PAWAN WAGH ACADEMY

Notes
Solutions

Solution= Solute + Solvent

Solid Liquid Gases Solid Liquid Gases

Dissolution
Solute + Solvent Solution
Crystallization

Solution

Saturated solution
Supersaturated Unsaturated
A solution which solution solution
contains maximum
A solution which A solution which
amount of solute
contains greater contains less than
(equilibrium
than equilibrium equilibrium
amount of solute)
amount of solute amount of solute
dissolved in a
is called as is called as
solvent is called as
Supersaturated Unsaturated
Saturated
solution solution
solution

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Solubility:-
The amount of solute present per unit volume of saturated
solution, is called as Solubility
𝑚𝑜𝑙
Unit:- ( ) or M (Molarity)
𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒

Factors affecting solubility

Effect of Effect of
Nature of solute
temperature on pressure on
and solvent
solubility solubility

1. Nature of solute and solvent:-

a. The substance having almost similar
intermolecular forces are most likely to be soluble
in each other (like dissolves in like)
b. Generally polar solute dissolves in polar solvent
and non-polar solute in non-polar solvent
c. The solubility of solute in a solvent is as a result
of similar solute-solute, solute-solvent and
solvent-solvent interaction
[Link] example (NaCl)- Polar solute is soluble in (H2o)
water-polar solvent
e. For example Cholesterol-Non polar solute dissolves in
Benzene-non polar solvent

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2. Effect of Temperature
a. Solubility of substance changes with temperature
and depends on enthalpy of solution
b. According to Le-chateliers principle, when the
substance dissolves in water by endothermic
process, its solubility increases with increase in
temperature ex. Solubility of KBr in water
c. When the substance dissolves in water by
exothermic process, its solubility decreases with
increase in temperature
3. Effect of pressure on solubility
a. Pressure has no effect on the solubility of solid
and liquids (incompressible)
b. Pressure shows greater effect on the solubility of
gases in liquids
c. The relationship between Solubility of gas in liquid
and pressure of gas is given by ‘Henry law’

Henry Law-
According to law “Solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly
proportional to the pressure of the gas”
S αP
S = KH X P Where,
𝑆 𝑚𝑜𝑙
So KH= =
𝑚𝑜𝑙
S= Solubility of gas in liquid unit ( )
𝑃 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒

P= Pressure of gas (bar)

𝑚𝑜𝑙
KH= Henry’s constant ( )
𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟

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Henry’s Constant (KH)
Henry’s constant is equal to the solubility of gas in the
liquid, where pressure of solution is equal to bar

Exception to Henry law-

NH3 (ammonia) and CO2 (carbon dioxide) gas do not
obey Henry’s law

 Raoult’s Law –
According to the law “The partial vapour pressure
of any volatile component of a solution is equal to
the vapour pressure of pure component multiplied
by its mole fraction”.
P=P0 × x
Where P= partial vapour pressure
P0= Vapour pressure of pure component
x= mole fraction
 Expression
Consider a binary solution of two volatile liquids
liquid A1 A2

Partial pressure P1 P2

Mole fraction x1 x2

So P1 = P1ox1
P2 = P20x2

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P=Total pressure = P1+P2
= x1.P10+x2.P20 …..x1+x2=1
= (1-x2) p10+x2.P20 …so x1= 1-x2
= P10-P10x2+x2P20
P = P10 + (P20-P10) x2
y =c + m x

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Points of Ideal solution Non-Ideal
difference solution
Obey / do not They obey They do not
obey Raoult’s Raoult’s law obey Raoult’s
law law
H mix H mix=0 H mix≠ 0
V mix V mix=0 V mix≠ 0
Nature of solute-solute, solute-solute,
interaction solute-solvent, solute-solvent,
solvent-solvent solvent-solvent
interaction are interaction are
comparable not comparable
Vapour pressure Vapour pressure Vapour pressure
relation of ideal solution of non-ideal
lies between solution can be
vapour pressure either higher or
of pure lower than pure
component component
Example Benzene+toulene Phenol+aniline

