nucleus
of ciliated Cilia coughed up and swallowed or spit out.
Trachea columnar cell
Nucleus of
Basement
goblet cell
membrane • Coughing and sneezing speed up movement of
Nucleus of Basal cell
basal cell cilia and mucus. Cilia also help move oocytes
tissue
LM 400x
tissue expelled from ovaries through uterine (fallopian)
Sectional view of pseudostratified
columnar epithelium of trachea
Basal
cell
LM 630x
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar
epithelium
tubes into uterus.
of uterine tube
E. PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM

Description
Appears to have several layers because cell nuclei are at various levels. All cells are attached to basement membrane in a single layer, but some
cells do not extend to apical surface. When viewed from side, these features give false impression of a multilayered tissue (thus the name
pseudostratified; pseudo ! false).
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium contains cells that extend to surface and secrete mucus (goblet cells) or bear cilia.
Pseudostratified nonciliated columnar epithelium contains cells without cilia and lacks goblet cells.
Location
Function
Ciliated variety lines airways of most of upper respiratory tract; nonciliated variety lines larger ducts of many glands, epididymis, and part of
male urethra.
Ciliated variety secretes mucus that traps foreign particles, and cilia sweep away mucus for elimination from body; nonciliated variety
functions in absorption and protection.
PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
LM 630x Mucus in Cilia Lumen of Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
Cilia goblet cell trachea
Mucus in
goblet cell Ciliated columnar cell
• Description
Nucleus
Cilia
• Appears to have several layers because cell nuclei are at
of ciliated
Trachea columnar cell various levels.
Nucleus of
Basement
goblet cell
Nucleus of
membrane
• All cells are attached to basement membrane in a single
Basal cell
basal cell
layer, but some cells do not extend to apical surface.
tissue tissue
LM 400x • When viewed from side, these features give false
Sectional view of pseudostratified Pseudostratified ciliated columnar
columnar epithelium of trachea
Basal
cell
LM 630x epithelium impression of a multilayered tissue (thus the name
pseudostrati ed).
• Pseudostrati ed ciliated columnar epithelium contains
cells that extend to surface and secrete mucus (goblet
cells) or bear cilia.
• Pseudostrati ed nonciliated columnar epithelium
contains cells without cilia and lacks goblet cells.
• Location
• Ciliated variety lines airways of most of upper
respiratory tract; nonciliated variety lines larger ducts of
many glands, epididymis, and part of male urethra.
• Function
• Ciliated variety secretes mucus that traps foreign
particles, and cilia sweep away mucus for elimination
from body; nonciliated variety functions in absorption
and protection.
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away from blood supply in underlying connective tissue, they become dehydrated and less metabolically active. Tough proteins predominate as
cytoplasm is reduced, and cells become tough, hard structures that eventually die. At apical layer, after dead cells lose cell junctions they are
sloughed off, but they are replaced continuously as new cells emerge from basal cells.

Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium develops tough layer of keratin in apical layer of cells and several layers deep to it (see Figure 5.3).
(Keratin is a tough, fibrous intracellular protein that helps protect skin and underlying tissues from heat, microbes, and chemicals.) Relative
amount of keratin increases in cells as they move away from nutritive blood supply and organelles die.
Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium does not contain large amounts of keratin in apical layer and several layers deep and is
constantly moistened by mucus from salivary and mucous glands; organelles are not replaced.
Location
Function
Keratinized variety forms superficial layer of skin; nonkeratinized variety lines wet surfaces (lining of mouth, esophagus, part of epiglottis, part
of pharynx, and vagina) and covers tongue.
Protection against abrasion, water loss, ultraviolet radiation, and foreign invasion. Both types form first line of defense against microbes.
Lumen of vagina STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM

