Class 12 Boards 2023 for # BP ARMY

CHEMISTRY
SHORT NOTES

Made with **④#¥#

By -
Bharat Panchal Sir

OB@←⑧④⑧④*⊕ @ Telegram
B←•
BE
Unacademic
-
Bharat Panchal Sir
-
Bharat Panchal
*••••%%;¥%
B. Instagram - bharat Panchal 92
 →
Chapter wise one shot
of class 12 Chemistry
chatter wise P.Y.cl of
class 12 Chemistry
✓
INDEX -

Halo alkanes and Halo arene -

1-2
Alcohol, Phenol and Ethers -
3-5

Aldehyde, Ketones and carb Aid . - 6-9

Amines -
10-13
Bio molecule
14-18
-

To help in our

Journey , YOU
can donate
HaloAlkanes F ①
Hydrogen atom in
• B.pt Order → R I -

> R Br > R
- -
U >R -

aliphatic hydrocarbons replaced by •

m.pt of p -
isomer is more than that of
halogen '
ortho and meta due to symmetry .

R ✗ -

( ✗= f. U,BKI) ◦
The density increases with increase in

classification : → 1° R CH, - -

×
no .

of carbon atoms , halogen atoms and

atomic mass of the halogen atom .

• Haloalkanes -
→ 2
'

R2 -
CH -
✗ •

Solubility Although Halo alkanes, are polar

but they can form
Hydrogen bond
not

Rz C- ✗ hence they are

'

→ 3
-
with water molecule

✗ insoluble in water and soluble em Organic

•
Allylic Halide i solvents .

CH
,
-_ CH -
CH
,
-

✗ Finkelstein Reaction
# R I + Nai
And Halide
-

Nat
Halide Vinyl Halide R ✗ +
Benzyl
-

•
Acetone

CHEX
×
Swarts Reaction
R ✗
-
Agf Hgf , (of
, 085b¥ R - f
r ✗ go
Preparation
-
+

É Properties
r-xca-Bn.IO
+ Pets
>
R U + HU
Chemical
>
-
+ Polls
É> R a Best
R OH + so -1114 method
Elimination Reaction
-
-
-

i. NaBr,H% R Br-
+ NAHSOU + Hao

From Alkene
CH -

4th °HCtf=CH -1 KU -1110

¥-41
] ,
Mark .

R -

cH=ctgtHX ¥ R -

ce
,

R -
CH = CH + Hbo
,
Éiᵈe R -
CH
,
-
CH
,
Anti -
markonikov's
Acc .
to Saytzeff Rule
Rule
Test 8
c=c + By Brag ay Br - ( unsaturation )
In elimination reaction, preferred
alkenes is one in which double
c- atom are more alkylated
ay-ctg-kxctg-CH-ctg-ctg-cq.iq?
ce
bonded
Halogenation : .

CH P ✗ P
¥4
-

,
major CH -
CH -
CH -
CH, CH
]
-
CH -_ CH CH -

]
, , 80%
I
Preparation of Haloarenes
D8 1- ( Hz CH __CHz
CHA
- -

¥1
20%

1- CUO , 2502 AY KOH alcohol

High Polarity
→
.

µ
→
→
R ✗ -

Ale KOH → Alkene → low Polarity

dark
.
.

sa¥¥rañ ¥1 Reaction with metal

✗
Galtermann R✗→ %
R ✗ -
+
Mg PER Mg ✗- -

÷→×
" Grignard Reagent

1¥ CH] -
U -1mg #
Ether
CH, -

Grignard Reagent
Mgcl

Physical Properties Grignard reagent are highly reactive

and react with any source of
B. P ✗ Mol Mass
give Hydrocarbons
.

proton to
B. P ✗ surface Area

BP ✗
11 Branching
 ...
WURTZ REACTION Resonance in Haloarenes :
②
R ✗
-
+ 2Nd + X -
R ¥3 R R -12 Nat
-

\ Aryl Halides are less reactive towards

Nucleophilic substitution reaction because
FITTIG REACTION c- a bond acquire partial double bond

¥ne¥_
due to resonance as a result the bond
✗ + 2Nd -1×-54
cleavage in Haeoarenes is difficult than
WURTZ FITTIG REACTION . - halo alkanes
;ii :

R ✗ -
+ 2Nd -1×-61 define ,
R -47
A
,

Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction :

when an atom or

group of atom is replaced by nucleophile

:✗°
E- É+Nu• →
¥-8 +
leaving group .

Snl ( Uni molecular Nucleophilic) SNL ( Bimolecular Nucleophilic )

fH ] CH }
^

¥- 0*07--1 ↑
④ ¥
¥
Br -0
CH Bo
[ ]
-

+ -
a → Ho . . .
a
,
CH
, , ie Tt H H

CH } FH] H
④ e'
'
+

em
+ OH CH
,
-

{ ,-
µ
OH
→ HO
-µ + a-

}
_

372 > 1° I > 2730

'

Reactivity
'

Reactivity order order

Polar Photic solvent is used

.

• •
Inversion of Conti . takes blace
◦
Racemisation takes place •
Nucleophile attack from obb side .

Aq, NaOH
, R OH + KX
..
-

µ .. . .. .,
.
is ortho and
KCN
R CN + kx
Halo group on benzene ring
>
directing
-

para due to +R effect

N R NC + Agx
1T¥
-

KN "
> R -
ONO + kx
É +
✗

Halogenation
↳ "" i
Agx
Fµ ,+
✗ R NO, +
N°2
_ -

cone . HNO ]
p × -
-

,
Cone
^-y Hzsou

€¥É
Ntfl HX
.

,
R -

R -
Coorg
>
R Coor -
'
+ Agx ,
?'
+
H

KCN is predominantly ionic the attachment ,

gyu il soil
ÉÉ ""

place mainly through carbon atom

¥,>€¥µ
takes -1

and thus form cyanide ,

T¥
covalent in nature
É%,µ
is ctgcoce coals
Agent
-

×
-1

nitrogen is free to donate the e-0 Faia ,

pair forming isocyanide .

Pasa isomer is the major product
 Alcohol ,
Phenol and Ethers ③
Alcohol phenol Ether HCHO
i
)RMgX
✗ 1° alcohol
i ;) Hao / µ -1
"
R H
-

'-¥R- OH
I ◦ R - O - R '

REHO ±É 2° alcohol
Str Str Sits ii ) H2O / Ht
eoq
.
. .

" " RM "

%
TH CH TCH R CO R -
7 3° Alcohol
cast
-

Ii )
.