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Non-Ideal Solution shows two types of deviations from
Raoult’s Law

Positive Derivation Negative Derivation

1. Solute-solvent Solute 1. Solute – Solute-solute
Interactions << -solute and solvent >> and solvent
Solvent-solvent interactions solvent interaction
interactions

2. Vapour Vapour [Link] Vapour

Pressure of >> Pressure of pressure of << Pressure of
Solution pure component solution pure
component
ex. (ethanol + acetone ex. (Phenol + aniline),
(CS2 + acetone) , (CHCl3 + acetone)

 Colligative properties
The physical property that depends on the number
of solute particles in solution and does not depend
on the nature of solute particles is called as
Colligative properties.
Colligative Property

Vapour Boiling Osmotic

Freezing
pressure point pressure
point
lowering Elevation
depression

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1. Vapour pressure Lowering
The pressure exerted by the vapour on the surface
of liquid in a close container, is called as vapour
pressure lowering.
 When a non volatile (non ionizable) solid is
dissolved in a solvent
Let P10 = Vapour pressure of pure solvent
P1 = Vapour pressure of solution
P = Vapour pressure lowering

 The vapour pressure Vapour pressure of

of pure solvent (P10) >> solution (P1)
 P = P10 - P1 ( P=big value- small value)

 Reason for vapour pressure lowering

a. When a non volatile solute is dissolved in a solvent,
so the surface of solvent molecules are replaced by
non-volatile solute molecules
b. As solute are non-volatile, so they do not contribute
to any vapour pressure, due to which solution
vaporizes to a slower rate
c. So vapour pressure lowers and hence called as
vapour pressure lowering.

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 Expression for lowering of vapour pressure
According to Raoult’s law

P = P10-P1 = P10x x2

 Expression for relative lowering of vapour pressure

The ratio of vapour pressure lowering of solvent to
the vapour pressure of pure solvent is called as
relative lowering of vapour pressure.

Relative lowering of = P = P10 - P1 = x2= mofraction

vapour pressure P1 0 P1 0 of solute

 Determination of molecular mass of solute using

vapour pressure lowering method

𝑛2 𝑊2 𝑊1
P = x2 = n2= ; n1=
𝑛1+𝑛2 𝑀2 𝑀1
P 1
0

For dilute solution, n2=0 (in denominator)

Where,
𝑝 𝑛2
So =x2= P= Lowering of vapour pressure
𝑝10 𝑛1
P= Relative lowering of vapour
pressure
𝑝 𝑃10−𝑃1
pressure
= =
𝑊2𝑥𝑀1
P10
𝑝10 𝑝10 𝑀2𝑥𝑤1
x2= mole fraction of solute

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W2= mass of solute;
W1=mass of solvent
n2= no of moles of solute
n1= no of moles of solvent
M2= molar mass of solute
M1=molar mass of solvent

2. Boiling point Elevation:-

Boiling point:- The temperature at which, the vapour
pressure of the liquid becomes equal to the
atmospheric pressure is called as Boiling point
Liquid⇌Vapour
 When a non-volatile (non-ionizable) solute is
dissolved in a solvent
Let Tb0= boiling point of pure solvent
Tb = Boiling point of solution
Tb = Elevation in boiling point

 Boiling point of << Boiling point of solution (Tb)

pure solvent (Tbo)

 ( Tb=big value-small value)

Tb=Tb-Tb0

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 Elevation of boiling point as a consequence of
vapour pressure lowering
1. The vapour pressure of solution is lower than that of
pure solvent; so the vapour pressure temperature
curve of solution lies below the solvent curve
2. The boiling point of solution is higher than that of
pure solvent and can be understood from figure
3. The vapour pressure of solution needs higher
temperature to reach 1 atm and vapour pressure of
pure solvent requires less temperature to reach 1atm
[Link] to which, the boiling point of solution is higher
than that of pure solvent so it is termed as Boiling
point elevation (increment).
 Expression for elevation in boiling point
Tb α m where Tb=Elevation in boiling
point
Tb=kb x m Kb = molal elevation
Constant or
Ebullioscopy constant
m= molality

