GENERAL

CHEMISTRY 2
LESSON 1.3 Properties of Liquids and IMFs
Properties of Liquids

I. Surface Tension
• results from the net inward force experienced by the molecules on the surface of a liquid.
• the property of liquid to resist an external force and thus assumes a lesser surface area.
A. Cohesive forces bind similar molecules to one another, like hydrogen bonding in water
B. Intermolecular forces that bind a substance to a surface are adhesive forces.

II. Viscosity
• Resistance of a liquid to flow is called viscosity.
• It is related to the ease with which molecules can move past each other.
• Viscosity increases with stronger intermolecular forces.

III. Vapor Pressure

• The
pressure vapor of a is substance
the pressure exerted by its vapor in equilibrium with its
condensed phases (solid or liquid)
• At any temperature, some molecules in a liquid have enough energy to escape. 

• As the temperature rises, the fraction of molecules that have enough energy to escape increases. 

• As more molecules escape the liquid, the pressure they exert increases.
• The liquid and vapor reach a state of dynamic equilibrium: liquid molecules evaporate and vapor
molecules condense at the same rate.
• Substances with relatively strong IMF will have low vapor pressure.

IV. Boiling Point

• the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the external pressure
• The stronger the IMFA, the higher the boiling point.
• During boiling, energy absorbed as heat is used only to convert molecules of liquid to vapor.
• The temperature remains constant until all the liquid has boiled away.

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Lesson 1.4 Types and Properties of Solids and IMFs
We can think of solids as falling into two groups:

A. Amorphous
• no particular order in the arrangement of particles
• no geometrical shape
• melt over a range of
• temperatures
• isotropic
• do not have regular planes of cleavage

B. Crystalline
• particles are in highly ordered arrangement 

• definite geometrical shape 

• “ true solids” 

• definite melting point 

• anisotropic 

• have plane surfaces or straight edges when cut (cleavage property) 

Crystalline Structure
A. lattice – a three-dimensional system of points designating the positions of the components that make up
the crystal
B. unit cell – the smallest repeating unit of a crystalline solid

Types of Crystals
1. ionic

2. covalent
3. molecular
4. metallic

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Covalent-Network and Molecular Solids
• Diamonds are an example of a covalent-network solid in which atoms are covalently bonded to each
other.
They tend to be hard and have high melting points.
• Graphite is an example of a molecular solid in which atoms are held together with van der Waals
forces.
They tend to be softer and have lower melting points.

Metallic Solids
• Metals are not covalently bonded, but the attractions between atoms are too strong to be van der
Waals forces.
• In metals, valence electrons are delocalized throughout the solid.




















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Lesson 1.5 Phase Changes
Phase Changes
• transformations from one phase to another
o Vaporization - transformation of liquid to gas

o Condensation 
 - transformation of gas to
liquid
o Freezing 
 - transformation of liquid to solid
o Melting 
 - transformation of solid to liquid
o Sublimation - transformation of solid to gas

o Deposition - transformation of gas to solid.
• Occur when energy is added or removed from a
system
• Characterized by changes in molecular order

Endothermic Process
The added energy is used by the substance in either of two ways:
Ø to increase the kinetic energy of the particles
Ø to break attractive forces between particles

Exothermic Process
The removal or release of heat results in two ways:
Ø a decrease in kinetic energy of the particles
Ø Forces of attraction are formed/strengthened.
The added energy is used by the substance in either of two ways:
Ø to increase the kinetic energy of the particles
Ø to break attractive forces between particles

Liquid - Solid Equilibrium

o melting point of a solid or freezing point of a liquid = temperature at which solid and liquid coexist in
equilibrium
*normal melting (or freezing) point
o liquid-solid equilibrium: water and ice (at 0 degree Celsius and 1 atm)

Heat of Fusion : energy required to change a solid at its melting point to a liquid.
* molar heat of fusion (ΔHfus)

o Cooling a substance has the opposite effect of heating it.