108-9
'
,
111.7
' ,
H2O / H -1

due to
due to double due to [" " Test ( Lucas Reagent Hq+znq )
Ip -
Lp
bond :hAʳʰᵗe✗ bulky alkyl
repulsion 1. alcohol 2. alcohol 3° alcohol
and spzhybzidised group .

R CH, OH -1144 R CH OH
-1174 R § OH -1116
Types of Alcohol
- -
- - -
-

h k
↓" " 1,2nA
lo go 3° 1,2mHz ,

¥-4 -1110
R chill -1110
R
-

R R CH U -1110 R
12¥
- -
-

R - CH OH
,
-
>CH - OH - OH
Turbidity K r
R
R
appears 0h Turbidity abbeaios Turbidity
Benzyl Alcohol vinyl Alcohol in 5min
Allyl Alcohol heating .

appears
( Hy -
CH -_ CH -
CH OH
(
H2 - ◦H
CH __ CH -
OH immediately .

,
-
.

Methods of Preparation Preparation of Phenol

+ KU
il 623K
pna
CH ] U + CH 1-
aq KOH → OH
+ NaOH
- -

# Lot
}
.

From Carbonyl Compound Phenol

É
"
É _Ñᵗ CH ]
CHA
Ha ¥1
at } H + OH
- -

-
-

É ' c%
"
CH " "
"
←¥
CH CH CH
+
Ha
- -

}
-

¥
}
-

> }
""

R -
% -
OH i R CH,
- -
OH
0 -5°C

it
H2O
cymene Process ,CH]
Acid catalysed pH
from Alkene :
CH OOH
* Hydration CH -
CH -

]
, ,
É
> C=Cµ
H
+ Hao (
Hz -41 +9 -

H
OH

Hydsobooation -
Oxidation Rxn Physical Properties
cH=CH2+(BH%→ @ Hs Ctf Ctf)jB Due to
strong hydrogen bonding b/w
•

CH -
-
-

]
molecules
of alcohol, they have higher
CH, - CH
,
- OH
-111dg # 0ᵗʰ? >
b.pt
alkane
as

having
compared
same
to molecules
of
molecular mass .

From Grignard Reagent :

•

As molecular weight increases

o PM9B✗ Ht also increases and
'd H C H + tho → surface area
H CH
]MgBr
-

+ →
H increase in
-

is Vander
-

there
-

{H ]
Waal force As a Result m.pt
HB
.

CH ] -

CHZOH + Mg , increases .
• The b.pt of phenol increases with increase HU
a a
④
↳ Hs -
U + Hao
in no .

of C- atoms .
,

HI

Nature of Phenol : reap

> ↳ Ho -11--2+110

Pds
> 1072° > 3° GHS Ut POU -1116
of acidity ☒ OH >
-

order -

electron
withdrawing group like Noa ,
-

sock
-
× -
CHO -

COOH increase acidic > GHS -

U + so
,
+ HCl
, ,

to
strength due -
I effect while
" "3
GHS NH
electron donating group like -
R , OR -
> -

, -1110
2h4
decrease acidic strength due to +I
Na
effect cans
.
-

OH -

> ↳ Hs ONA -

Na 10N a
> + H, CH] OH
, CH COO GHS
f
• ,
NaOH
, + Hao 112504
In 413k
> GHS -
O -

GHS .

y
Distillation ¥1 + 2h0

NHS " CHINO # CH COOH

>
y
Znclz
+ H2O
" 11504

{
CH2= Ctf -11120
[¥+110
P" ,

1443k
>

- Cole C"
> ( 00 y CH CHO
,
+ Ha
NaOH 573K

Br -
Bra
Br
water
y
2.4.6 Tri
-
I2+N%H CHI,
' bromo
Br
phenol ✗ idation
ÉÉBr+
on
Bon
>
¥
es
,
'
1° alcohol Aldehyde
Br
0 and b- Bromo bhenol
2° alcohol Ketone
-

cone .

HN% NO NO ,
30 Alcohol NO R✗"
cone .

Hzsoq
'
NO
, '

2,46 -
Trinitrophenol Ethers R O R
- -

Chuan -1,0
con
'ᵗʰ%
{- so,H
+ 5¥ Preparation
99 -

'S0sH
OH
HN "
Dehydration of Alcohol
◦

1¥
NO,
y +
'
Noz
21914--0111 É GHS -0 GHS -

KOLBE 'S "" "

NaOH
-1% COOH
salicylic
Reaction
242µs 6)
Ht
Acid +
Ago GHS -0-845 -

• -

Reimer Tiemann CHU]

-1k¥ Salim / debate

f
CHO
-

Rxn Ht
Williamson synthesis ( SNY

R-0.pe/-lNaXOXidationRxnNarCra0-ythS0y
'
R ✗ + Nce
- O
- -
R →

Benzo quinone •
It alkyl halide is 1° ether will form
is Je alkene will form
•
If alkyl halide
¥
?⃝
 chemical Properties ⑤ BK in CH ] COOH
>
É%o+

|
Brominating
•

Ethers are less reactive than alcohols by

is 08 tho and
◦
Alkoxy ion para PCH] OCH
}

%
""" " "

¥1
it activates the
directing benzene
+
- No
,

É
sub H Sou
ring electrophilic cone
towards .
.
,

+
OCH +
""
Is ]
PCH ]
CH
}

9%
.

CH U / anhy Alds
, He
N E: >
%

ÉI
FC alkylation "
" +
'
CH
]

R -
O -
R + HX → R OH -
+ R -
X
CH
,
-
¥-4 1am
PR Alas
,H
>
+ HX R X f- c- Acylation
→ + -

PCH] PCH ]

reactivity
f- coats
order of HI > HBR > HCl
+

Help {OCH
for ""*
,

""
" °"

h•*&⇐•¥%
¥÷a⇐•÷A¥•:¥B•A¥•BgD¥.BÉ¥D-
Poly halogen
compounds PBh ara t pa n eh a.is#GaB8@-@
Bharat Panchal -
Chemistry Guruji 2.0

→
Chatter wise one shot

• Chloroform C Trichloromethane, CHU} ) of class 12 Chemistry

< the -1342 ÉÉ Culls -1344
Controlled
oxidation
→ Iodoform ( tri iodoform ,
CHI] ] Chatter wise P.Y.cl of
CHSCOCH} +
31-2-14 NaOH → CHI
] ↓ -13 Nat + CH] Cooma
Class 12 Chemistry
+3110
on carbon Tetrachloride [ Cela ]

is CH , +44 , sunlight Cap -14116

>

%) CHU} -142 is C.CH -12114

Colab colourless inflammable poisonous liquid

help ↑ N
a ,
non -

, ,

soluble in alcohol and ether .