Nonkeratinized
surface cell
Nucleus
Flattened • Description
squamous
cell at
apical • Two or more layers of cells.
LM 630x surface
• Cells in apical layer and several layers deep to it are squamous.
Vagina
Nonkeratinized stratified
squamous epithelium
• Cells in deeper layers vary from cuboidal to columnar.
Connective tissue
• As basal cells divide, daughter cells arising from cell divisions
Basement
membrane push upward toward apical layer.
Connective • As they move toward surface and away from blood supply in
tissue
LM 400x underlying connective tissue, they become dehydrated and less
Sectional view of nonkeratinized stratified Nonkeratinized stratified squamous
squamous epithelium of lining of vagina epithelium metabolically active.
• Tough proteins predominate as cytoplasm is reduced, and cells
Keratinized (dead) surface cells
become tough, hard structures that eventually die.
Nucleus of living cell • At apical layer, after dead cells lose cell junctions they are
sloughed off, but they are replaced continuously as new cells
LM 400x
emerge from basal cells.
Keratinized stratified
squamous epithelium • Keratinized strati ed squamous epithelium develops tough
Connective tissue layer of keratin in apical layer of cells and several layers deep
LM 100x to it.
Sectional view of keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium of epidermis • Keratin is a tough, brous intracellular protein that helps
protect skin and underlying tissues from heat, microbes, and
• Location
chemicals.
• Keratinized variety forms super cial layer of skin; nonkeratinized variety lines wet
T A B L E 4.1 C O N T I N U E S • Relative amount of keratin increases as cells move away from
surfaces (lining of mouth, esophagus, part of epiglottis, part of pharynx, and
nutritive blood supply and organelles die.
vagina) and covers tongue.
• Nonkeratinized strati ed squamous epithelium does not contain
• Function
large amounts of keratin in apical layer and several layers deep
• Protection against abrasion, water loss, ultraviolet radiation, and foreign invasion. and is constantly moistened by mucus from salivary and
Both types form rst line of defense against microbes. mucous glands; organelles are not replaced.
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TABLE 4.1 CONTINUED The tissue level of organization

Epithelial Tissues: Covering and Lining Epithelium
G. STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM
Description
Location
Function
Two or more layers of cells; cells in apical layer are cube-shaped; fairly rare type.
Ducts of adult sweat glands and esophageal glands, part of male urethra.
Protection; limited secretion and absorption.
Esophagus
Lumen of duct
STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
LM 640x
Nuclei of stratified
• Description
cuboidal cells Apical
surface
Nucleus of
cuboidal cell
Basement • Two or more layers of cells; cells in apical layer are
membrane
Lumen of duct
Stratified cuboidal
Connective cube-shaped; fairly rare type.
tissue
epithelium
Connective tissue
Stratified cuboidal epithelium
• Location
LM 380x
Sectional view of stratified cuboidal epithelium • Ducts of adult sweat glands and esophageal glands, part
of the duct of an esophageal gland
of male urethra.
H. STRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM • Function
Description Basal layers usually consist of shortened, irregularly shaped cells; only apical layer has columnar cells; uncommon.
Location Lines part of urethra; large excretory ducts of some glands, such as esophageal glands; small areas in anal mucous membrane; part of
conjunctiva of eye.
• Protection; limited secretion and absorption.
Function Protection and secretion.
Lumen of pharynx
Pharynx
Nucleus of stratified
columnar cell
Apical
LM 630x surface
Basement
Stratified columnar membrane
epithelium
Connective tissue Connective

tissue
LM 400x
Sectional view of stratified columnar epithelium Stratified columnar epithelium

of lining of pharynx
Stratified cuboidal epithelium
LM 380x

Sectional view of stratified cuboidal epithelium
of the duct of an esophageal gland
H. STRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM

Description Basal layers usually consist of shortened, irregularly shaped cells; only apical layer has columnar cells; uncommon.
Location Lines part of urethra; large excretory ducts of some glands, such as esophageal glands; small areas in anal mucous membrane; part of
conjunctiva of eye.
Function Protection and secretion.
STRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM

Lumen of pharynx • Description
Pharynx • Basal layers usually consist of shortened, irregularly
Nucleus of stratified
shaped cells.
columnar cell
• Only apical layer has columnar cells.

