IDEAL SOLUTION

CLASS-12 BOARDS Interaction of A-B are equal to interaction of A-A

and B B -

Fenganenteran
I P = PA
PB bis AYmix 0
- =
+
=

Pi- A Unix 0
=

i I egn-Hexane + n-Heptan

In
-I
xA=2 mole fraction PA 0
=

xB 0 =

CB 1
=

anyBharatPanchamery Gurujia.o
.
· Positive Deviation
NON-IDEAL SOLUTION

Negative
A B interaction
Deviation

A B interaction are
-

are weaker
help in
-

To our Journey than A-A and B-B interaction stronger than

BB
A-A and
interaction
IUmix = the I Vnix=-ve
YOU CAN DONATE A4mix= tVe Anwix=-ve

PA PB bis PA PB bis
--
+

-
-
+

-
P
-
=

PT
=

Pi Pi

SOLUTIONS
-

-
-

Mass Percentage (W/w)% =

YFw, x100
I
xA=2
-

mole fraction (CA=-

I
xA=2
- mole fraction (CA=-
xB 0 =

CB 1
=

xB 0 =

CB 1
=

Volume Percentage (V)%

"100 form minimum boiling Maximum
=

for
boiling
A zeotrobes a zeotropes
Mass by Volume Percentage (w/v)
Ycm myx100
=

e.g. Acelone + Ethanol acetone

e.g ,ulorotom
Mass fraction

XI Yz= wa Colligative Properties depend on number of solute

ws
=

or

Wit We
Relativelowering ->
P=C or is a
Parts per million (ppm) 106
w,
=

Elevation in - DT= kpm or i kom

Point
Boiling
Molarity (M) Unit
wx s mol/litre
=
Depression in
=
or:1sm
BT= kfm
freezing Point-
Osmotic Pressure
Molality
(m)
x Ecg) Unit
moles/kg
- I = <RT
RT or
ix4xRXY
=
=
or

↳
molarity is inversely proportional Unit of km and K
Kkg
=
mol
to temperature DTs -
Elevation in B. Pt
Dix:ip-T
Mole Fraction (X) Alf -
Depression in F.Ut
AT1 =
TG-Ts To - pt
of solution
XA
h XB UB
=
=

UA +UB Tip - B.pt

of pure solvent

Sep somea
-

XA+YB=1 mole fraction is a unitless is + riot of pure solvent

fptof solution
q, antity
-
if
pressure moral
elevationouter
yearal
of gas
Henry Law R
et
It" molal depression
I mole praction of solute Vanit Holt factor (i) constant

=Normal Molecular mass

RAOULT'S LAN Chemistry Gurujic.0 Observed Molecular mass

bACYA DB CXB is solute undergoes dissociation

DA=DAXXA Pr= b' X YB i<1 solute undergoes association

i 1 =

no association no dissociation
For Volatile solute For Non-Volatile solute
PT PA
=
+ PB D = DA =

DAXIA
=
<dissociation -

Is Cassociation: 1
↳ -
2
 electrochemistry Kohlrausch's Law
Cell which convert one form of energy into
hi Electrolyte dincation ImAnion
-
=
+
another form of energy
~ degree of dissociation
Electrochemical cell Electrolytic cell

Am Molar conductvity at concentrationene

x =

chemical - electrical electrical-chemical

Representation ofa cell ~Dissociation

(KC)=
constant

oxidation
meantim -

Reduction hay cell

favaday's first law

MMass,
=
w 2XIXt
=
Ixt
Two solution separation
zn2+//cust Favaday's second law
[where is equivalent
NERNST EQUATION =I weight]
Mn+ Mist
+ neo ->
Fuel cell
Ecer= Ecell-9 leg At Anode -

2H, + 404 -
-> 440 + 4e0

egemitessie Oct 2H20+ fee

At Cathode -

-> you-

Fell-Feel-0
591 Overall Reaction 2 Hz +02 -> 2H20

Dry cell
At Equilibrium Ecell=0 At Anode -
In -> In2+ + 200

Ecel 0
=

1 ligke at298K At cathode 2 MnO2t2N4 +e0 ->(Mno(on) +CNHs

Overallya In+ 2NUs +2MnO2-ZnCt+2MnoCon) +&NH,

Gibbs Free Energy Chemistry Gurujic.0 Lead. Storage Battery-
Ac = -nf Fell
At Anode- Pb+ SO2 ->PbSO, +2e8
AC=-2.303RT lug Ks
At Cathode -

