CHEAT NOTES

HALF YEARLY EXAMS

CHEMISTRY
Telegram BBdBBr Bharat Panchal Sir
•B*⑤B⊕H*É CHEMISTRY GURUJI 2-0
with love for # BPARMY

in only 12 Pages
 Me
Chatter wise one shot
of class 12 Chemistry
chatter wise P.Y.cl of
class 12 Chemistry
✓
INDEX -

Halo alkanes and Haloarene -

I -3
Alcohol, Phenol and Ethers - 3-5

Solution -
5-9
Electrochemistry -
9-12
Chemical kinetics -
12-15

d- and f- Block elements -

15-19
Co-ordination compounds _
20-23

Amines _
23-26

Aldehyde, Ketones and carb Acid . -

26-30
Biomolecules -
31-35

To help in our

Journey , YOU
can donate
HaloAlkanes F ①
Hydrogen atom in
• B.pt Order → R I -

> R Br > R
- -
U >R -

aliphatic hydrocarbons replaced by •

m.pt of p -
isomer is more than that of
halogen '
ortho and meta due to symmetry .

R ✗ -

( ✗= f. U,BKI) ◦
The density increases with increase in

classification : → 1° R CH, - -

×
no .

of carbon atoms , halogen atoms and

atomic mass of the halogen atom .

• Haloalkanes -
→ 2
'

R2 -
CH -
✗ •

Solubility Although Halo alkanes, are polar

but they can form
Hydrogen bond
not

Rz C- ✗ hence they are

'

→ 3
-
with water molecule

✗ insoluble in water and soluble em Organic

•
Allylic Halide i solvents .

CH
,
-_ CH -
CH
,
-

✗ Finkelstein Reaction
# R I + Nai
And Halide
-

Nat
Halide Vinyl Halide R ✗ +
Benzyl
-

•
Acetone

CHEX
×
Swarts Reaction
R ✗
-
Agf Hgf , (of
, 085b¥ R - f
r ✗ go
Preparation
-
+

É Properties
r-xca-Bn.IO
+ Pets
>
R U + HU
Chemical
>
-
+ Polls
É> R a Best
R OH + so -1114 method
Elimination Reaction
-
-
-

i. NaBr,H% R Br-
+ NAHSOU + Hao

From Alkene
CH -

4th °HCtf=CH -1 KU -1110

¥-41
] ,
Mark .

R -

cH=ctgtHX ¥ R -

ce
,

R -
CH = CH + Hbo
,
Éiᵈe R -
CH
,
-
CH
,
Anti -
markonikov's
Acc .
to Saytzeff Rule
Rule
Test 8
c=c + By Brag ay Br - ( unsaturation )
In elimination reaction, preferred
alkenes is one in which double
c- atom are more alkylated
ay-ctg-kxctg-CH-ctg-ctg-cq.iq?
ce
bonded
Halogenation : .

CH P ✗ P
¥4
-

,
major CH -
CH -
CH -
CH, CH
]
-
CH -_ CH CH -

]
, , 80%
I
Preparation of Haloarenes
D8 1- ( Hz CH __CHz
CHA
- -

¥1
20%

1- CUO , 2502 AY KOH alcohol

High Polarity
→
.

µ
→
→
R ✗ -

Ale KOH → Alkene → low Polarity

dark
.
.

sa¥¥rañ ¥1 Reaction with metal

✗
Galtermann R✗→ %
R ✗ -
+
Mg PER Mg ✗- -

÷→×
" Grignard Reagent

1¥ CH] -
U -1mg #
Ether
CH, -

Grignard Reagent
Mgcl

Physical Properties Grignard reagent are highly reactive

and react with any source of
B. P ✗ Mol Mass
give Hydrocarbons
.

proton to
B. P ✗ surface Area

BP ✗
11 Branching
 ...
WURTZ REACTION Resonance in Haloarenes :
②
R ✗
-
+ 2Nd + X -
R ¥3 R R -12 Nat
-

\ Aryl Halides are less reactive towards

Nucleophilic substitution reaction because
FITTIG REACTION c- a bond acquire partial double bond

¥ne¥_
due to resonance as a result the bond
✗ + 2Nd -1×-54
cleavage in Haeoarenes is difficult than
WURTZ FITTIG REACTION . - halo alkanes
;ii :

R ✗ -
+ 2Nd -1×-61 define ,
R -47
A
,

Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction :

when an atom or

group of atom is replaced by nucleophile

:✗°
E- É+Nu• →
¥-8 +
leaving group .