 Ebullioscopy constant or molal elevation constant

The ebullioscopy constant or molal elevation
constant is defined as the elevation in the boiling
point, produced by 1 molal solution
Where m=molality=1
Tb=Kb

The above phenomenon in which elevation in

boiling point is measured is called as Ebullioscopy
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 Unit of Ebullioscopic constant (Kb):-
𝑇𝑏 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛
Kb = = = [Link]. mol-1
𝑚 (𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑘𝑔)
 Determination of molecular mass of solute using
boiling point elevation method
Tb= Kb x m

𝑛𝑜′ 𝑠𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒

m =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
No of moles of solute =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑊2
n2 =
𝑀2

𝑛2∗1000 𝑊2𝑥1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙

and m= = ( )
𝑊1 𝑀2𝑥𝑊1 𝑘𝑔
𝑊2𝑥1000
Tb=Kbx ( )
𝑀2𝑥𝑊1

𝑊2𝑥1000𝑥𝐾𝑏
M2=
𝑊1𝑥 𝑇𝑏

where,
m=molality
W=mass
M=molecular mass
Kb=Ebullioscopic constant
W1=mass of solvent
W2= mass of solute
M1= molecular mass of solvent
M2= molecular mass of Solute
Tb=Elevation in boiling point

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 Freezing Point depression :-
1. Freezing point
The temperature at which vapour pressure of solid
and liquid are equal is called as freezing point
Solid Liquid
When a non-volatile solute is dissolved in a solvent
Let Tf0 = Freezing point of pure solvent
Tf = Freezing point of solution
Tf= Depression in freezing point

 Freezing point of >> Freezing point of solution (Tf)

pure solvent (Tf)

Tf=Tf0-Tf Tf=big value- small value

 Elevation of freezing point as a consequence of

vapour pressure lowering
1. The vapour pressure of solution is lower than that of
pure solvent, so the vapour pressure temperature
curve of solution lies below that of the solvent

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 Representation of variation of vapour pressure with

temperature

The above diagram consists of three curves

Curve AB:-Represents vapour pressure curve of solid
solvent
Curve CD:-Represents vapour pressure curve of liquid
solvent
Curve EF:-Represents vapour pressure curve of
Solution
Point B:-Solid solvent is in equilibrium with liquid
solvent
Point E:-Solid solvent is in equilibrium with solution

2. In pure solvent, the molecules are very close to each

other, but in case of solution, the molecules of
solvent are separated from each other, because of
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 solute molecules, so the attractive forces, between
the solvent are molecules are less in solution
3. Due to which, the freezing point of pure solvent is
higher than that of solution, so it is termed as
freezing point depression (decrement)

 Expression for depression in freezing point

Where
Tf α m Tf=depression in freezing point
Tf=Kfxm Kf= cryoscopic constant
m= molality

 Cryoscopic constant OR molar depression constant

The cryscopic constant is defined as the depression
in freezing point, produced by 1 molal solution
Tf= Kf When m=molality=1

 The phenomenon in which depression in freezing

point is measured is called as Cryoscopy.
 Unit of cryscopic constant (Kf):-

𝑇𝑓 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛
Kf= = = [Link]-1
𝑚 (𝑚𝑜𝑙1𝑘𝑔)

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 Determination of molecular mass of solute using
freezing point depression method
Tf= Kf x m
𝑛𝑜′ 𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑛2
m= =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔 𝑊1

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑊2
n2= no of moles of solute = =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑀2

𝑛2∗1000 𝑊2𝑥1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙

so m= = ( )
𝑊1 𝑀2𝑥𝑊1 𝑘𝑔

𝑊2𝑥1000
So Tf= Kf x ( )
𝑀2𝑥𝑊

𝐾𝑓 𝑥1000𝑥𝑊2
M2=
∆𝑇𝑓 𝑥𝑊1

W2=mass of solute
W1=mass of solvent
M2=molecular mass of solute
M1= molecular mass of solvent
Tf= freezing point depression
Kf=cryoscopic constant

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 Osmotic pressure
a. Semipermeable membrane:-
The membrane which selectively allows the solvent
molecules to pass through them and do not allow
the solute (large) molecules to pass is called as
Semipermeable membrane
b. Osmosis
The net spontaneous flow of solvent molecules
from more dilution solution (solvent side) towards
more concentrated solution (solution side) is called
as Osmosis

 Osmotic pressure
The hydrostatic pressure which stops the process of
osmosis, is called an Osmotic pressure of solution
represented by (∏).