PbOLT SO-->PbSO, +2H20

CONDUCTIVITY OF IONIC SOLUTIONS corrosion of iron...
Unit=0hm-1
Conductance (G)
2 I* k-* =

- 1
At Anode- 2Fe 2fe2+ 400
= -
=

or -> +

~ increases on dilution larger mog

as
ions areme At Cathode 02 + 44++ 400 - CH20
Specific conductance [CONDUCTIVITYS Overall reaction
(Fe +O, +44+ ->252 + + 2H20
Unit:ohm-1cm-
1
for GN4*
k
=

or GX
I or 5cm-1
Formula of rust fez0g. KH2P
~
-

->decrease on dilution as number ofyou ber cm3 decrease

MOLAR CONDUCTIVITY
Unit =1-1cm2 mole
CHEMICAL KINETICS
Kx300
am 1X =

or
or Sm2 mol-l R - P

Increase with
dilution due to large increase in v. Rate ofReaction
AR3 +
-> -

Conductivity (am am
Limiting Molar or
UNT OF RATE Mol(1 seat or moll-1 minut
when concenteration of
electrolyte abbroaches zero
Instantaneous rate
Average rate
C variation of molar conductivity with concentivation change in concentration at change in concenteration at
instant of time
large time interval any
R- P
dTDI
d +
-

DTP]

↳
DTR] It
=

-
-

:
+
It 5t

↑
strong electrolyte
likekC
Am weak electrolyte
like
CHCOOU
XI
↳
Debye-Huckel Equation
Am Am-AXE
=

Am=Molar conductivity at V dilution

C concenteration
=

A constantwhich
=
depends upon

is Rate rate constanto r Secti

Plotof 1m and against II a straight line with
(aw-an+bB -> Product
&
rate

intercept him slope equal KTA][B]

to to
"
equal and -A.
Rate of Reaction=
in actual used
for weak electrolyte, on dilution very large increase condu order= <tB
c t an e
in
for dilution
strong electrolyte, on
only a small increase conductance
 Half life
tyzcas; where n is order
of an COLLISION THEORY
zero Order of collision blu the molecules
The number
reaching
is
ITA]"
rate=
taking place per second per unit volume
collision
[A]t kt + [A]o known as
frequency
=
-

R
t =

Vate= PIA e-Eat

tyz
=
Unit of K (ls-1
steric factor
mol
P- P called the probability
=

or

firstOrder
tyz 0.693/K
=
IAB+ Collision frequency for reactantA 2B.
Rale=K[AJ
In [AJt = -

Kt + In[Ajo
Unit of K sec-1 =

The d- and f-Block Elements

(n-1)d'10
E3e*.
ngo-2
t
Chemistry Gurujic.0 General Electronic confi.
=

M.Pt c B.Pt- High due to

strong metallic bond. Strength of metallic
bond due to unpaired to
Enthalpies of Atomisation
High due to strong interatomic interaction
oxidation State variable oxidation state due to participation of
+z
-

us and (n-1) d electrons (Highest in 3d Series Mn

Atomic Radi-Decreases size remain
from left to
right, in midway
same and in the end of series size increases.
COMPLEX FORMATION form complex due to
high nuclear charge, small
size metal ions and availability of empty d-orbital
to accept lone pair of so donated by ligands
coloured compounds form coloured compounds due to did transition, due
to unpaired to.
Alloy formation Due to small similar alomic radi, atom of one metal
metal.
easily replace the atom of other
can

Interstitial compound Due to in their lattices, small atoms

empty space
accommodated.
PSEUDO FIRST ORDER-
can be easily are paramagnetic
and their compounds
Those reaction which Magnetic Properties Transition metal ions
in (n-1)d orbitals and
unpaired to
due to presence of
are not truely of first order but under iti scalculated formula M 1I
=

n(n+2)
by using where n i number unpaired co
certain conditions becomes of first order oxides in oxidation state are
higher oxidation state are acidic, lower