To OUT
☆ Uses
•
as a solvent for oils , fats resins
,
in dry extinguisher
cleaning
Journey YOU
•
•
as fire
,
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane )
'
DDT ( bb
donate
-

Kita can
a- Etu
F-
ce
a →
: '
ce
a
- &
% bis 6- chloro
-

chloral
Chlorobenzene phenyl )
1,41 -

Kichwa ethane
Aldehydes & Ketones PREPARATION OF ALDEHYDES
Inorganic compounds containing carbon - AND KETONES :

oxygen double bond (15-0) called

carbonyl group
is CnH2n0
. Their general
O
formula 1.) By oxidation of
R CH, OH
- -
REC
alcohols

i R
:

-
CHO
⑥
-
É -
µ p
-
É -
p
,
" al " " "

Cros
Aldehyde
R R -
CH -
R
'
, R -
C -
R,
Aldehyde ketone
tote 2. alcohol
% Ketone
The
carbonyl compound in which

carbonyl group is bonded to an oxygen 2. By Dehydrogenation Of Alcohols

atom of hydroxyl group c- OH ) are Cu / 573K
R CHO
É
>
known
caboxylic acid R CH,
-

as - -
OH
aldehyde
R OH alcohol
'

-
- 1

041573K R C R
'

R -
CH -
R
'
> - -

Nomenclature of Aldehyde to
ion 2. alcohol ketone

methanol CH
,
-H ethanol
3. By Ozonolysis of Alkenes :

]\°
°
µ µ CH : lil 03 CH
]
CHL > 'f=o + HCHO

% Dentinal
% CH } Iii ] 2h .
Hzo CH
}
' H
µ
ce
4. By Hydration Of Alkynes OH
2- Chloropentanal
11° CHICH
di " "2504
> c. Hi -5%
I ↑, dit .

Hgsoy
H H

3- Methyl butanol Butanol

Tautomerism Ctg
-
CHO

All other alkynes give ketones .

Nomenclature OH
of ketones di
"Hzˢ% R dig
i ,%
R -
CICH -
⇐ "
°
ditttgsoy É
CH
"
Tautomerism r -
-

(
Hy CH
] ]
,

Propanone Acetobhenone
( acetone ) ( methyl phenyl ketone ] BY Heating Ca salt
of Acid
% R°°%a A- R CO R - -
+ Caco
,

Rool
2- Penton ◦ he By Decarboxylation and Dehydration of
benzophenone
Aromatic Acids
%
i ¥
1 COOH + HCOOH
a
IF CHO -1110+0 ,

butanone
3- hexanone
3- Methyl -
2-
M£° > IF COCH -1110+10
-

COOH -11100C CH -
} ,
,

STRUCTURE OF CARBONYL GROUP

120
'
PREPARATION OF ALDEHYDE ONLY
L
1. C- spa hybridization
( 0 2 Bond is 120
. →
ROSEN MUND REDUCTION
angle
. :

3. 30 bond ,
11T bond
1Pa Ha ,
Pd /
Bask R
# µ + HU
4 .
Carbon -

Oxygen R ,

11T Acid chloride aldehyde

double bond consist 1- &

É th ' Pd /
Basjhe CHO
-
ce g-
E- 5 . Carbon -

oxygen bond
I Benzaldehyd
is polar in Nature → STEPHEN REDUCTION
G.) In carbonyl gb Ct is
elecbobhilicp-c.IN snarl HY R - CH __ NH É R CHO
-

O
-

b Nucleophilic Partial
Reduction
 ETARD REACTION : and ethers due to dipole -

dipole interactions but

their b.pt are lower than alcohols
( 0180114 ,) ,
.

CH } ↳2 CH
[¥
- ^-
+ (road , , SOLUBILITY :
chromium
comb/ ex
Lower members
of aldehyde and

H3 '
- '" ◦
ketones are soluble in water because of H Bond
-

Benzaldehyde
.

>
The solubility of aldehyde and ketones decreases
By Side Chain Chlorination of methyl benzene rabidly on increasing the length of alkyl chain .

followed All aldehyde and ketones are fairly soluble in

by Hydrolysis :

solvent
organic
⑦
.

CHU
H¥ f¥cH°
CH
Clothe
-

]
-

, CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Toluene Benzol Chloride Benzaldehyde

Polar Nature Of Carbonyl Group -7
÷÷i÷ ⇐. mmercial method to manufacture of Benzaldehyde
The polarity of carbonyl group arise due to high
GATTERMAN -

KOCH REACTION :
electronegativity of 0 atom
-
.

<" H "
>
A- CHO
I# > - 8 ← Nucleophile center
Anhy AKI, / Cull Benzaldehyde
C. Lewis Base )
electrophile center
PREPARATION OF KETONES C. lewis Acid )

From Acid Chloride

Acidity Of ✗ -

Hydrogen Atom :

2 R Mg ✗ +
Cdclz → Rzcd -12ms Ee
withdrawing effect
- -

The strong electron

2 R' of carbonyl group and resonance
§ -4
'
Rid R -1 Cda
§
+ → 2 R
-
-
-

,
stabilisation of conjugate base

areresponsible for the acidity of

2.) From Nitriles :
4- hydrogen atom .

É
ie [¥
CH CIN o
-

]
-
CH
,
-
+ ☒ Mg Br -

C -
C -
→
E- d-
c.
-
-

-
(
% -
[ = N
heh :B [
ʰ• *.→⇐¥•⇐÷•A¥• BÉgA¥%☆:D¥B ¥@&É PBhharaattpaannehha.at Ssw "
MSBr
B@BGGeBharatPancha1-cnemistryaurujia.o
NUCLEOPHILIC ADDITION REACTION
tf Ot
Cates -
C { the reactivity of aldehyde is more than that
of ketones , due to
1- Phenyl probanone
↳ steric Reason ↳ Electronic Reason

3.) Frieda Craft Acylation

The attack of nucleophile The presence of two
◦ =
c-
AHR
◦
on carbonyl carbon is alkyl group in ketones
+ As / R - E -
U ¥s
AIU
,
(d) hindered by
of large substituent
the presence
on
the electrophile city of
'

carbonyl carbon more

ketones
effectively than aldehyde
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ALDEHYDE
.

REDUCTION
AND KETONE

/
NaBH4 or
> Alcohol
Ii AIHU
•
lower member of aldehyde and ketones
upto CIO are colourless , volatile liquid Aldehyde zn -

Hg / HU
while formaldehyde is a
gas at ordinary and
_

ummm , , ,
> ICH ,

temp Higher members of both are solids

.

ketones Reduction
with fruity odour .