Snl ( Uni molecular Nucleophilic) SNL ( Bimolecular Nucleophilic )

fH ] CH }
^

¥- 0*07--1 ↑
④ ¥
¥
Br -0
CH Bo
[ ]
-

+ -
a → Ho . . .
a
,
CH
, , ie Tt H H

CH } FH] H
④ e'
'
+

em
+ OH CH
,
-

{ ,-
µ
OH
→ HO
-µ + a-

}
_

372 > 1° I > 2730

'

Reactivity
'

Reactivity order order

Polar Photic solvent is used

.

• •
Inversion of Conti . takes blace
◦
Racemisation takes place •
Nucleophile attack from obb side .

Aq, NaOH
, R OH + KX
..
-

µ .. . .. .,
.
is ortho and
KCN
R CN + kx
Halo group on benzene ring
>
directing
-

para due to +R effect

N R NC + Agx
1T¥
-

KN "
> R -
ONO + kx
É +
✗

Halogenation
↳ "" i
Agx
Fµ ,+
✗ R NO, +
N°2
_ -

cone . HNO ]
p × -
-

,
Cone
^-y Hzsou

€¥É
Ntfl HX
.

,
R -

R -
Coorg
>
R Coor -
'
+ Agx ,
?'
+
H

KCN is predominantly ionic the attachment ,

gyu il soil
ÉÉ ""

place mainly through carbon atom

¥,>€¥µ
takes -1

and thus form cyanide ,

T¥
covalent in nature
É%,µ
is ctgcoce coals
Agent
-

×
-1

nitrogen is free to donate the e-0 Faia ,

pair forming isocyanide .

Pasa isomer is the major product
 Alcohol ,
Phenol and Ethers ③
Alcohol phenol Ether HCHO
i
)RMgX
✗ 1° alcohol
i ;) Hao / µ -1
"
R H
-

'-¥R- OH
I ◦ R - O - R '

REHO ±É 2° alcohol
Str Str Sits ii ) H2O / Ht
eoq
.
. .

" " RM "

%
TH CH TCH R CO R -
7 3° Alcohol
cast
-

Ii )
.

108-9
'
,
111.7
' ,
H2O / H -1

due to
due to double due to [" " Test ( Lucas Reagent Hq+znq )
Ip -
Lp
bond :hAʳʰᵗe✗ bulky alkyl
repulsion 1. alcohol 2. alcohol 3° alcohol
and spzhybzidised group .

R CH, OH -1144 R CH OH
-1174 R § OH -1116
Types of Alcohol
- -
- - -
-

h k
↓" " 1,2nA
lo go 3° 1,2mHz ,

¥-4 -1110
R chill -1110
R
-

R R CH U -1110 R
12¥
- -
-

R - CH OH
,
-
>CH - OH - OH
Turbidity K r
R
R
appears 0h Turbidity abbeaios Turbidity
Benzyl Alcohol vinyl Alcohol in 5min
Allyl Alcohol heating .

appears
( Hy -
CH -_ CH -
CH OH
(
H2 - ◦H
CH __ CH -
OH immediately .

,
-
.

Methods of Preparation Preparation of Phenol

+ KU
il 623K
pna
CH ] U + CH 1-
aq KOH → OH
+ NaOH
- -

# Lot
}
.

From Carbonyl Compound Phenol

É
"
É _Ñᵗ CH ]
CHA
Ha ¥1
at } H + OH
- -

-
-

É ' c%
"
CH " "
"
←¥
CH CH CH
+
Ha
- -

}
-

¥
}
-

> }
""

R -
% -
OH i R CH,
- -
OH
0 -5°C

it
H2O
cymene Process ,CH]
Acid catalysed pH
from Alkene :
CH OOH
* Hydration CH -
CH -

]
, ,
É
> C=Cµ
H
+ Hao (
Hz -41 +9 -

H
OH

Hydsobooation -
Oxidation Rxn Physical Properties
cH=CH2+(BH%→ @ Hs Ctf Ctf)jB Due to
strong hydrogen bonding b/w
•

CH -
-
-

]
molecules
of alcohol, they have higher
CH, - CH
,
- OH
-111dg # 0ᵗʰ? >
b.pt
alkane
as

having
compared
same
to molecules
of
molecular mass .