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  Types of solution

Isotonic solution Hypertonic solution Hypotonic solution

If two or more If two more If two or more
solution has, same solution having solution having
osmotic pressure different osmotic different osmotic
then they are pressure, then the pressure, then the
called as Isotonic more concentrated less concentrated
solution solution with solution with lower
Iso = same higher osmotic osmotic pressure is
tonic = osmotic pressure is called called as Hypotonic
pressure as Hypertonic solution
solution
Hypo=less
Hyper=high
Ex. = 0.2M urea Ex. = 0.2M urea
Ex = 0.1M urea and 0.1M
and 0.1M
and 0.1M sucrose
sucrose
sucrose solution
solution
solution are
isotomic So urea has So sucrose has
solutions high lower
concentration concentration
so shows so shows
higher osmotic lower osmotic
pressure pressure

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 Relation between Osmotic pressure and
concentration of solution

∏= CRT
∏= MRT
𝑛2
∏= 𝑉
RT

where
C=M= Concentration or Molarity of solution
n2=number of moles of solute
V= volume of solution

 The osmotic pressure is measured at a constant

temperature, and Molarity depends on
temperature, so solute concentration is expressed
in terms of (M) Molarity only, in case of osmotic
pressure.

 Determination of molecular mass of solute using

osmotic pressure method
∏=CRT=MRT=𝑛2 𝑉
RT
𝑊2
n2= no. of moles = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
=
𝑀2
of solution
𝑊2 𝑅𝑇
So ∏= 𝑀2𝑥𝑉
𝑊2 𝑅𝑇
OR M2=
∏𝑥𝑉

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 Reverse Osmosis:-
 The phenomenon in which, the pure solvent flows
from solution (higher concentration) towards the
pure solvent (lower concentration) is called as
reverse osmosis.
 Reverse osmosis is possible, when a pressure larger
than the osmotic pressure is applied across the
solution.

Colligative Colligative properties of

Properties of >> Non-electrolyte
Electrolytes

1 unit of electrolyte + H20 2 or more ions

1 unit of non- electrolyte H2o 1 ion

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 So in case of electrolyte, the number of ions or
particles increase in solution, when dissolved in H2O
 As colligative properties depends on the number of
ions or particles present in solution.
 So colligative properties of electrolyte shows higher
values than for the colligative properties of non-
electrolytes.

 Van’t Hoff factor (i)

The ratio of colligative properties of electrolyte
solution to the colligative property of non-
electrolyte solution at same concentration is called
as Van’t Hoff factor (i)

( Tb) ( 𝑇𝑏) ( 𝑃) (∏) 𝑀 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

i= = = = =
( 𝑇𝑓)0 ( 𝑇𝑏)0 ( 𝑃)0 (∏)0 𝑀 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑

Expression for colligative properties of electrolyte

𝑊2 𝑀1
P = i * Pi * x2 = i ( ) P0
𝑀2 𝑊1
𝑊2𝑥1000
Tb= i *Kb * m = i * Kb * ( )
𝑀2𝑥𝑊1
𝑊2
Tf= i *MRT = i * RT * ( )
𝑀2𝑥𝑉

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 Relation between van’t Hoff factor(i) and degree of
dissociation(𝜶)

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

i=
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑖−1
α=
𝑛−1

Where α= degree of dissociation

n= sum of moles of ions obtained
after dissociation
i= van’t Hoff factor

Ex. Formic acid (HCOOH) dissociation

1. HCOOH HCOO- + H+
1mol 1mde 1 mole

So n = (1 + 1) = 2

𝑖−1 𝑖−1 𝑖−1

So α = = = = i=1
𝑛−1 2−1 1

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