NH , MHz / OH
-
-

•
B.pt of carbonyl compounds are
higher than " ><%
Wolff Kishner -

those of non -
polar compounds ' hydrocarbons Reduction
 CARBOXYLIC ACID C- C- OH )
NUCLEOPHILIC ADDITION REACTION "
◦

[
"" ""
" " cyanohydrin The
-
on carboxyl group ,
consist
of a carbonyl gb
NAH 3 SO] Na Bisulbhite addition
Attached to a hydroxyl group .

y jeg OH Product
Aliphatic ( R -
COOH) or Aromatic ( COOH )
ROH ROH

Dry tea
> Ice:{ ¥4140k or Acetal Their
general formula is CnH2n0z
4th OH
⑧
-

OCH,
CHU -
OH
,
f. ( y O
'
CH,
Ketal H -
COOH CH
]
-
COOH

Methanol Acid Ethanoic Acid

Z
HN
-

M z c. formic Acid ) Acid )

>
>[ =
-
( Acetic
2 = OH, -

Nth , COOH

%•*¥÷¥É⇐• E⇐•A¥"¥•¥ÉB•8¥BgD¥B@¥÷- B3hharaattpannehha.at

# CHI -

CHI OH
Loose oxalic Acid
My
Panchal Chemistry Genii " Probanoic Aid [ Ethane -1,2 dioicacidl
µ@B@@@ Bharat
- -

POOH
OXIDATION REACTION 1- cook

KIKA / H+ ¥ #
, R -
[ OOH

[
Benzoic Acid
2- Methyl cyclopentane
"" " """ "" " " """"
" & " + "" { °
" " "" ""
"" " ""

Aldehydes}
"

Acid )
Totten's Test

2am -150h METHODS OF PREPARATION :

-

RCOO { Only
> Cy OH
-

+
Fettling 's Test Aldehydes}
From alcohol by oxidation :

"• ◦ ✗ methyl ketone

-

Halo form
> CHX]+RcoiNa+ { and ethanol CHIH, OH
-É" CH CHO
,
CH] COOH

give this test } '°)

§%H
"

REACTION DUE TO ✗ -
HYDROGEN
"ʰ° -0

CH, -

¢117 -
OH CH
]
-

CHD, -
COOH
,

OXIDATION OF ALDEHYDE AND KETONE

CH, -
CHO
¥5s ( Hy COOH
-

CH
,
-
É -
CH
,
-

Ctg
KMn04
,
[ °]
CH, COOH + CHGCOOH

Oxidation of ketones is done with

difficulty ace . to POPOFF 's RULE i. e

Metonic group remain with smaller gsoub .

FROM ALKYL BENZENE

ICOOH
f3k,> Benzoic Acid

fool"
tcH
°"
] KMNOY
, - phthalic
acid
Foote
¥¥ᵗʰ¥> Benzoic
acid
 HYDROLYSIS OF NITRILES Acidity of carboxylic Acid
¥ LRCOONA ↑
tho É H2
R CN
-
+ RCONH R COOH
-
+
,
Carboxylic Acid
R COOH RCOO Ma +110
-

C.
Hs Ctf
- -
CN 1- H2O → ( Hz -

Ctf -
COMH, _

Ctf Ctf COOH NAHH} 110-1102

-

RCOONA 1-
⑨
,
FROM GRIGNARD REAGENT
•
Carboxylic acids are stronger acids than
0=5-0 +
Ctf Mg Br -
→ 0=6-0
,
alcohols and many simple phenols but weak -

↳ MgBr -
er 1ha mineral acids .

•
Electron withdrawing group stabilise
the carboxylate anion and strengthen
the acid
CHSCOOH -1 My -8,4
,

whereas eo
donating group
destabilise the
carboxylate anion and
FROM ACYL HALIDE
weakens the acid .

R Coq
-
RCOOH + HCl → Rxn
involving cleavage of C- OH bond

↳ Formation
CH COO
,
Ctg COOH + HU
of anhydride ◦
'

FROM ACID DERIVATIVE

LR -
COOH
H? A
, R -
d- -
p
08%05 A

↳
R -
coz É R - COOH Esterification :

Ordifaqoty '
R -
COOH + R' OH RCOOR -1110
Ease of Hydrolysis ↳ Rx with and 5042 :
Pug Pug ,

RCOU > @ coho > RCOOH > RCONH,

P , RCOU + Poll + HU
,
R COOH PU }
H3P0]
-

>
3 Roll +
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES sock
> race + so, + tea
•
Aliphatic carboxylic acids upto nine carbon
↳ Rxn with ammonia
atoms are colourless liquid at room tents

with unpleasant odour .

The higher acids are RCOOH + NH
]
→ RCOO
-

Miki ¥5 RCONH
,

like Solids
wax .
Rxn involving -
COOH group
-
Reduction lil LIAIHY /ether
Rajoy
•
Due to presence of intermolecular forces the lowest Rcoo ,, orBates
,
Lii )
Hyo -1
carboxyl acids are freely miscible with water
But the solubility in water decreases
•
Decarboxylation
Rcoo Nat R H+ Naacos
-

gradually due to increase in size of alky/ gfs

-

↳ 11.11.2 Rxn ( Hell V01 hard Zelinsky Rxh )

stronger intermolecular forces increases ✗

• "
Cte, -
Coote CX] -
Coote
in
the Hao
b.pt of Mono carboxylic acids as
compared to the alcohols
of comparable
↳
Electrophilic ring substitution
molecular masses .

carboxyl group acts as a

deactivating
- -
-
H -
◦
and meta directing group °"
Brr
to '
c- R OH /repro
R -
c.
- " A IB r
O H youu
O I
- -
- - _

Cone .HN? ]
A
Hydrogen Bonding in carboxylic Acid cone .

thou
F- N°2

R
pg ↑ They do not undergo Frieda craft reaction because
-
n -10 . . .
n - o . _ . H - O - - -

carboxyl group is
deactivating group and

in Alcohol / catalyst Alas gets bonded to carboxyl group

Hydrogen Bonding
.
 AMINES
Amines are considered amino as
Preparation of Amines :
-

of hydrocarbons or alkyl derivatives Am Reduction Of Alkyl Nitrile ⑧

of ammonia " ^' " "
> R CHZNIH
Aliphatic amino compounds
-

,
are called amino alkanes and arom .
R CIN
-

-
atic amines are called amino Na
arches c.
g CH]NH , , czHsNHz ,
NH
, Ethanol
>
RCHaNH2
Rxn is used for ascent of amine

R NH , -
Primary Amines Csi ) Em Reduction of Nitro alkaline :

Raney Ni
R AH R
-
-
secondary amines (27 1-- N°2
>
A- NH2
Fe / Hee

¥
,

R - N R -

Tertiary Amines ( 3°
"
4Pt >
Sn
'
/ He ' >
r
Reduction with Fe
/ HCl is preferred
STRUCTURE OF AMINES : Eu Reduction of Amides :

R -
É
-
NH
" AIH "
> RCH,NH
, -1110
,

µ Pyramidal
shape of Amine
Reduction of amides give amine
/ 1-H
R µ
with same number of carbons .