From Grignard Reagent :

•

As molecular weight increases

o PM9B✗ Ht also increases and
'd H C H + tho → surface area
H CH
]MgBr
-

+ →
H increase in
-

is Vander
-

there
-

{H ]
Waal force As a Result m.pt
HB
.

CH ] -

CHZOH + Mg , increases .
• The b.pt of phenol increases with increase HU
a a
④
↳ Hs -
U + Hao
in no .

of C- atoms .
,

HI

Nature of Phenol : reap

> ↳ Ho -11--2+110

Pds
> 1072° > 3° GHS Ut POU -1116
of acidity ☒ OH >
-

order -

electron
withdrawing group like Noa ,
-

sock
-
× -
CHO -

COOH increase acidic > GHS -

U + so
,
+ HCl
, ,

to
strength due -
I effect while
" "3
GHS NH
electron donating group like -
R , OR -
> -

, -1110
2h4
decrease acidic strength due to +I
Na
effect cans
.
-

OH -

> ↳ Hs ONA -

Na 10N a
> + H, CH] OH
, CH COO GHS
f
• ,
NaOH
, + Hao 112504
In 413k
> GHS -
O -

GHS .

y
Distillation ¥1 + 2h0

NHS " CHINO # CH COOH

>
y
Znclz
+ H2O
" 11504

{
CH2= Ctf -11120
[¥+110
P" ,

1443k
>

- Cole C"
> ( 00 y CH CHO
,
+ Ha
NaOH 573K

Br -
Bra
Br
water
y
2.4.6 Tri
-
I2+N%H CHI,
' bromo
Br
phenol ✗ idation
ÉÉBr+
on
Bon
>
¥
es
,
'
1° alcohol Aldehyde
Br
0 and b- Bromo bhenol
2° alcohol Ketone
-

cone .

HN% NO NO ,
30 Alcohol NO R✗"
cone .

Hzsoq
'
NO
, '

2,46 -
Trinitrophenol Ethers R O R
- -

Chuan -1,0
con
'ᵗʰ%
{- so,H
+ 5¥ Preparation
99 -

'S0sH
OH
HN "
Dehydration of Alcohol
◦

1¥
NO,
y +
'
Noz
21914--0111 É GHS -0 GHS -

KOLBE 'S "" "

NaOH
-1% COOH
salicylic
Reaction
242µs 6)
Ht
Acid +
Ago GHS -0-845 -

• -

Reimer Tiemann CHU]

-1k¥ Salim / debate

f
CHO
-

Rxn Ht
Williamson synthesis ( SNY

R-0.pe/-lNaXOXidationRxnNarCra0-ythS0y
'
R ✗ + Nce
- O
- -
R →

Benzo quinone •
It alkyl halide is 1° ether will form
is Je alkene will form
•
If alkyl halide
¥
?⃝
 chemical Properties ⑤ BK in CH ] COOH
>
"% "
PCH ,

[
" " "" "

Ethers are less reactive than alcohols by

is 08 tho and
Alkoxy ion para PCH,
§nq
◦

"H%
' on
it activates the
directing benzene
+
ring towards electrophilic sub .
PCH} cone .tl
, soy
"
°

+ + NO
OCH
PCH CH
] ,
] ] ]

?
.
°
CH
, Ulamhe Alas Cho
Y
-

N E: ,
F. c alkylation
"

R -
O -
R + HX → R OH -
+ R -
X
CH
,
-
¥-4 1am
OR
pH 7 Alas
+ HX R X f- c- Acylation
→ + -

% PCH ]

¥1
COCH
Order of reactivity HI > HBr > Ha
+
-

%
Help {OCH
can donate
for ,

You

Poly halogen SOLUTIONS

compounds is
• It a homogeneous mixture of two or

more pure substance

Solule_ → Dissolved in Sotvent Dissolved in
Chloroform C Trichloromethane, CHU} )
→
→

< the -1342 ÉÉ Culls -1344

smaller Quantity .
larger quantity .