Liquid - Vapor Equilibrium
o The liquid and vapor reach a state of dynamic equilibrium: liquid molecules evaporate and vapor
molecules condense at the same rate.

Heat of Vaporization : Energy required to change a liquid at its boiling point to a gas
* molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap)

Solid - Vapor Equilibrium
Molar Heat of Sublimation: energy required to sublime 1 mole of a solid

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Energy Changes Associated with Changes of State
o Notice DHvap requires more energy
o There is a DHsub for sublimation = DHvap + DHfus
o The heat added to the system at the melting and boiling points goes into pulling the molecules farther
apart from each other. 

o The temperature of the substance does not rise during the phase change. 


Heat Change with Change in Temperature
o Specific Heat: the amount of heat needed to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1 degree
Celsius

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Lesson 1.6 Phase Diagram
Phase diagrams - display the state of a
substance at various pressures and
temperatures and the places where
equilibria exist between phases.

Features of a Phase Diagram

§ The Three Areas
*Solid
*Liquid
*Gas
§ Three Lines (Curves) and Two
Important Points
(a) The AB line is the liquid-vapor interface.
(b) It starts at the triple point (A), the point at which all three states are in equilibrium.
(c) It ends at the critical point (B); above this critical temperature and critical pressure the
liquid and vapor are indistinguishable from each other.
(d) Each point along this line is the boiling point of the substance at that pressure.
(e) The AD line is the interface between liquid and solid.
(f) The melting point at each pressure can be found along this line.
(g) Below A the substance cannot exist in the liquid state.
(h) Along the AC line the solid and gas phases are in equilibrium; the sublimation point at each
pressure is along this line.

Phase Diagram of Water
o Note the high critical temperature and critical pressure:
o These are due to the strong van der Waals forces
between water molecules.
o The slope of the solid– liquid line is negative.
o This means that as the pressure is increased at a
temperature just below the melting point, water
goes from a solid to a liquid.



Phase Diagram of Carbon Dioxide
o Carbon dioxide cannot exist in the liquid state at pressures
below 5.11 atm; CO2 sublimes at normal pressures.
o The low critical temperature and critical pressure for CO2
make supercritical CO2 a good solvent for extracting nonpolar
substances (such as caffeine).

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The Chemistry of Solutions
Part I: Introductory Concepts, Stoichiometry, and Saturation

A SOLUTION is a combination of any two or more substances.

§ It may exist in any of the three states (solid, liquid, gas)
§ Composed of the following:
§ Solute – The substance that is DISSOLVED in a solution.
§ Solvent – The substance that DISSOLVES THE SOLUTE in a solution
Types of Solutions
§ ACCORDING TO AMOUNT OF SOLUTE
§ Saturated – solutions containing the equilibrium amount of solute.
§ Unsaturated – Solutions containing solute lower than the equilibrium amount.
§ Supersaturated – Solutions containing more than the equilibrium amount of solute.
§ ACCORDING TO “ONENESS”
§ Homogeneous – Solutions appearing as one.
§ Heterogeneous – Solutions appearing as distinct components despite being mixed as one.
§ ACCORDING TO TYPE OF SOLVENT
§ Aqueous – The solvent of the solution is water.
§ Tincture – the solvent of the solution is alcohol
§ Alloy – solutions involving two metals
The Process of Solvation
§ By definition, SOLVATION, otherwise known as DISSOLUTION, is the process in which the particles
of the solvent attracts the particles of the solute.
§ IMF involved: Ion-Dipole Force
§ How would this process occur?
§ Electrostatic interaction with the particles of the solvent
§ Entropy or randomness
§ How about molecular / covalent compounds?
§ Solvation of molecular / covalent compounds happens similarly with ionic compounds.
§ The only difference is that the entire molecule remains intact but is becomes solvated by the
solute.
§ How about gases and liquids?
§ Solvation also is the same whether solid, liquid or gas regardless of whether it is a solute or
solvent

