Biology  specialized tissues that gather information about the
conditions inside and outside the body.
Animal Tissues
 Trillions of cells that comprise the human body
 These cells form aggregates or group together as
TISSUES
 Generally classified into four types.
Epithelial Tissues
 are tissues that line surfaces and cavities of all organs in
the body
 Examples: skin,the lining of the food tube and, the lining
of the air tubes
 Can also form glands that synthesize secretory products
 Compactly arranged and avascular
Connective tissues
 are made up of cells, mostly fibroblasts, which secrete a
large amount of extracellular material (protein fibers,
glycoproteins,
 Connect and bind parts together
 They include loose and dense connective tissues,
cartilage, bone, lymph and blood.
Muscle Tissues
 are made up of cells that can respond to stimuli by
contracting, thus they function for movement.
 classified into three types according to location and
function.
Skeletal Muscles
 attached to bones and are responsible for voluntary
movement of the body.
 striated, with multinucleated (with many nuclei) cells that
possess numerous mitochondria.
 Enables animals to move their bodies at will (voluntary)
Smooth Muscle
 made up of fusiform (spindle-shaped) mononucleated
(with one nucleus) myocytes.
 They are found in the digestive tract, uterus, urinary
bladder and blood vessels.
 They are responsible for involuntary movement that
propels materials from one part of the body to another.
 Non - striated
Cardiac muscles
 are found in the heart, which are made of mononucleated
cardiomyocytes.
 They control heart movement that pumps blood
continuously through the blood vessels.
 Striated and involutary
Nerve tissues
 They transmit nerve impulses from cell to cell to allow
the body to respond appropriately to changes in internal
and external environmental conditions.
Neuron
 Neuron is the basic unit of structure and function in the
nerve. Neurons are specialized cells designed to receive,
integrate and transmit information to other nerve cells,
muscles or glands.
 There three type of neurons according to function,
namely:
· sensory neurons, usually associated with sensory organs,
they receive information in the form of stimuli from the
external environment and convert these into internal electrical
impulses
· interneurons, found in the brain and spinal cord, they
integrate information in the form of electrical impulses and
relay these signals between sensory and motor neurons to
produce an appropriate response.
· motor neurons control effector muscles or glands for an
appropriate movement or action in response to the external
stimulus.
 Neuroglia, also called glial cells, are cells in the nerve
tissue that protect and support neurons.
 They provide mechanical support to neurons.
· Because of their non-conducting nature, the glial cells act as
insulators between the neurons and prevent neuronal
impulses from spreading in unwanted directions.
· They can remove the foreign material and cell debris by
phagocytosis.
· They can repair the damaged areas of nervous tissue by
proliferation, they form glial scar tissue, and fill the gaps left
by degenerated neurons.
Plant Tissues
 Any plant maybe composed of a number of different
tissues, each of which is classified according to structure,
origin, and function.
 Based on origin, plant tissues maybe classified into:
o Meristematic / Embryonic Tissues
o Permanent / Non – Meristematic Tissues
Meristematic Tissues
 tissues primary concerned with protoplasmic synthesis
and formation of new cells by division.
1. Apical meristems - a group of meristemtic cells found at the
tips of the plant, whose division contributes to an increase in
height (shoot apical meristem) or length (root apical
meristems) of the plant.
2. Lateral meristem – a group of actively
dividing cells occupying a lateral position,
parallel with the sides of stems and roots, contributing mainly
to an increase in
width, diameter or girth, e.g. vascular
cambium and phellogen or cork cambium
3. Intercalary meristem – meristematic tissue derived from the
apical meristem but continuing meristematic activity at some
distance from the apical meristem. May be intercalated
between tissues that are more or less mature.
Permanent Tissues
 tissues that ceased to divide, have gained new parts or lost
old ones to perform specialized permanent functions.
1. Dermal Tissue - outer covering tissue of the plant that
includes the epidermis and the periderm.
a. Epidermis – outermost layer of cells of all young
plants
b. Periderm – added protection and usually found in
mature plants
2. Vascular Tissue - the conducting tissue of the plant which
functions for food, water and mineral distribution in the plant
body.
A. Xylem - the principal water-conducting tissue in
vascular plants basically composed of vessels,
tracheids, xylem fibers and xylem parenchyma.
B. Phloem - the principal food-conducting tissue of
vascular plant3 composed of sieve element,
companion cells, phloem fibers and phloem
parenchyma
3. Fundamental Tissue - the entire complex of ground tissues,
that is, other than the dermal and vascular tissues, namely the
tissues comprising the cortex and the pith
 Parenchyma tissue
 Collenchyma tissue
 Sclerenchyma tissue
Cell modifications
 Not every cell in a multicellular organism is the same.
 Cells need to be modified to carry out specialized
functions.
 Specialized cellular modifications are modifications that
make a cell different from another type of cell.
Cilia
 A cilium (plural cilia) is an organelle found in eukaryotic
cells.
 Cilia are slender protuberances that project from the much
larger cell body.
Flagella:
 It is a tail-like projection that protrudes from the cell body
of certain prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and functions
in locomotion.
Flagella v/s cilia:
 Though eukaryotic flagella and motile cilia are
ultrastructurally identical, the beating pattern of the two
organelles can be different.
 In the case of flagella (e.g. the tail of a sperm) the motion
is propeller-like.
 Beating of motile cilia consists of coordinated back-and-
forth cycling of many cilia on the cell surface.
Function of flagella:
 Flagella serve for the propulsion of single cells (e.g.
swimming of protozoa and spermatozoa), and motile cilia
for the transport of fluids (e.g. transport of mucus by
stationary ciliated cells in the trachea). However, cilia are
also used for locomotion (through liquids) in organisms
such as Paramecium .
Microvilli:
 Microvilli (singular: microvillus) are microcopic cellular
membrane protrusions that increase the surface area of
cells
Location of microvilli:
 Thousands of microvilli form a structure called the brush
border that is found on the apical surface of some
epithelial cells,
Stem Cells
 Unspecialized and have the ability to develop into
specialized cells for specific organs or to develop into
tissues
 Able to divide and replicate many times – repair of tissue
Fat Cells (ADIPOCYTES)
 Contain droplets of stored fat (triglycerides) that can be
used for energy
 Swell and becomes round when fat is stored
 Shrink in size when fat is used o M Phase which can be by
o Mitosis or Meiosis
 Also has endocrine function
 Cytokinesis – cytoplasmic division involving the
Skin Cells formation of cleavage furrow and cell plate