Apical
LM 630x surface
• Uncommon.
Basement
Stratified columnar membrane
epithelium
• Location
Connective tissue Connective
tissue
LM 400x • Lines part of urethra; large excretory ducts of some
Sectional view of stratified columnar epithelium Stratified columnar epithelium
of lining of pharynx glands, such as esophageal glands; small areas in anal
mucous membrane; part of conjunctiva of eye.
• Function
• Protection and secretion.
I. TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM
Description Variable appearance (transitional). In relaxed or unstretched state, looks like stratified cuboidal epithelium, except apical layer cells tend to be
large and rounded. As tissue is stretched, cells become flatter, giving the appearance of stratified squamous epithelium. Multiple layers and
Location
Function
elasticity make it ideal for lining hollow structures (urinary bladder) subject to expansion from within.
Lines urinary bladder and portions of ureters and urethra.
Allows urinary organs to stretch and maintain protective lining while holding variable amounts of fluid without rupturing.
Urinary bladder Lumen of urinary TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM

bladder
Rounded surface cell
Lumen of urinary bladder in relaxed state • Description
Nucleus of
transitional • Variable appearance (transitional).
cell
Apical • In relaxed or unstretched state, looks like strati ed

surface
cuboidal epithelium, except apical layer cells tend to be
LM 630x large and rounded.
Transitional
epithelium
Basement • As tissue is stretched, cells become atter, giving the
membrane
Connective
Connective appearance of strati ed squamous epithelium.
tissue
tissue
LM 400x
Relaxed transitional epithelium
• Multiple layers and elasticity make it ideal for lining
Sectional view of transitional epithelium of urinary hollow structures (urinary bladder) subject to
bladder in relaxed (empty) state
Lumen of urinary
bladder
expansion from within.
Flattened surface cell
Lumen of urinary bladder
in filled state • Location
• Lines urinary bladder and portions of ureters and
urethra.
• Function
LM 1000x
• Allows urinary organs to stretch and maintain

Transitional
epithelium protective lining while holding variable amounts of
Connective
tissue
uid without rupturing.
LM 630x
Sectional view of transitional epithelium of urinary

bladder in filled state
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LE 4.2
helial Tissues: Glandular Epithelium

NDOCRINE GLANDS
ription Secretions (hormones) enter interstitial fluid and diffuse directly into bloodstream without flowing through a duct. Endocrine glands will be

described in detail in Chapter 18.
tion Examples include pituitary gland at base of brain, pineal gland in brain, thyroid and parathyroid glands near larynx (voice box), adrenal glands
superior to kidneys, pancreas near stomach, ovaries in pelvic cavity, testes in scrotum, thymus in thoracic cavity.
tion Hormones regulate many metabolic and physiological activities to maintain homeostasis.
Thyroid
ENDOCRINE GLANDS
Blood vessel follicle
Hormone-producing
• Description
Thyroid (epithelial) cell
gland
• Secretions (hormones) enter interstitial uid and diffuse
Thyroid
follicle
directly into bloodstream without owing through a
Stored precursor
of hormone
duct. Endocrine glands will be described in detail in
Chapter 18.
Endocrine gland (thyroid gland)
LM 630x
• Location
Sectional view of endocrine gland (thyroid gland)
• Examples include pituitary gland at base of brain,
XOCRINE GLANDS
ription Secretory products released into ducts that empty onto surface of a covering and lining epithelium, such as skin surface or lumen of hollow
pineal gland in brain, thyroid and parathyroid glands
organ. near larynx (voice box), adrenal glands superior to
tion Sweat, oil, and earwax glands of skin; digestive glands such as salivary glands (secrete into mouth cavity) and pancreas (secretes into small
intestine).
kidneys, pancreas near stomach, ovaries in pelvic
tion Produce substances such as sweat to help lower body temperature, oil, earwax, saliva, or digestive enzymes. cavity, testes in scrotum, thymus in thoracic cavity.
• Function
Lumen of duct
of sweat gland
• Hormones regulate many metabolic and physiological
Skin
activities to maintain homeostasis.
Nucleus of
secretory cell
of sweat gland
Secretory
portion of
sweat gland
Basement
membrane
LM 400x
Exocrine gland
Sectional view of the secretory portion of an (eccrine sweat gland)
exocrine gland (eccrine sweat gland)
fl
fl
LM 630x