Controlled
oxidation e9 Sugar ,
Salt
eg Water , Milk .

→ Iodoform ( tri iodoform CHI] ]

,

NaOH CHI ↓ -13 Nat + CH] Cooma

Ctlzcocthg +
31-2-14 →
]
+3110
on carbon Tetrachloride [ Cela ]

is CH , +44 , sunlight Cap -14116

>

%) CHU} -142 is C.CH -12114

Colab a colourless ,
non -
inflammable poisonous liquid, ,

soluble in alcohol and ether .

☆ Uses
as solvent for oils , fats resins
•
a
,
•
in dry
cleaning ◦
as fire extinguisher → solution exist in single phase
→ Particle size in solution is less than 1hm
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane )
'
DDT C. bb -

Dilute solution :
large amount of solvent
% ¥
¥9
Etu
a-
→
"aÉÉ > -

he
"
concentrated Solution : Small amount of Savaii

a
✓
%& -
bis 6- chloro Aqueous solution solvent b water
chloral
chlorobenzene phenyl )
Solution : Solvent b other
1,11 -

Kichwa ethane Non -

Aqueous
than water

'
mass Percentage /
w-wj-masmsom9.gg#un.innom*ooPressure-
No significant Heat .

⑥
"◦ lame Percentage (f) " HENRY 'S LAW The partial pressure
Y.gg?meagg#;wni.;Y*..
=

of the gas in vapour phase is proportional

in solution
Mass by Volume ( %) = Man:* of solute in Solh to the mole fraction of gas .

✗ 1
Percentage
"

volume qs.in D= Kuk Ku is Henry 's constant .

Parts Per million CPPMI

N°aht%rm"%n%?bq%?
-
"
10
-

•
value of Ku increases with increase intend .

Mass fraction (x ) =
Massqsolute
◦
Solubility decrease with increase in Kµ .

Man of solution
Effect of temperature :

As dissolution is an
Mole fraction (K ) exothermic solubility
process i. e of
=

Gases in liquid decrease with increase

↳
n?÷n "
B=n!÷
=

, in temperature .

Unit less
"A+XB= 1 ,
Mole fraction is a
quantity .

Vapour Pressure : The pressure exerted

Molarity ( M) Number of moles of solute by th ≥ vapour in

per litre of solution .

equilibrium with the

liquid / Solution at
a particular temperature
m-Y.is?:'::::Ye-mi,--wmTii:-m, factor
weaker intermolecular forces greater
is the vapour pressure
Unit Mol 1-1 m molar
.
=
or or
•

Temperature ↑, V. P also increases

Molality (m )
.

: Number of moles of solute

per kg mass of solvent
ra molarity depends upon lemifserateere but

molality doesn't

m=n°jn%anM°q%%¥-ag %☐×%n÷gi Application of Henry 's law

suffer from be nd
'

scuba divers
Relationship b/w molarity and Molality
•
:

m → Molarity
•
Climbers suffer from anoxia .

ismdmmosemkg
M :
Ms molality RAOULT'S LAW :
] Mrs → Molar man partial Vapour The
in
491
kg pressure component is equal
of a

to the vapour pressure of that

SOLUBILITY : maximum amount that can
component in pure state multiplied
be dissolved in a specific
by the mole fraction of that component .

amount of solvent at a specific temperature

PA b'AXXA bB= b'☐ ✗ XB
.

Factors Affecting Sin

For Volatile Solute For Non Volatile -
Solut
Nature of solute and solvent → Polar
Pp =
PA -1Pa Pr -
-
PA
solutes dissolve in bolar solvents and non
-
bolar solutes dissolve in Non polar - Pg pea : ✗ XA

solvents .
i. e like dissolve like .