☒ Hofmann Ammonolysis Method :

NOMENCLATURE
NH} RX
RX > RÑH > Rjnitt
393K ,
CH, CHECHEN H2 Protean -
1- amine
( 1- )
(2.)
RX
CH CH CH }
Ragini ( Ran -1)
-

]
-

Protean ×
-

\
2- amine ,
AH,
-

(3)
CH
}
-
CH, - N
,
-

CyHq N, N -

Diethyl
cuts batan - 1- amine order of reactivity → RI > RBr > RU

2- en 1- amine V1 amine is obtained

'

CH
,
= CH -
CH
,
-
AH
,
Prob - - as major
" ,NH↳ product when excess of NH
]
is taken

Aniline b- Bromo
% 1A HOFMAN BROMAMIDE DEGRADATION :
£ aniline
it] RCONH + BK -14 NaOH → RNH -12 Nabs
"
% , ,

N N
,
- Dimethyl +
Nails
benzenamine +2110
↳ Amines
formed contains one

carbon less than that present in

NH, -

¢117 ,
- NH
,
the amide
diamine
.

Hexane -1,6 -
?⃝
 \

GABRIEL PHTHALIMIDESYN .
•

Alkyl amines are stronger bases than NHS

°
o ◦
Basic nature of aliphatic amines increases
with increase in the number of alkyl
me nik ¥
-

i. e
groups +I effect of alkyl group
"
increases
①
o
" their basicity .

◦
° °

i-nrn-%aa.IE/-iona-/-ggoNa+RNH2
order of basicity in gaseous phase
•
. . .

amine > 1° amine > NH}

'
3° amine > 2

In
aqueous phase ,
solvation effect and
↳ Only 1° amines can be synthesized steric hindrance ,
besides inductive

by this method effect of alkyl grouts dead the basic

↳ Aromatic 1° amines can not be strength of alkyl amines .

prepared by this method as aryl ↳ when alkyl group is ethyl group

C2Hs-kNH7@Hs-3N7GHs-NH27NHssub.Rx
halide do not undergo nucleophilic
n with potassium phthalimide
↳ when alkyl group is methyl grouts
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES :
KHANH > CH> Nth > ¢11bn > NH}

PHYSICAL STATE An BASIC NATURE Of aniline or

any /
The lower aliphatic amine would be less than that

amines are gases with fishy odour 1° ,

Of ammonia .

amines with three or more carbon ↳ less basicity of aniline as compared to

atoms are liquid and ones

higher MHz is attributed to -
I effect of
are solid . benzene
ring and de localisation of
lone pair of N .

COLOUR Pure amines are colourless Note ERG like -

OCH
, Ctg increase
but develop colour on
keeping whereas
}

in air for
basic strength
long time like NO, SO> H decrease
E. 1^1.4 ,

SOLUBILITY amines basic strength

readily
.

Lower are
soluble in water ,
which
decreases in water and increases in CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF AMINES
organic solvents with an increase in
molecular weight . FOR ALIPHATIC AMINES

BOILING POINT :
ALKYLATION
1° amines are
and 2°
in intermolecular association R ✗ R' R NHR
'
RX
engaged
-
+
NH2=f× -
+
127
while
due to
Hydrogen bonding ,
C)
RNR
'
+ R X
-
→ R N'
-

R' ✗
3° amines do not have inter moi -
,

-
ecular association ( due to absence (3) Quaternary
ammonium salt
of H -
atoms
order of B. Pt of isomeric amines • It yields a mixture of 152° and 3°
1° > 2
.
> 3
'
amines and also quaternary ammonium
salt .

BASIC CHARACTER OF AMINES : ◦

major product is obtained when

larger the value

of Kb or smaller the a mine is taken in excess .

Value of pkb stronger

,
is the base
 NH.ci?-ctgR1Ar-ini-HcHsc0dYR1Ar
ACYLATION -

MHz 4*3%0
> #
ni Aniline Pyridine Acetanilide
§ Ctg
-
- -

h CH} COLO he
BROMINATION
②
Base

The reaction
base stronger than (
is presence of
carried out in + 3Br, BÉ :B
! 3HBr

e.g pyridine ]
a '
Br
which removes HCl so formed and
↳ To mono substituted derivative
shifts equilibrium to
right side .
get
BENZOYL AT/ ON
""
Bra
,NHÉcH }
son
> ;
R NH, -1 Coo R NHCO -5£ + HCl CHSCOOH
§
- -
- -
'
,
Br
CARBYLAMINE REACTION :

R CHU -13 KOH

^-
R NG -13kV NITRATION
NHL >
-

""É%{¥ᵗʰ+¥,y+Éⁿ
-

, 1-
3h20
"
secondary and tertiary amines do not 988k
N°2 (& %)
show this reaction . (47%3
(g- , , ,
It is used as a test for 1° AMINES
To get mono substituted para derivative
,NHC0CH]
[ᵗʰ
" " " '" 3
REACTION WITH NITROUS ACID : HNO, ,
those
'
R NH
-

,
+ HOMO → R OH +
-

Ha ↑ -1 HU NO
,
NO ,

REACTION WITH ARYL SULPHONYL

SUL PHONATION :
CHLORIDE HINS BERG
-50,4
REAGENT '
" £9
,
Mason
, ¥-473k
RNH -1%-7-50,6 Ig SO NH R

⑦
- -

, ,
soluble in alkali ↑"ʰ
2°

B. NH -1
SGU -7, 4-7-502^1 R2 ↳H to]⊖
-

3. twitter Ion
R N -1
-596 No Reaction
is
→
,
p -
amino benzene sulphuric acid
Reaction is used to distinguish b/w the major product because distance

of amines and 3° amines

soztl is
'
three classes 132 . btw -
NH, and maximum .

↳ sulbhanilic acid exist in

AROMATIC AMINES 2. WITTER 10N FORM .