Sectional view of endocrine gland (thyroid gland)
XOCRINE GLANDS
ription Secretory products released into ducts that empty onto surface of a covering and lining epithelium, such as skin surface or lumen of hollow
organ.
tion
tion
Sweat, oil, and earwax glands of skin; digestive glands such as salivary glands (secrete into mouth cavity) and pancreas (secretes into small
intestine).
Produce substances such as sweat to help lower body temperature, oil, earwax, saliva, or digestive enzymes.
EXOCRINE GLANDS
Lumen of duct
of sweat gland • Description
Skin
• Secretory products released into ducts that empty onto
Nucleus of
secretory cell surface of a covering and lining epithelium, such as
of sweat gland
skin surface or lumen of hollow organ.
Secretory
portion of
sweat gland
• Location
Basement
membrane • Sweat, oil, and earwax glands of skin; digestive glands
LM 400x
Sectional view of the secretory portion of an

Exocrine gland
(eccrine sweat gland)
such as salivary glands (secrete into mouth cavity) and
exocrine gland (eccrine sweat gland) pancreas (secretes into small intestine).
• Function
• Produce substances such as sweat to help lower body
temperature, oil, earwax, saliva, or digestive enzymes.

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1 Introduction

1.2 Tissue level of

The tissue level of organization

sues generate heat that warms the body.

(d) Hemidesmosome (c) Desmosome

Which type of cell junction functions in communication between adjacent cells?

Transmembrane • In epithelial cells, adherens junctions often form extensive

Intermediate Medical Physiology I

Nerve Blood vessel

What are the functions of the basement membrane?

Apical (free) Lateral surfaces • Different surfaces with different functions.

Basal lamina • The basal surface

are closely packed and

Epithelial tissue: Structure

Which type of cell junction functions in communication between adjacent cells?

The tissue level of organization

Epithelial tissue: Types

The tissue level of organization

Epithelial tissue: Types

Types of epithelial tissues: • Strati ed epithelium

Epithelial tissue: Glandular Epithelium

• All glands of the body are classi ed as either endocrine or

• The secretions of endocrine glands inside, called hormones, enter

• Endocrine secretions have far reaching effects because they are

Epithelial tissue: Glandular Epithelium

• Goblet cells are important unicellular exocrine glands that

• Simple gland: the duct of the gland does not branch.

Multicellular exocrine glands • Compound gland: the duct branches.

The tissue level of organization

Epithelial tissue: Glandular Epithelium

Connective Tissue Cells

130 CHAPTER 4 • THE TISSUE LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION

4_113-152.qxd 7/26/10 5:21 PM Page 135

Macrophage Fibroblast Fibers

immune response.Sectional Although viewthey are regular

Description Connective tissues

Collagen LM 1000x • The second major subclass of connective tissues, mature

• reticular connective tissue.

RETICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE

DENSE REGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Sectional view of dense regular connective

E. DENSE IRREGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Collagen bers; usually irregularly arranged with a few broblasts.

Predominantly elastic bers with broblasts between bers; unstained tissue is

Sectional view of elastic connective tissue Elastic connective tissue

Mature Connective Tissues: Cartilage

Sectional view of fibrocartilage of intervertebral disc Fibrocartilage

Mature Connective Tissues: Cartilage

The tissue level of organization 4.6 MEMBRANES 141

Figure 4.9 Membranes.

(b) Serous membrane

• cutaneous membrane (skin).

• synovial membrane, lines joints and contains

What is an epithelial membrane?

The tissue level of organization 4.6 MEMBRANES 141

Figure 4.9 Membranes.

Mesothelium • much of the urinary tract.

The tissue level of organization 4.6 MEMBRANES 141

Figure 4.9 Membranes.

(b) Serous membrane

• Visceral layer, that covers and adheres to the organs

within the cavity is the.

• The serous membrane lining the abdominal cavity and

The tissue level of organization 4.6 MEMBRANES 141