Solution Stoichiometry: Measuring the Concentration of a Solution

§ Molar Mass (unit: g/mol) – the mass of all the atoms of one element.
Example: N2
N: 14.01 g/mol x 2 = 28.02 g/mol
§ Formula Mass (unit: g/mol) – The sum of all the molar masses of each element in a chemical formula.
Example: CuSO4
Cu: 63.55 g/mol x 1 = 63.55 g/mol
S: 32.06 g/mol x 1 = 32.06 g/mol
O: 16.00 g/mol x 4 = 64.00 g/mol
-------------------
159.6 g/mol
§ Mole – the atomic, molecular, or formula weight of any substance expressed in grams.
Example:
1 mole N2 = 28.02 g/mol
1 mole CuSO4 = 159.6 g/mol
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 § Dilution – the addition of more solvent to reduce the concentration of the solute.
Calculation formula: C1V1=C2V2
§ Molarity (unit: M; mol/L) – the moles of a substance per volume of solution, usually in liters in SI units.
Calculation formulae:
n g solute
M= n=
V M formula
§ Molality (unit: m; mol/Kg) – moles of a substance per unit mass of a solution, usually in Kg in SI units.
Calculation formula:
n
m=
M
§ Normality (unit: N ; mol/m3)– Gram equivalent weight of the solute per liter of the solution.
Calculation formulae:
M N
Base =M ( Acidity )
Base
N= solute

Eq.M solute • V N Acid = M Acid (Basicity )

§ Equivalent Mass of Solute (Eq. MSolute) – mass of the solute (in g) that displaces 1 part hydrogen, 8
parts oxygen, or 35.5 parts chlorine by mass.
§ FOR SALTS: the ratio between the formula mass of the salt and the net charge of the ions.
§ FOR ACIDS AND BASES: The ratio between the formula mass of the acid/base and the
number of replaceable hydrogen atoms (Basicity; for ACIDS) OR the number of replaceable
hydroxides (Acidity; for BASES).
Calculation formulae:
M formula M formula M formula
Eq.M salt = Eq.M acid = Eq.M base =
Cnet Basicity Acidity
§ Normality Test – a test used to calculate how much of a given acid or base of a certain concentration can
be used to neutralize an acid or base also of known concentration

N1V1 = N2V2
Calculation formula:

§ Percent Solution (Unit: n %) = the ratio of the amount of the solute against
the total amount of the solution expressed in percent (multiplied by 100).
§ Types:
§ Percent by mass (% m/m) = (mass of solute/mass of solution) x 100
§ Percent by volume (%v/v) = (volume of solute/volume of solution) x100
§ Percent by mass and volume (%m/v) = (mass of solute/volume of solution) x 100
§ “Parts per” concentrations (unit: ppt or ‰ ; ppm or ‱; ppb) - the mass of a solute out of either a
hundred –something (percent), a thousand-something (per thousand), a million-something (per million),
or a billion-something (per billion) mass or volume of the solvent.
§ Unit pairs:
unit Solutions Solids