Effect of Temperature
Exothermic AH = ve -
Endothermic Attire

Solubility decreases solubility increases

with increase in with increase in
temperature temperature
 Tb → B. Pt of
solution
Kb✗WRms_☐Xl%÷
A- Tb =

T ;-) B.pt of bare

,
solvent

kb✗nI}¥%g
↳ MB =

Kb → molal
,
elevation
constant
00

a-
ebullioscobic
constant
m→
molality
Notz → value

of Kb
depends
upon
nature of
solvent

Depression in freezing Point CATF ) f.pt of

Azeotrope : These are liquid mixture
a solution

which distil over without change containing a non -

volatile solute is always
In composition lower than F. Pt of pure solvent and

+ ve deviation are known as min .

this difference in freezing point is
in
boiling azeotrope e.g GHSOH -1110
called depression freezing point .

Tf =
k.fm
deviation are known Max
.

-
ve as .

im
boiling azeobobes e.g HMOs -1110 A. Tf =
KI
used to calcul -

COLLI GATIVE PROPERTIES -

ate me for
normal
Depends upon number of mules of solute .
molecules
Relative lowering of vapour tressure Relative

lowering of vapour pressure is equal to

Kf → molal depression or
cryo Scobie
constant
the of solute in the solution constant
mole
fraction .

p; p
wmB_BXMwA_a Tf
-

Xz ATF Tf
¥
= =
= -

of V. P is not a colligate're booberty

-

Freezing point of bare solvent

Lowering Tf
-
=

-
RLVP is a colligate're Property g- =
freezing point of solution
p; -
v. P of pure solvent Wz -
Mass of solute
ATF = KFXM
M, Molar mass of solvent
P, V. P of solution
-
-

Kt ✗
%ˢ %÷g
=
✗
Wi -
mass do solvent Mr -
Molar mass do solute .

, ,

Boiling
Elevation in
"ᵗ¥Y¥w°°÷g
Point MB=
B- Pt of solution ,

containing a non -
volatile solute is
OSMOTIC PRESSURE :
always higher than
boiling point of
pure solvent and this difference in External pressure used to stop
boiling point is called elevation osmosis
in boiling point A. Teb
Tb Tb IT
¥2T
=
= -

A Tb _- Kbm
B M I
MB=WBhXT
:

Tb -_ Kb
 Degreeofn-ssociationcxlandxanitttoltfacto-Ifnmole.cat
IT of a substance A. associate to form An
⑧
es
=
Osmotic pressure 7- Temperature and a is the degree g. association then .

V =
Volume R Gas constant na - An "

}
=

initially 1m01 0
= " " +
€
1-
M2 for macromolecules equilibrium 1- ✗
used to calculate
At
Ig
www.qmaesatequiii
÷1
✗

ISOTONIC SOLUTION :
= 1- ✗ +
g-
i=1 dissociation
have no association or
Two solution same
I>1 particles undergoes dissociation
osmotic pressure (H ) undergoes association
in particles
Saline solution ( 0.9%7 Blood
e.g and . •
Calculate molarity of 9.8% ( Wlw)
the

ITA > ITB

solution of Hzsoy if the density
± ↳ of the solution is 102g Muc molar
Solh
Hypotonic solution
Mass of Hzsoy 98 § Mol 1)
-

Hypertonic
=

have High osmotic Have low osmotic Man of Solute =

9.8g
pressure pressure Man of solution =
100g
Reverse Osmosis Density of solution =
1.029mL-1
when a pressure more than
do
%Ymi%%_µ
" "° " " =

the osmotic pressure is applied to the

Solution ,
the solvent may pass from
into the solvent through 98.039mL :O -098L
solution
l;÷gm
=
=

the semi permeable membrane -

,,

e.g desalination of sea water .