Basic whereas the intermediate oxi. State are amphoteric

inversion of sugar in
F
2 +
8/3 4
+ +

Mus07
+

Made
of
Mn8
C12H220114H20 #sC6H1Os +CoHIzO. - -
-

Acidic
Basic

Rate K [CH22022]
Potassium Dichromate [K2(r207I
=

Arrhenius Equation 2-
9-
I
⑧ pM 0 O
-

I -or
- 179
O s - O
Cu
CrOR-
K Ae-FaIRT
=

o 1
%63pm 0 /
·B o-
Dichromate ion chromate ion
log K
lrgA-ERT
=

Preparation
H2SO & #
where 1 Rate
N92CO3 NaO7 Kuv2Oz
constant NaCvOr ->
=

FeCUzOn- Dichromate
On sod. Dichromate bot.
Ferrochromate sod. Chromate
A Pre-exponential factor
:

cousCO2 ist
Activation
Ea= or
=>

Energy .cron I I2
-

Tateup
3 - S
10g orang E
=Esa[E
Ge
suct-> sn4t
oxidising
in acidic medium - rest
oxidising action
Property X Xz
-

CRO7+144++600 - 2Cr3++FH0
Role of Catalyst:a chemical substance which
alters the ofreaction Potassium
without
rate
chemical
Permanganate (KMu0n)
undergoing any
Dathcatalyst
change O
Deep purple crystalline solid, oxidising agent, having m.pt 240°

Rx
without It MnOz Purolusite
A
Reaction Path

⑤-
with catalyst
Mu
⑧
............

- kontO,

S
- without
Be
a

I
My tylMnOq
&
catalyst
* MnOztkMnOy [ KMnOy
MnOr[Permanganate 50]
E a without
we
Pot. Pot. Permanganate
Manganate
*
catalyst
oxidising Action in Acidic Medium
-Oxidising Reactions in Neutral Medium...
Reactant-"*---
E
--- >
--

MnO + 8H++ 5e8 -Mn +

+ 4H0 MnO +
2H0 +YeO -
MnY, + 4OH
-

It oxidise
Product +- restoxalic acid ->CO,+Ht I- IOs
⑪
Has -> S

Reaction Has ->S SO,

-

HESUb
MnSO--> Mua
S202-- SOY
Co-ordinate
Mu2+- mura
I. -> I2 1309- c st.spas.That
 INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS IF-Block) CO.ORDINATION COMPOUNDS
Actinoich (55) Addition Compounds formed by combination of
canthanoids (4H)
-

enters in two simple

last to enters in At lastto or more
I
compounds

obital 5f orbital Double salt coordination compound

General electronic confit (n-2) f4 (n-id" use which
into
dissociate
its ions
completely retain
in
its identity
solid state and in solution
both

LANTHANOID CONTRACTION 28 1300 Al(sOnly2440

[o(NHs)s73
+
decrease in alomic and Potash alam e.g
ionic radio from Santhanum to lutetium. gradual
The
INERNER THEORY explain the nature of

bonding in complexes, metal show two kind of

and steady decrease across the period is called
valencies
lanthanoid contraction. Chemistry Gurujic.0 Secondary Valency
Primary Valency
Non-directional and ionisable Directional and non-ionisable
cause If orbitals have very poor
-

shielding effect and equal to oxi. State of It is equal to the coordin.

left to right nuclear charge increases and radius metal ion of metal
delete central number

LIGANDS These alom, ion or molecule which donate

consequences are

·
separation of at elements becomes difficult lone pair of so to central metal alom.

because there is small difference in their properties.

ON THE BASIS OF CHARGE
·

4d and id transition series have same atomic radi

-
ve ligand the
ligands Neurtal ligands
Basic character
of hydroxides of Lanthanoides deceases
·

CN, F, 4 NO NOat, NOT, H0:, WH, CO:

from left to
right(acon), most basic
NOs On 0- N4nt SYINT
Incon, least
basic
BASIS OF NUMBER OF DONOR SITES
Difference blu Lanthanoids and Achinoids
Monodentale Bidentals Polydentale
canthanoids . . .
Actinoids only one donor two donor More than two
site site donor site
·
They exhibit mainly +30.S in They exhibit + soxi. State
CH2C00
Ho: l c00-oxalato -N CHIC00
addition show and he addition they show boo-
+4
they
oxidation stale +4, +5, + 6, + 7 oxi. State.
CH2-NH2 Ethylene
diamine
- <CH2C00-
cits-nixt CHICOO-
EDTA
show lanthanoid they show Actinoid
.
They CHELATING LIGAND a bidentate or polydentate ligand
contraction contraction which form more than one coordinate bond in
is formed
Actinoic
such way thata ring
a
Mostions lanthanoids most ions
of
of AMDIDENTATE LIGAND Monodentate ligand -
which
are colourless are coloured. contain more than one

Greater
coordinating alas.
lesser tendency to form tendency to M4 NOS
·

M7 SCN ME CN
MFOND
complex form complex MENCS MF NC

They do not give oxo.