ppt ng/L pg/mL ng/Kg pg/g

ppm mg/L μg/mL mg/Kg μg/g

ppb μg/L ng/mL μg/Kg ng/g

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 § “Parts per” concentrations [continued] 1´10 3 [ ppt ]
Default formula: V Solute or M Solute ´1´10 6 [ ppm]
V Solution or M Solution 1´109 [ ppb]
§ NOTE: UNITS OF THE SOLUTE MUST MATCH THE UNITS OF THE SOLUTION!
§ Mole Fraction (Unit: mole) – The ratio of mole of either just the solute or the solvent and the mole of
the entire solution.
X Solvent X Solute
Calculation formulae:
X Solute = X Solvent =
X Solution X Solution
Where: X Solute + X Solvent = 1
Saturation
§ SATURATION is the degree or extent to which the solute can be dissolved or absorbed by the solvent
comparable to the maximum amount possible.
§ Types of saturation:
§ SATURATED – solute is at equilibrium amount.
§ UNSATURATED – solute is less than the equilibrium amount.
§ SUPERSATURATED – solute is more than the equilibrium amount.
What Affects Saturation?
§ Temperature – The higher the temperature, the higher is the solubility.
§ Pressure – The higher the pressure, the higher the solubility.
§ Solubilization rate – the rate at which the solute can be rendered soluble in the solvent.
§ Crystallization rate – rate of at which the solute would turn into a crystalline form.
§ Dissolving rate – The rate at which the solute becomes solvated.
§ Net dissolving rate – the difference between dissolving rate and crystallization rate.
§ Behavior of a system in response to catalysts of change in equilibria – as predicted by Le Chatelier’s
Principle
Equilibrium Solute Amounts and Saturation Point
§ What is the equilibrium amount of a solute?
§ The equilibrium amount of the solute is the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a
solvent.
§ This defines SATURATION POINT.
§ Saturation point – the point at which a solute can no longer be dissolved.
§ How do we compute for saturation point?
§ There is no exact formula for saturation point, but instead, we use two methods:
§ Actual: continuous dissolving of the solute in a solvent
§ Theoretical: Solving for the Solubility Product Constant and the Reaction Quotient
§ Solubility Product Constant (Ksp) – Concentration of the individual atoms of the solute being dissolved
in a solvent.

K sp = [C ] [D]
§ Calculation formula: c d

§ Where [C] and [D] are the molar solubility (molarity) values of each atom and the exponents are
the number of each atom present in the reaction.
§ Unit: Moln/Ln

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 § Reaction Quotient (Q) – ratio of the concentrations of the products and the reactants present in a
reaction.
§ This defines whether a solution would be saturated, unsaturated, or supersaturated.
§ How does this entity define saturation?
§ Q = Ksp – Solution is SATURATED
§ Q < Ksp – Solution is UNSATURATED
§ Q > Ksp - Solution is SUPERSATURATED; precipitation will occur.

[C ] [D ]
§ Calculation formula:
c d
Q=
[A]a [B ]b
Part II: Colligative Properties
Colligative Properties
- properties of solutions that depend solely on the number of the solute particles in the solution
- influenced by the extent of dissociation of the solute in a solution

I. Vapor Pressure Lowering

- the pressure exerted by the vapor when it is at equilibrium with the solid
(i.e. vaporization rate = condensation rate)
• Nonvolatile-a substance with no measurable vapor
• Volatile-a substance that exhibits a vapor pressure
Raoult's Law
• states that the vapor pressure (P0) of a volatile solvent above a solution containing a non
volatile solute is PROPORTIONAL to the solvent's concentration (X) in the solution
Psolution = (Xsolvent)(P0solvent)
• The vapor pressure lowering (△P) is directly proportional to the mole fraction of the solute, Xsolute.

II. Freezing Point Depression

ΔTf =Tf −Tfo where:
Tb = boiling point of the solution
ΔTf ∝m b Tbo = boiling point of the pure solvent
m = molality of the solution
ΔTf = Kfm Kb = molal boiling point elevation
constant [0C/m]

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III. Boiling Point Elevation
- the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the solution equals the external atmospheric
pressure

ΔTb =Tb −Tbo where:

Tb = boiling point of the solution
ΔTb ∝m b Tbo = boiling point of the pure solvent
m = molality of the solution
ΔTb = Kbm Kb = molal boiling point elevation
constant [0C/m]

IV. Osmotic Pressure

• the selective passage of water molecules through a porous membrane from a dilute solution to a more
concentrated one.
Since: Vapor Pressure water(solvent) > Vapor Pressure solution
• there is a NET transfer of water molecules from a dilute
solution to a more concentrated one.
• Osmosis shall stop until the system reaches
EQUILIBRIUM.
• the pressure required to stop osmosis in a
• system of solution
- can be measured directly from the
difference in the final fluid levels

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Unit 3 : Thermochemistry : Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions
• a branch of thermodynamics
• the study of heat change in chemical reactions
Energy
• capacity to do work
• Units: J, kJ, cal, Btu
• Work is defined by chemists as directed energy change resulting from a process.
• Physical and chemical changes are accompanied by energy changes.