.
Number of moles of solute,
n=9gIg :O 1m01 -

ABNORMAL MOLECULAR MASS

Molarity
Numb,%8qm◦%%{¥Y;-
=
In some cases .
observed colligate've properties deviate from their normal
calculated values due to association or dissociation of
molecules

00%98
.
=

Colligatire Property a
-1mg = 102M

Higher values observed in case of association e. g benzene

Lower values observed in case
of dissociation e. gkce
•
for a 5% Solution of Urea ( Molar Mass

VAN 'T HOFF FACTOR ( is 60g 1m01 ) calculate the osmotic

•
=

ratio of observed value of

colligate've property to the calculated value of colligate're pressure at 300K 2020

0.0821L Atm Hit Mott)

property
ER
.

i. = observed colligate're Property

dcoHigdnbrty
or i = normal molecular mass AT Molality Cm ) of area solution
observed molecular mass

i.
or
= no .

of particles after association or dissociation 2

¥000
number of particles initially
MBX Mang solvent
colligate've Property and Van 't HoH factor

5g✗o_
=

ATb= ikbm i for strong electrolyte like = 0.877m

I Kfm Nall
ATF = KCI =L, =

Mg 504--2
2
,

IT I CRT Kgs 04--3 AkCS0u=5 Osmotic pressure [ IT ) ( RT

=
, =

i×B
P°A-p- =

= 0.877×0.0821×300=21.6 atm

Degree of Dissociation (a) and Van 't Hoff factor Ci ) h

if one molecule of a substance gets dissociated into
°
Calculate the solubility of CO, Pm
n particles and ✗ is the degree of dissociation then water at 298 K Under 760 mmHg .

Cku for in water at 298k is

§
A → nb co ,
i
initially 1-11-41
=
sm.io
1.25×106 mmHg )
Ateq .
I -4 ha
"
Total no -

of
equilibrium
moles at
= 1- ✗ thx
✗ =

¥1 Solubility of CO ,
=

Ign t.gg?-,oo==
608×-10
 { Electrochemistry } Salt Bridge $ its functions : ⑨
Electrolyte : Those substance which dissociate into ions a U-shaped
concentrated
glass tube
son
containing
of an
in their aqueous Solh on
passing electricity are known as
inert electrolyte like Kai KNO
}
electrolyte eg Nacl KU
,

,
Non -

Electrolyte : ikzsos in agar agar form -

Those substance which whose one end is dibbed

in beaker and 2nd end
doesn't dissociate Into ions In their
one

is dipped in another beaker

solution
passing electricity
.

aqueous on

is known as non -
electrolyte
eg Sugar Urea Glucose function
passage of one electrolyte into
,
;) prevent the another
,
.

Ii ) It comblete the inner cell circuit .

ii 'D It maintains the electrical neutrality of Solh in both halt

cells .

iv ] Used to connect both the beakers

which dissociate completely which dissociate partially
.

into tons .
into ions .

ez Hel HMOs , Hasek etc e.

GNH-4011 Ca Hk Electrochemical cell / Galvanic cell / Voltaic cell : -

, . ,
It is used to
CH COOH etc convert chemical energy into electrical
} energy
.

CONDUCTORS beakers
.
we take two
'

conductors In Ist beaker take

Metallic Conductors Electrolytic we zn
•

rod dipped in 2ns 04 Solh .

•
Flow of
electricity is due to the •
Flow of electricity is due to •
In Ind beaker we take
flow of eo the flow of ions .
CU Ood dipped in CUS 04 Sol ?
electronic Also known as ionic
Also known as
Bridge is used
•

conduit.rs
•

Salt to connect
conductors .

both the beaker

.

flow of electricity takes Flow of takes place

•
place •

electricity
Oxidation takes place at
without the decomposition of by the decomposition of ◦

substance substance .
2h rod in Ist beaker
•
The electrical conduction decreases .
The electrical conduction increases
◦
Reduction takes place at CU
with increase of with increase of tents trod in 2nd beaker
temperature . . •
oxidation half Rxu
.

because kernals start

vibrating because increase of temp ,
increase zn → 2m£ -1+2 eo
which produce hindrance in in dissociation or decrease in •
Reduction half Rxn
the flow of electrons inter ionic attraction
cu2++2e0 →
.

Cee
.

well
low as as
High Only low voltage of current 2m£ + + Cee
• •

overall ¥ zn + cut →

voltage of current can pass can pass

through electrolytic
conductors conductor
through metallic

eyre ,
Al ,
Ag etc .

e.g Nale ,
NaOH ek .