NH , grouts is ortho and para directing

-

and powerful activating group .

for Help

Activating effect of NH, group in aniline YOU can donate

-
-

can be controlled by protecting the

with
NH, group by acetylation
-

acetic anhydride and then carrying

Out the desired substitution Rxu ALDEHYDE , KETONE AND
CARBOXYLIC ACID
-
7
?⃝
 DIAZONIUM SALT -

as Rnlztx
-

where
Diazonium salts are written MOST EXPECTED TOPICS
aryl group
1
R =

ion can be a-, Br Hsoa and Bfi

-

✗
-

Nat group is called diazonium salt

Mia
-
"" a- Halo alkanes and Haloarenes
e.g
, diazonium
↳ benzene diazonium ↳ benzene -

NOMENCLATURE
chloride hydrogen sulphate
_
SN & SN
- '

STABILITY OF DIAZONIUM SALT

Arenediazonium salts
p elimination & Saytzeff Rule
-
-

are stable than the alkyl diazonium salts

more .
This can
be accounted on the basis
of 1- R effect MR & A.M R
-

Name RXY
-

Alcohol, Phenol and Ethers

Hydration of Alkene
[
↳ Mechanism to alkene
Dehydration of alcohol
-

ether
Preparation ( Diazotization Rxu ) -
Dehydration of alcohol to

Mame Ran >

q=N
-
u
Kolbe 's Rxn, Reimer Tiemann RM

Fjʰ_
,

Nano -12ha I + Nall -121120 Acidic Property Oxidation

, , Property Williamson
Synthesis
Diazonium salts are prepared and used only in Aldehyde, Ketones
solution because in solid state
Acid
aqueous
carboxylic
an
then explode and
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
diazonium chloride is a Aldol, Cross Aldol HV2R✗9
Benzene
→ Cannizzaro /
crystalline
,
colourless solid and is readily soluble Acid
in water It is stable in cold water but reacts Acidic character of carboxylic
.

→
with water when warmed It also decomposes easily Red ?
IIDA Krishna
.

in the dry state .

Reduction -
Stephens Red }
•
Benzene diazonium fluoro borate is water insoluble Red 9 Rosen Mund Red
Clemmensen
and stable at room temperature

AM /MES
.

CHEMICAL REACTION -

cut
,HsP0alᵗʰ + N< ↑ + Hypos + HU .

Amines
¥4 of

÷:*
.
→
cuBrM%
¥, + Ma
Hoffmann Bromamide Degradation
] sandmaeer ,

¥
→
CUUIHU Reaction
+µ,
CARBYLAMINE Ron
.

, ,

'
¥ Nz Galtexmann
salt
Diazonium
a- +
,
""
→
Properties of
*
.

MOLECULES
"" '" in
% ""

12.10
cnn.oniin.ie
KI
i
KU-HB.fi
+ N , -1

ÉÉ ↑2CBfa )
-

> ,
-
the Baiz Schliemann .

Ren → Chemical properties of Glucose,

Hi/ He &
> HU Denaturation of protein,
,

AZODYE TEST + N2 -1
Boiling
fibrous proteins and Globular PNHᵈM
'

FINN +
t-F-7-OH-sI-N.fi -
on
→

b- hydroxy azobenzene
orange] →

DNA and RMA

☒ -
Nill -1 H -

☒-NHz→ FINE -

Nts
b- amino benzene
?⃝
 Configuration of d- amino acids
•

Biomolecules
④
Coon
coat

Introduction
H&M H NHL
:
H
Biomolecules are the organic compound
which form the basis of life i. e
they build up
CD amino acid )
R ( L -
amino acid ) R
living system and
-

the responsible for their growth this ) CNH on AHS )

and main fence CNHa on
,

that relates bio molecule to living organism is

amino acids
✗ amino acids
occurringoccur
The sequence 1-
→ Naturally - are
Biomolecules ells cells living amino acids in antibiotics and
→
organ → → Tissues →
organs → D- some
organism bacterial cell walls .

living
→
systems are made up of various complex
biomolecules like carbohydrate ,
proteins nucleic acids,
,
Zwi Her ion : when a proton is migrated from carboxyl
" bids dt amino group ,
to dual ion is formed
Proteins and carbohydrates are essential group a

constituents our food and this dual ion is called twitter ion
of
.

→ In addition , some simple molecules

like vitamins and mineral salts also play an
important role in the
function of organism .

"

Amino Acids & Proteins at

The compounds containing amino group c- NHN and

carboxylic group c- Coons are called amino acids _

Isoelectric Point ( PI )
R=H ,
Zwi Her ion which is
where ,

aebye or
electrically neutral only
can specific exist at a

aryl group pH , that pH is called isoelectric point

which is different for all amino acids .

leucine pH
e.g pI of
-6.0
-

↑
→ except glycine ( na g cook) , others optically
pI of Arginine
are
-
-

to -8
active in
" pH = .

nature .

* Classification of amino acids

Structure of amino acids :

a. pry - amino acids depending upon the position of on

-

NH, with respect to COOH group R RIH COO

-

CH
- -
. -
-

Him du higher pH )
Neutral having one NH and one COOH group 2

-1
as anion
→
(
-
-
.
,
,
Coo
-

-
-

EG NH F- COOH ( glycine ) R
,
ion
-

twitter
te
( isoelectric point )
+
HN -
de -
COOH
Acidic
having NH, and
pH )
,
one two COOH
grouts cation c low
-

→
-

,
as
.

-4%?
"
GHOOC CH Coote ( Aspartic Acid
)
Peptide peptides condensation products of
-

•
,
are

two or more ✗ amino acids -

Basic having and

.

NH

ni %
two or more one COOH
group
- -

→
dit cooni-qn.ci?coot-y-.yni-ci!
, , .

4ᵗʰ Han
-
coon
% ftp.k-q-COOHCLYsfne )
- -

HAN
.
. . . . . . . . . . . .
-

dipeptide
%
he
.

Essential and Non Essential Amino Acids : -

-
NH - is known as peptide linkage or peptide bond .

*
-

Those amino acids which can be synthesized by → 2 molecules of 4- amino acid form dipeptide .

essential amino acids

our body are known as non -

3 Molecules of ✗ amino acid

-

form bipebtide .

while which can't be synthesized

by our body so must be supplied through our → Dipeptide has only peptide bond
one .

amino acids
diet are called essential .
Tri peptide has only two peptide bond .

Polypeptide :
condensation products of many amino acid
C- 10000 ) is known as polypeptide and those
polypeptide which have molecular mass above

than 10000 u are called booteins .

•
Proteins they are linear polymers of ✗ -
amino
acid .
 Str .

of Proteins : in this 1° Str

Any change .

i. e the sequence
of acid creates different bootein
④
amino
1) Primary Structure :
It simply reveals the sequence
a

of amino acids .

2.) Secondary structure :

✗ -
helix Sir maintained
.

by H Bond
-

or p -

pleated sheet Str .

when R is small
00ᵗʰ
secondary structure of Proteins :
3.) Tertiary structure : The secondary stg
superimposition
.