First Law of Thermodynamics
• Law of Conservation of Energy
• states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed
• Energy can only be transformed from one kind to another.
• The energy of the universe is constant.

Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions
System – the specific part of the universe that is of interest to us
Open System
Closed System
Isolated System
Surroundings – the rest of the universe outside the system

Energy Transfer to and from a System
• Internal Energy- energy contained within a system, E
• ΔE- change in internal energy; a transfer of energy from system to surroundings, or vice versa

Two Forms of Energy Transfer

Heat - the energy transferred as a result of a difference in temperature between the system and the
surroundings; q

Work * pressure-volume work=most common type of work associated with chemical reactions; w

Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions

Measuring Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions
Calorimeter - the measurement of heat changes
• Bomb Calorimeter – ideally suited for measuring the heat evolved in a combustion reaction
• Coffee-Cup Calorimeter – ideally suited for measuring heat transferred during processes that take
place at constant pressure
Heat of Reaction - the quantity of heat exchanged between a system and its surroundings when a chemical
reaction occurs.
Specific Heat - the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance one degree
Celsius

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Heat Capacity - the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a given amount of substance one
degree Celsius

Heat capacity = m * c
Applying Law of Conservation of Energy,
ΔH = qreaction = - (qmix + qcal)
ΔH + qmix + qcal = 0
Where:
ΔH - heat of reaction
qmix - heat absorbed by reaction mixture
qcal – heat absorbed by calorimeter

Thermochemical Equation
- a balanced equation that includes the enthalpy change of the reaction (ΔH)

Enthalpy
- the sum of the internal energy and the pressure-volume product of the system
- state function.
State Function
- any property having a unique value when the state of the system is defined
Enthalpy Change
- heat transferred by a process that occurs at constant pressure, ΔH

ΔH = Hproducts - Hreactants
Hproducts < Hreactants ΔH < 0
Hproducts > Hreactants ΔH > 0









Thermochemistry : Hess's Law
Hess’s Law states that the change in enthalpy for any chemical reaction is constant, whether the reaction
occurs in one step or in several steps.

Calculating ΔH of a Specific Reaction

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1) Look for the formulas that appear only once among the equations and place it in the right place just as that
in the desired equation.
2) Note the number of moles of each reactant and products in the desired equation.
3) Manipulate the equations with known ΔH values so that the number of moles of reactants and products
are on the correct sides as in the desired equation. Do not forget to:
a) change the sign of ΔH when the equation is reversed;
b) multiply/divide the number of moles and ΔH by the same factor.
4) Add the manipulated equations, cancelling terms that are common to both sides of the equation to obtain
the desired equation. Algebraically add the ΔH values to get the final ΔH or change in enthalpy of the
desired equation.

Standard Enthalpy of Reaction
• the enthalpy change for a reaction in which the reactants and products are in their standard states
• ΔHrxn ̊
Standard state = the pure element or compound at 1 atm pressure and at the temperature of interest

Standard Enthalpy of Formation of a Substance
• the enthalpy change that occurs in the formation of 1 mole of the substance in the standard state from
the reference forms of the elements in their standard states
• ΔHf ̊
• Reference forms of elements= the most stable forms of the elements at 1 atm pressure and the given
temperature
• The ΔHf ̊ of a pure element in its most stable form is 0.

Formation Equations
In a formation equation, 1 mol of a compound forms from its elements.
C(graphite) + 2H2(g) = CH4 (g) Hf ̊ = -74.9 kJ

Determining ΔH ̊rxn from ΔHf ̊
For a reaction

Note: n & m are stoichiometric coefficients.

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