They give oxocations ISOMERISM:Two or more substance have same
molecular formula but differentstructure
eg WOS, Pup
or
calions ele.
spatial arrangement are called isomers
·
their compounds are · their compounds Structural Isomerism
are more Basic
less Basic -Ionisation ->
Hydrate
·

they are non-radioactive. They are radioactive [ C0 BU (NHs)5] SO4 [CU (HdsTH,
(exceptPromethinm)
[C0 SO4 (MH35] BU [Cv (HDsGJC; H2P
↑

~ Linkage -> co-ordination

[C0 (NOC)(NHS)5Ice
[Co (NHy16] [Cr (CN)6]
Chemistry Guruji 2.0 [C0 CONO) (NH,7532
[Co [CN16] [Cr (NH316]

-
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-
 STEREO ISOMERISM
-
CRYSTAL FIELD THEORY:
-
Geometrical optical
-

Metal-ligand bond is ionic in nature. So, there

isomerism is electrostatic force of attraction blw metal and
This arises
S- same ligands occupy due to non-super imposable eigands
adjacent Position
mirror images I
for Octahedral
Trans-
- same ligands
occuby
only in octahedral complexes
Conexfor Tetrahedral complex
opposite Position bidentate ligands.
with 2 or 3
1

-
in Square Planar In Octahedral Trans
Cis
(optically
MAzXz -- coblically Active) inactives
MABXZ MAXX2 MAyX 3 e.g [coU,(en),3+
It 7+
Ten,
5
MA2XY A 4
4
↳
Y
Cis Trans

ins
MAXY
conb
CO -

I
SPECTROCHEMICAL SERIES
-en

shape of d-orbitals

3
Arrangement ofligands
in the
At
10
=

order of increasing field strength

field
field
weak
- Increasing order
-
strong
ligands 8 CFSE(A0) ligands

I (BU's SCNO CC-< S2-F < ON <H20

OX <

NCs-<edta"- [NAs <en <NO2 <CNO <10

If Do<P, a high spin complex is formed.
VALENCE BOND THEORY-
low spin complex is tonned.
If Do)P, a
INNER ORBITAL OUTER ORBITAL
COMPLEX COMPLEX

involve inner d-orbital involve outer d-orbital CLASS-12 BOARDS

i.e (n-1) d-orbital is no-orbitals
skin

get
High Spin

Stam
Low complex Complex
Have less or no
umpaired Have

unpaired
large number

ea
of
I
e.g [Co(NHs),]3+
-

eg[Mnfo]YIcoFs]"-
S
[CoCCN,?4
-

Valence Bond

to thiscontrary
Theory: Chemistry Guruji 2.0
greateand someand
In -

to central metal atom

ByBharatPanchamery curujia.o
the metal atom or ion under the
influenceof ligands can use (n-1)d, us, ub, nd
orbitals
for hybridisation ·
Hybridisation (N Geometry Example
Chemistry Guruji 2.0
Sp 2 linear
[Ag((N), 3
-
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562 3 Trigonal planar [H9137- -

Tetrahedral Ni(o)u]
Sp3
dSp2
4

4
square planar Penicolas"to help in our Journey
square pyramidal Fe((0)5
dSb3 5
YOU CAN DONATE
dsp3 6 Octahedrallium [CrCNMs),
Spid 6 Octahedral (outer) (FeE,73-
Paramagnetism - No.
o unpaired to

moment:in(n
t
magnetic 1)
↳
+

" is no,
I unpaired to
Chapterwiseisa chemistry
strong field ligands like weak field ligands -
CNO, NOL CN, NHS cause like C; Br H,0:are
pairing 2
pairing of co
unable to cause
Chapterwise one shot
820
of Class 12 Chemistry

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