The folding and

of proteins refers to the shake in which a
long
of polypeptide chains shake
forms a compact globular .

polypeptide chain can exist .

termed as tertiary Sir .

They are found to exist in two different

It is stabilised by covalent, ionic , H Bond -

and disulphide bonds .

types of Str .

4.) Quaternary Structure : The precise arrangement of ✗ -

helix stir .

B- bleated sheet str .

constituents Most common ways In this Slr .

all peptide
.

in which a boybe chains are stretched

the Basis Hide chain form
Classification on of Hydrolysis out to
•

nearly
-

all possible H Bond -

maximum extension
simple Protein into and then laid side
by twisting
:

which
give only ✗ amino acid ubon held
by side
-

are
sight handed
hydrolysis
a

e.
g albumin screw ( helix)
together by intermolecular
conjugated Protein
✗ amino acid and
: H
These proteins give - with the NH -
-

group
-

Bond .

non protein part called prosthetic of each amino acid residue

, group
Tertiary Str Proteins
of :
.

Protein Prosthetic Group the tertiary sto of proteins .

represents folding of boy bebtide chains i. e

overall

further folding of the secondary structure

It gives rise to 2 major molecular

shapes i. e fibrous and Globular

The main forces which stabilize
the 2° and 3° Sto .

of proteins are H -
Bonds ,

Derived Proteins disulbhide linkage . Van - der Waal and electrostatic

These obtained by partial hydrolysis forces attraction
are
of .

of simple or conjugated Proteins .

Polypeptides ]
[ Proteins
of Proteins
Proteose Pebtones Str
Quaternary
→ → → .

On the Basis of Molecular shape some

of the proteins are

composed of two or more

1
polypeptide chains referred
fibrous Protein Globular Protein to as sub -
units

The spatial arrange -

merit
of these subunits
-

with respect to each

other is known as
quaternary structure

Denaturation of Proteins
The Process that changes the
native proteins is
3- D Sto .

of
called denaturation of proteins .

It can be caused
by change in pH , change in Hub .

addition of electrolyte addition

,
solvent like water
of ,
alcohol , acetone .

Primary shot Proteins : Nucleic Acids : These are the polymers which are
proteins may have one or
prepared by Nucleotide also known as holy nucleotide
more bolybebtide chains
→ each polypeptide in a Protein has amino acids a nucleotide contain .
. . .

linked with each other in a

specific sequence and *] Pentose sugar *) Nitrogenous *) Phosbhate
it is this
sequence of amino acids that is said Base 920M .

to be Slr that protein

the si of Pentose Sugar :
either ribose
. . .

5 carbon sugar or

ribose
for Help deoxy
you can donate ( not contain

oxygen at →

2nd position )
 Nitrogenous Base Vitamins
, The organic compounds other than carbohydrates
Pyrimidine
,
purine proteins
and fats which are required in the diet in

→ Adenine →
Thymine small amount to perform specific biological functions,
→ Guanine
→
Uracil maintain normal health , growth
and nutiritition are
→
Cytosine called vitamins
Two H Bonds -
presentare between A&T CA =D Classification on the basis of
solubility 16
while three hydrogen bonds are present between
C & a C E- G) Fat Soluble Vitamins
Vitamins A , D, E , K are soluble In fat
and oils but insoluble in water .
They are stored in
liver and adipose ( fat
storing ) tissues .

Water Soluble Vitamins

group vitamins
-

B and C are
soluble in water . water soluble vitamins must be
supplied regularly in diet because they are readily
excreted in urine and can not be stored in
our body (except vitamin B12 )
Bun vitamin K is responsible for coagulation of blood .

Structure of D. N.tt
consist
It of chain
two
poly nucleotide
chains , each form a
right handed helical spiral
with His bases in one turn of
the spiral
The two chains coil
to double helix and run in
opposite direction These . are

held together by H -

bonding .

Types of RNA
1.) Mess anger RNA Cm RNA ) -

is produced in the
It
nucleus and carries information for the synthesis
of protein .

2.) Transfer RNA

is found in cytoplasm
It .
Its function
is to collect amino acids from cytoplasm for ENZYMES
protein Synthesis .

Enzymes are biocatalyst ,

almost all the enzymes

3.) Ribosomal RMA ( TRNA )

are
globular proteins They are generally named after the
.

provide site for compound class of compound upon which

This or
they work
protein synthesis
e.
g the enzyme that catalyse hydrolysis of maltose
into
glucose is named as Maltese
•

Functions Of Nucleic Acid 42112201 , +11,0 É 2614206

Maltose Glucose
Direct the synthesis of protein
•

some common Example

◦
Transfer the genetic informations .

Substrate Name Product

→
Reb"caᵗiI :-[ in which Urea Urease CO2 -1MHz
+ is a process a molecule can

duplicate .
Maltose Maltase Glucose
→
Templates It means pattern ,
in the process of replication Sucrose Invertase Glucose + fructose

of DNA , the parent strand serves as template .

Starch Amylase Maltose
Proteins Amino Acids
Gene The Portion of DNA carrying information about Trypsin
specific protein is
a called gene . Mechanism Of Enzyme Action -

Genetic code : The relation between the amino acid

and the the nucleotide triplet is called
genetic code .

Codons The nucleotide bases in RNA function

amino
in
group of three Clriblet ) in coding
acid
called codons
.

These bases triplets are .

Characteristic feature of Enzyme :

%EBʰ•k0¥%¥¥%¥÷%tBka•ᵗ
¥B•Da%•BwÉ;B÷%É.÷¥ʰ;•⑧¥•Ba@¥•÷•o ☒
• • *•
" $"" •
Rate of Reaction :
They increase the rate of reaction
GaB@0GBharatPancha1-ChemistryGuruji2.o upto 106 to 107 times .
•
specific Nature -

urease catalyse the hydrolysis of area

St"
% 4141° "
t
and not methyl urea , so these are specific in nature .

•
Optimum Temperature -

It is active at 20 -30%
•

pH of medium -

it is about 7
,
for bebsin 18-2-21
for trypsin 7.5-8.3
•
Concentration -
Dilute solutions are more effective
•
Amount of enzyme -

Very small amount can accelerate

the reaction
is known carbon
}
anomeric
{
as
•

Enzyme Inhibitors -
These compound inhibit the enzyme Str of fructose : The G
compounds called
.

and these are an omen

action , with the help such
of
compounds , the reaction can be controlled .

HARMONIES
These are the chemical substance which are
produced by endocrine C.ductless ) in the
glands body .

Harmonies acts as chemical messengers .