 Composed of a layer of epithelial tissue (epidermis), DIVIDING STAGE

supported by connective tissue (dermis), and an
underlying subcutaneous layer.
 Protects the internal structures of the body, prevents
dehydration, acts as a barrier against microorganisms,
stores fats, produces vitamins and hormones.
Mitosis is the process whereby cells divide to form new cells
(daughter cells) which are identical to the original cell (parent
cell). The process includes 5 stages
1) Prophase

Endothelial Cells 2) Prometaphase

 Endothelium refers to cells that line the interior surface 3) Metaphase

of blood vessels and lymphatic vessels, forming an
interface between circulating blood or lymph in the lumen 4) Anaphase
and the rest of the vessel wall.
5) Telophase
 Responsible for angiogenesis, regulation of movement of
Key Roles in Cell Division
substances, as well as blood pressure regulation
- The cell division process is an integral part of the cell
Nerve Cells cycle
 Long - The continuity of life is based on the reproduction of cells
or cell division
 Connections at each end
- Cell division conainues to function in renewal and repair,
 Can carry electrical signals replacing cells
 To carry nerve impulses to different parts of the body Eukaryotic Cell division
Egg cell - Mitosis is a type of nuclear division that produces
daughter nuclei that contain exactly the same number of
 Large the chromosomes as that of the parent nucleus.
 Contains lots of cytoplasm - Meiosis is a type of division that produces gametes that
have only one set of chromosomes. Called reduction
 To join with male cell, and then to provide food for the division, it produces nuclei that contain only half the
new cell that's been formed chromosome number of the parent nucleus.
Sperm cell Keeping Cells Identical
 Long tail for swimming The instructions for making cell parts are encoded in the
DNA, so each new cell must get a complete set of the DNA
 Head for getting into the female cell molecules
 To reach female cell, and join with it DNA Replication
The Cell Cycle  DNA must be copied or replicated before cell division
INTERPHASE - the time when the cells are NOT dividing.  Each new cell will then have an identical copy of the
The process has 3 stages; DNA
1) G1 phase Eukaryotic Chromosomes
2) S phase  All eukaryotic cells store genetic information in
chromosomes
3) G2 phase
 Most eukaryotes have between 10 and 50 chromosomes in
DIVIDING STAGE
their body cells
 Karyokinesis – nuclear division
 Human body cells have 46 chromosomes or 23 identical  Synthesis stage
pairs
 DNA is copied or replicated
Compacting DNA into Chromosomes
Interphase – G2 Stage
 DNA is tightly coiled around proteins called histones
 2nd Growth Stage
Chromosomes in Dividing Cells
 Occurs after DNA has been copied
 Duplicated chromosomes are called chromatids & are
held together by the centromere  All cell structures needed for division are made (e.g.
centrioles)
Karyotype
 Both organelles & proteins are synthesized
 A picture of the chromosomes from a human cell
arranged in pairs by size Mitosis