Electrode Potential
the tendency of an electrode to either
Factors
Influencing Electrolytic Conduction
• :
lose or
gain eo when
it is placed in its own solution .

→
Nature of Electrolyte :

of ions is conductance ↓ ↓
larger the no .
more
Oxidation Potential Potential
,

Nature of Solvent :
Reduction
→
The electrolytes ionize em water but not in The tendency of an electrode The tendency of an electrode

organic solvents like benzene because water is polar whereas to lose eo to

gain eo
benzene is non polar So , electrolytic conductance increase in
STANDARD HYDROGEN ELECTRODE ( S.H.E ) Device which is
-
-

used to
Polar solvents
calculate standard electrode
.

M
→ solute -
solvent attractions / Solvation or
Hydration : Potential
of any electrode
larger the
.

solvation of ions ,
lesser is conductance → It can act as bothoxidation
as well as Reduction Potential .

→
Temperature : As the temp increases the conductance also
AˢAH2→ 211++2
.

increases because the dissociation of electrolyte increases .

eo
So , number of ions as well as the Steed of ions increases
Ascathode
-

→ Dilution : ions
As dilution increases ,
the number of of a
weak 211++250 → Ha
speed increases
.

electrolyte as well as their and so

conductance also increases .

Bharat Panchal Sir Electrochemical Series

g. what is cell ? Arrangement q various electrodes in the
Aux It is a device which used
into another form of
to convert one form of energy increasing order
of standard reduction potential .

energy .

Chet lithium -3.05 V

Li →
ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL ELECTROLYTIC CELL
ink Ca calcium
.

→
-2.87W
31kt At - Aluminium I. GGV -

UHT 2h → Zinc -
0.76 V
th Fe → Iron -

0.44W
oft Ni Nickel -0.25
Vieillot
→

Pb lead 0.13 V → -

& H
cute
→
Hydrogen 0.00 V
C" → copper +0.34W
Ziggy Ag → Silver +0 SOV -

Seki 311£ Br → Bromine +1.08W

3114¥BUT at Au Gold

50VG@BG-GoBharatPancha1-ChemistryGuruji2.o
→ + 1-
Application
1.) Comparison of Relative Reducing Power or
oxidising power .
Conductance of Electrolytic solutions
④
2)
Predicting the feasibility spontaneity of Redox or a
Reaction
•

Resistance : It is the obstruction

conductor
to the flow of electric
current
through the top,
.

.
.

3.) metal will react with dilute

Predicting whether a will It is directly proportional to its length (l ) and inversely
mineral acids evolve and Hydrogen gas or Not .
Proportional to area of Crossection (A)

4.) Activity or
reactivity of metals .
Rt
f- or R=
ftp.
5.) Calculation the cell ← specific Resistance
of EMF of a
Resistivity
.

or .

E- Mf =
Eceee =
Er -
E
Unit of Resistance = 0hm (b)
,
metre Crm )
=
E
unit of Resistivity = 0hm
cathode
-

Pande Conductance :
inverse of resistance
•

The
Prediction Eooxidation
.
=
-

Nernst Eqh a--

b- =

§# =
K #
Dependence of EMF on concentration of electrolyte is 0hm -108 mho orb -1
and
Unit of conductance or Siemens .

temperature
Nernst eqn for half cell Rxn CONDUCTIVITY
inverse of resistivity is called
:
conductivity
•

The
MYaq+ ,
+ neo → Mcs ) ( specific conductance )
unit =
ohm . ,
am
. ,

Em
EM-RNT-flnj.mn#-aq KAE b- 1am
=
G- when A=km2
,
,
G- K _

Em electrode potential
of metal under given condition material is its conductance
conductivity
=

of a

Em : electrode potential of metal under standard condition when it is 1am

long and its area of
R I cross section is 1am ?
gas constant 8.3145K 1m01
-
-

= =

MOLAR CONDUCTIVITY
Temp in Kelvin
:
T
•

conductivity of all the tons

=

It is the
f- Faraday constant ( 96500 ( Mott )
of an electrolyte in Sol
=
"
produced by dissolving 1g mole
n =
no of e -0 loss or
-

gain in reaction It is denoted by Am

am K XV 08 am k ✗
10¥ K✗¥%ity
-
- -

-
=
=

Em Em 00m51 lrgqml-n.mg
-

:
.