Some examples of ductless (endocrine ] glands are

thyroid , pitutary , adrenal, pancreas , testes and ovaries .

Hormones are divided into three types :

is steroids &; proteins Ciii, Amines six membered cyclic
ring
fire membered cyclic ring
ce.

Reducing Sugar Non Reducing Sugar

free 'C Do not have any free
Aldehyde or
•
•

aldehyde or ketone group

ke tonic group
.

Do not reduce towns

fencing Solh
-

Reduce
Reagent and f- ehling Solh
or Totten 's Reagent

carbohydrates These active bowl hydro

.

e.
g
Maltose & Fructose e.
g sucrose
are
optically -

✗y aldehydes / Ketones or the substance which

Chemical Properties of Glucose
these hydrolysis are called carbohydrates
give on .

CHO
General formula ↳ (Hao
)y 7
4110
• ◦

( CHOHI,
Acetic ( {H O
-
E CH )
Classification
-

the basis Hydrolysis

-

on
of 1 Anhydride
>
I °
]
,

Monosaccharides Glucose CH -0 É CH]

can not be hydrolysed further eg CHIH
• - . - -

fructose ,
•

Oligosaccharides give 2- Lo molecules Glucose Penta acetate

of monosaccharides
_

eJ Glucose ,
fructose CHO COOH
Polysaccharides monosaccharides '

(ÉHOHL
•

give large of )
-
•

no
( CHOH )q [ 0]
.

cellulose
+ 614 conic
e.
g starch .

1
ᵗʰ° acid
,
'

CHIH azote
•
Preparation of Glucose :

f°Mˢ""°21122011+110
CHO ( OOH
¥ 6111206
,
+ ( 6111206 •
) ( { Hotel,
"
N°37 ( ÉHOHL saccharic
acid
914 fructose 1
from starch
se
↳ OH
ago ,, " -
OH
↳ HILO 6 glucose
( ↳ Hioos )n+nHaO
¥
n

{ GHO
"°
structure
aldehyde 900Mt
.
)
µ, GH] •
)
"A- ° "
← one ( CHOH )q (( HOH )
CHO ( CHOHI, > ( CHA ) >
I , 1
,
1
Alcohol
( quote )& ← four 2° IH { Hao
CHyoH ]
CHyOH
alcohol n Hexane alycoxine
1°
-

← one
CH OH
,
"◦
SH
Glyceraldehyde ) cnn.CN
'

D- Glyceraldehyde 1- .
CHO
1 HCN
Glucose
CHO ,
CHO ( CHOH )& 7 ( CHOHI, cyanohydrin
111-011 µ@ -1 µ I
1

CH OH
CHIH CHIH
, CHIH
Mutarotation when either the two forms
D OH in R.MS L means OH in 1- His of of glucose
means is dissolved in water there is . a spontaneous
change in specific rotation till the
equilibrium
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value of +52.5° .
This is known as mutarotation .

Chemistry Guruji 2.0

•aGG@@ Bharat Panchal
-
?⃝
✗ -
DC -11 Glucose Equilibrium B- Da Glucose The two monosaccharides are joined together by an
Mixture
+ 111.50 +19.5° oxide linkage formed by loss
of a water molecule
This is is called
actually an ether
group and

Importance of carbohydrate glycosidic linkage

④
.
•

carbohydrates are essential for life in both blank and

&
•

•
They are major portion of our food .
animals -

& 0 -

& -
→ -

& -0 - -

+11,0
•

carbohydrates are used as storage molecule as starch

SUCROSE
in plants and in animals
glycogen .

cell wall
of bacteria and blunts is made up of cellulose
•

x-p Glucose
_

Honey has been used for a

long time as an instant +
source of energy . P D
- -

Glucose
Ebimers monosaccharides in configuration
◦

differing at

a carbon other than anomeric carbon are called ebimers

eg glucose and galactose differ in configuration at 14 ,
hence called epimers MALTOSE
.

B- D- Galactose
+

B- D Glucose

Non
sugars and -

Sugars LACTOSE
monosaccharides and oligosaccharides having sweet
•

taste , soluble in water are known as

sugars
water and B- D- Galactose
•

Polysaccharides which are insoluble in not

+
sweet in taste are known as non -

sugars B- D- Glucose

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Panchal Chemistry Guruji 2.0
GBAGBO Bharat
-

INVERSION OF SUCROSE -

DISACCHARIDES AND POLYSACCHARIDES

Sucrose on dextro -

rotatory
hydrolysis either
-

but on with dilute acid or with

CARBOHYDRATES Hydrolysis Linkage Reducing enzyme invertase the solution is changed into
Probert
,
Product
laevo -

rotatory solution .

sucrose x-D Glucose & C- I @ Hose)& Mon -

As dextro rotatory sucrose is changed

Cpisaccharide ) B D fructose
-
C- 2 (fructose ) Reducing to laevis rotatory solution after hydrolysis
Maltose is called invert sugar
Reducing
"
✗ D- Glucose C- 1 Glucose & The sucrose
a

Cpi saccharide)
-

C- 4 Glucose
lactose
( Disaccharide)
B- D-
& B- D- Glucose
Galactose c- 1 ( Galactose) &
c- 4 ( Glucose ]
Reducing 921122011 1- H2O → Co Hiroto + ↳ H' 206
Dt) Glucose
-
DG ) fructose
-

+66.5°
cellulose C- 1 ( Glucose] & Non +52.5° -92.4°
B- D- Glucose
Polysaccharide)
-

C. c- 4 cameos e) Reducing since the laevo rotation of fructose C- 92.4° ) %

Glycogen ✗ D- Glume c-I cameos &
Non more than dextrorotation of glucose C -152.5° ) , the
-

(polysaccharide)
-

c-4 ccelulose] Reducing is laevis

mixture rotatory .

MUTA ROTATION
When
glucose
is dissolved in water Polysaccharides
its specific
.

then rotation changes into an equilibrium units and it consist

is
value This spontaneous change in specific rotation of
starch it a
polymer of ✗ -

glucose
Amylopectin
.

two components and

an
optically active substance to an equilibrium value -

Amylose
is called mutarotation
Amylose Amylopectin
The two
anomersq glucose i. e x-D glucose &

p D Glucose in specific
-
solution changes their rotation
to an equilibrium value which is the rotation of a

chain str
straight .

X-D Glucose 7-
Obenchain B- D- Glucose
Csp .
rotation Str .
Csbeaefic
= -1110 )
.
C. Sp rotation
. rotation

-152.5° ) -119.2 ]
.
= =

DISACCHARIDES
Disaccharides are the carbohydrates
which on hydrolysis with dilute acids or with
enzyme give two molecules of either same or

different monosaccharides