 First 22 pairs are called autosomes  Division of the nucleus

 Last pair are the sex chromosomes  Also called karyokinesis

 XX female or XY male  Only occurs in eukaryotes

Cell Reproduction  Has four stages

Types of Cell Reproduction  Doesn’t occur in some cells such as brain cells

 Asexual reproduction involves a single cell dividing to Four Mitotic Stages

make 2 new, identical daughter cells
 Prophase
 Mitosis & binary fission are examples of asexual
reproduction  Metaphase

 Sexual reproduction involves two cells (egg & sperm)  Anaphase

joining to make a new cell (zygote) that is NOT identical
to the original cells  Telophase

 Meiosis is an example Prophase

The Cell Cycle  Chromatin in nucleus condenses to form visible

chromosomes
Five Phases of the Cell Cycle
 Mitotic spindle forms from fibers in cytoskeleton or
 G1 - primary growth phase centrioles (animal)

 S – synthesis; DNA replicated Prometaphase

 G2 - secondary growth phase  Nuclear membrane & nucleolus are broken down

collectively these 3 stages are called interphase  Chromosomes continue condensing & are clearly visible

 M – karyokinesis (mitosis)  Spindle fibers attach to kinetochores at the centromere of

each chromosome
 C - cytokinesis
 Spindle finishes forming between the poles of the cell
Cell Cycle
 Prometaphase
Interphase - G1 Stage
Metaphase
 st
1 growth stage after cell division
 Chromosomes, attached to the kinetochore fibers, move to
 Cells mature by making more cytoplasm & organelles the center of the cell

 Cell carries on its normal metabolic activities  Chromosomes are now lined up at the equator

Interphase – S Stage Anaphase

 Occurs rapidly
 Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the
cell by kinetochore fibers
Telophase
 Single-stranded chromosomes reach opposite poles
 Spindle disassembles
 Nuclear envelope forms around each set of single-
stranded chromosomes
 Nucleolus reappears
 Chromosomes reappear as chromatin
Cytokinesis
 Cytoplasmic division occurs simultaneously with last
stage of mitosis
 Division of cell into two daughter cells
 In plant cells, cell plate forms
 In animal cells, cleavage furrow
Uncontrolled Mitosis
 If mitosis is not controlled, unlimited cell division occurs
causing cancerous tumors
 Oncogenes are special proteins that increase the chance
that a normal cell develops into a tumor cell
Organisms that reproduce Sexually are made up of two
different types of cells
1. Somatic Cells are “body” cells and contain the normal
number of chromosomes ….called the “Diploid” number
(the symbol is 2n). Examples would be … skin cells,
brain cells, etc.
2. Gametes are the “sex” cells and contain only ½ the
normal number of chromosomes…. called the “Haploid”
number (the symbol is n)….. Sperm cells and ova are
gametes.
n = number of chromosomes in the set… so….2n means 2
chromosomes in the set…. Polyploid cells have more than two
chromosomes per set… example: 3n (3 chromosomes per set)
Gametes
• The Male Gamete is the Sperm and is produced in the
male gonad the Testes.
• The Female Gamete is the Ovum (ova = pl.) and is
produced in the female gonad the Ovaries.
During Ovulation the ovum is released from the ovary and
transported to an area where fertilization, the joining of the
sperm and ovum, can occur…… fertilization, in Humans,
occurs in the Fallopian tube. Fertilization results in the
formation of the Zygote. (fertilized egg)
Sperm + Ovum (egg) ------------------- Zygote
Fertilization
• The fusion of a sperm and egg to form a zygote.
• A zygote is a fertilized egg
Chromosomes
• If an organism has the Diploid number (2n) it has two
matching homologues per set. One of the homologues
comes from the mother (and has the mother’s DNA).…
the other homologue comes from the father (and has the
father’s DNA).
• Most organisms are diploid. Humans have 23 sets of
chromosomes… therefore humans have 46 total
chromosomes….. The diploid number for humans is 46
(46 chromosomes per cell).
Homologous Chromosomes
• Pair of chromosomes (maternal and paternal) that are
similar in shape and size.
• Homologous pairs (tetrads) carry genes controlling the
same inherited traits.
• Each locus (position of a gene) is in the same position on
homologues.
• Humans have 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes.
• 22 pairs of autosomes
• 1 pair of sex chromosomes
Homologous Chromosomes (because a homologous pair
consists of 4 chromatids it is called a “Tetrad”)
 Humans have 23 Sets of Homologous Chromosomes
Each Homologous set is made up of 2 Homologues.
Autosomes (The Autosomes code for most of the offspring’s
traits)
 In Humans the “Autosomes” are sets 1 - 22
Sex Chromosomes
The Sex Chromosomes code for the sex of the offspring.
** If the offspring has two “X” chromosomes it will be a
female.
** If the offspring has one “X” chromosome and one “Y”
chromosome it will be a male.
Meiosis
is the process by which ”gametes” (sex cells) , with half the
number of chromosomes, are produced.
During Meiosis diploid cells are reduced to haploid cells
 Diploid (2n)  Haploid (n) • CrossingOver creates variation (diversity) in the
offspring’s traits.
If Meiosis did not occur the chromosome number in each new
generation would double…. The offspring would die. Metaphase I

Meiosis • Shortest phase

 Meiosis is Two cell divisions (called meiosis I and • Tetrads align on the metaphase plate.
meiosis II) with only one duplication of chromosomes.
 Meiosis in males is called spermatogenesis and produces • INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT OCCURS:
sperm.
1. Orientation of homologous pair to poles is
 Meiosis in females is called oogenesis and produces ova.
random.
Interphase I
2. Variation
• Similar to mitosis interphase.
3. Formula: 2n
• Chromosomes replicate (S phase).
Anaphase I
• Each duplicated chromosome consist of two identical
• Homologous chromosomes separate and move towards
sister chromatids attached at their centromeres.
the poles.
• Centriole pairs also replicate.
• Sister chromatids remain attached at their centromeres.
• Nucleus and nucleolus visible.
Telophase I
Meiosis I (four phases)
• Each pole now has haploid set of chromosomes.
• Cell division that reduces the chromosome number by
• Cytokinesis occurs and two haploid daughter cells are
one-half.
formed.
• four phases:
Meiosis II
a. prophase I
• No interphase II
b. metaphase I
(or very short - no more DNA replication)
c. anaphase I
• Remember: Meiosis II is similar to mitosis
d. telophase I
Prophase II
Prophase I
• same as prophase in mitosis
• Longest and most complex phase.
Metaphase II
• 90% of the meiotic process is spent in Prophase I
• same as metaphase in mitosis
• Chromosomes condense.
Anaphase II
• Synapsis occurs: homologous chromosomes come
• same as anaphase in mitosis
together to form a tetrad.
• sister chromatids separate
• Tetrad is two chromosomes or four chromatids (sister and
nonsister chromatids). Telophase II
• During Prophase I “Crossing Over” occurs. • Same as telophase in mitosis.
• Crossing Over is one of the Two major occurrences of • Nuclei form.
Meiosis (The other is Non-disjunction)
• Cytokinesis occurs.
• During Crossing over segments of nonsister chromatids
break and reattach to the other chromatid. The Chiasmata • Remember: four haploid daughter cells
(chiasma) are the sites of crossing over. produced.

gametes = sperm or egg

Non-disjunction 1855 – Rudolf Virchow

Non-disjunction is one of the Two major occurrences of - a German physician who did research on cancer cells and
Meiosis concluded “ominis cellula e cellula”

(The other is Crossing Over) - “all cells are from other pre-existing cells”

• Non-disjunction is the failure of homologous 19th Century Advancement

chromosomes, or sister chromatids, to separate during
meiosis. - Much doubted existed around Spontaneous Generation

• Non-disjunction results with the production of zygotes - Conclusively disproved by Louis Pasteur
with abnormal chromosome numbers…… remember….
An abnormal chromosome number (abnormal amount of The Cell Theory
DNA) is damaging to the offspring.
1. All living things are composed of one or more cells.
• Non-disjunctions usually occur in one of two fashions.
(Schleiden & Schwann)(1838-1839)
• The first is called Monosomy, the second is called
Trisomy. If an organism has Trisomy 18 it has three 2. Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in an
chromosomes in the 18th set, Trisomy 21…. Three organism.
chromosomes in the 21st set. If an organism has
(Schleiden & Schwann)(1838-1839)
Monosomy 23 it has only one chromosome in the 23 rd set.
3. Cells come only from existing cells.
Common Non-disjunction Disorders
(Virchow)(1858)
• Down’s Syndrome – Trisomy 21
Cells are diverse both in size, shape, and internal
• Turner’s Syndrome – Monosomy 23 (X)
organization.
• Kleinfelter’s Syndrome – Trisomy 23 (XXY)
Why are cells so small?
• Edward’s Syndrome – Trisomy 18
 Transport – cell volume to surface are ratios favor small
Amniocentesis size.
 Control – Nucleus to Cytoplasm consideration
• An Amniocentesis is a procedure a pregnant woman can  Metabolic Requirements
have in order to detect some genetics disorders…..such as
non-disjunction. How small can a cell be?

Mycoplasmas – bacteria that are 0.1 to 1.0 µm.

1665 - Robert Hooke (1/10 the size of regular bacteria)

- Observed cells in cork. Coined the term “cells” Note: 1.0 µm = one millionth of a meter

1673 – Anton Van Leeuwenhoek All Cells have

- Created a powerful microscope  Plasma (Cell) Membrane

 Nucleus (eukaryotes only)
- used this to observe pond scum and discovered sing-celled  Cytoplasm (an area)
organisms which he called “animalcules”  Organelles (structures with specialized function)
1827 – 1833 - Robert Brown Cell Types
- noticed that pollens in water jiggled around called Prokaryotes – simple cells that do not have internal
“Brownian motion” and discovered the nucleus membranes. e.g.: bacteria
1838 - Matthias Schleiden Eukaryotes – more complex cells that do not have internal,
membrane-bound structures. e.g.: plants and animals.
- A botanist who concluded that all plants are made of cells
Timeline
1839 – Theodore Schwann
Prokaryotic Organisms: First appeared 3.5 BYA include
- a zoologist who concluded that animals are made of cells bacteria and cyanobacteria.
Eukaryotic Organisms: First appeared 2.0 BYA include × Found on ribosomes and floating throughout the cell
protists, fungi, plants and animals. Mitochondria
× Produces energy through chemical reactions – breaking
Key Differences down fats and carbohydrates
Prokaryotes × Controls level of water and other materials in the cell
× Recycles and decomposes proteins, fats and
 Lack a nucleus and other membrane bounded structures carbohydrates
 Have small ribosomes Golgi Bodies
 DNA is not organized into chromosomes × Protein ‘packaging plant’
 Flagella are not made of microtubules and does not have a × Move materials within the cell and out of cell
9+2 structure Lysosome
 Cell walls are made of peptidoglycan, not cellulose × Digestive ‘plant’ for proteins, fats and carbohydrates
× Transports undigested material to cell membrane for
Eukaryotes removal
× Cell breaks down if lysosome explodes
 Have a nucleus and other membrane bounded structures.
Vacuoles
 Have large ribosomes
× Membrane-bound sacs for storage, digestion and waste
 DNA is organized into chromosomes removal
 Flagella are made of microtubules and have a 9+2 × Contains water solution
structure
× Helps plants maintain shape
 Cell walls are made of cellulose
Chloroplast
Cell Parts (organelles) × Usually found in plant cells
× Contains green chlorophyll
Surrounding the Cell × Where photosynthesis takes place

Cell Membrane – the outer membrane of cell that controls

movement in and out of the cell. Double layer.

Cell Wall – Most commonly found in plant cells and bacteria.

Supports and protect cells.

Inside the Cell

Nucleus
× Directs cell activities
× Separated from cytoplasm by nuclear membrane
× Contains genetic material – DNA
Nuclear Membrane
× Surrounds nucleus
× Made of two layers
× Openings allows material to enter and leave nucleus
Chromosomes
× In nucleus
× Made of DNA
× Contain instructions for traits and characteristics
Nucleolus
× Inside nucleus
× Contains RNA to build proteins
Cytoplasm
× Gel-like mixture
× Surrounded by cell membrane
× Contains hereditary material
Endoplasmic Reticulum
× Moves materials around in cell
× Smooth type: lacks ribosomes
× Rough type: ribosomes embedded on surface
Ribosomes
× Each cell contains thousands
× Makes proteins