"
Units : 0hm -1 c. m2 motor s c. M2 MOI

For cell : Note

fat ,÷¥ f- is called cell by E
-

R constant denoted
aA+bB F- cC+dD
-
_
=

G
*
=
f- = RK

0.org#lrgYn?jafEhgd-n
Ecell =
Peele -

Q .
Discuss the variation of conductivity and molar conductivity
or with concentration ( NCERT )

005¥ log {%g

Ecele -
-

Peele - Are In case of strong electrolytes the molar conductivity

increases slightly with dilution as mobility of ions increases ,
.

Éceee of weak electrolytes the degree

In
-

00h51 log Qc equilibrium of ionisation increases with dilution therefore there is a

case

constant
,

g☒ large increase in molar conductivity with dilution

where Qc is concentration Quotient is conductance between two
.

Conductivity
At equilibrium t-cell :O and Cfc :
Kc opposite faces of
}
one centimetre cube On .
dilution ,
no .

of
ions her cm decreases therefore conductivity decreases
)
Feed =

0.ch#logKcCat298k on dilution

CHSCOOH him =
limiting molar conductivity
standard when concentration approaches
maximum
Gibbs A- 4
•
hf ETele Zero the molar conductivity
work done
= -
,
or

free b4 cell
is known as
limiting molar

Energy *a
conductivity .

Calculate the emf of following cell at 298k :

"
Mg / Mg ( 0.001M) / / CU&+co .
ooo , my
ICU
Fmg&YMg= -2.37 V
KOHL RAUSCH LAW : -

Ecua -1 / Cu = 0.34W
is
Limiting molar conductivity of an

Éceee Er EL 0.34 C- 2.371--2.7 Iv electrolyte the sum of individual contribution of

Ax
-
. = -

anion and cation of electrolyte .

Ani A+ Ani
Bain
Éceel Ain
00m51 log{0pg,
Fell =
-
AB = +

limiting A+ =
molar conductivity of cation .

005¥ log {Mg{£, limiting conductivity of Anion

= 271 -

Ain B- : molar .

APP
"¥!; calculation of limiting molar conductivity of weak
" " '• 14ᵗʰ
£71
002591-191%3-4
=
-

ii ) calculation of the Degree of Dissociation -

Degree of Dissociation (a) Amc molar conductivity at any =

→

conc C.
Tim →
limiting
.

molar conductivity
2.71-0.02955=42.68 Viii
=
.

) Calculation of dissociation constant of weak electrolyte:

*#* Calculate standard Gibbs free energy change for the
reaction Concentration
given Dissociation constant ( Kc )
¥2
G-
:
zn + cast → zna-it.ca =

Aus Dae = -
nf Eceee Given Eeeee : HOV ✗ =
Degree of Dissociation .

=
-2×96500×1.10
I '
-212300 5m01 -212.3 KJ Mot
-

= =
 determine
BATTERIES
•
Suggest a way to the Ain value of water .

which
These are source of electrical energy
AI Ain CHAO) tin H+ + din OH
-

in series
MAY have
=

one or more cells connected .

find Ain CHU) nine NaOH) and Ani CNAU ) E.•

out Then
combat and
we
, Good quality battery should be light ,

ninety = Ain CHUI + Am CNAOH) -

Ain (Nau )
is
its
voltage should not vary
PRIMARY BATTERIES
during its use .

④
g. The conductivity of 0.20M Solution of KU at 298k and after use
reaction
◦ " er
the occur only once

0.0248 S Cm -1
. Calculate its molar conductivity ☒ CERE ] .
a period of time , battery
becomes dead and can't be
reused again .

AT DRY CELL OR LECLANCHE CELL

Km%°nµ
Nm
0°%◦
=
124s cm2md "
= =
This cell consist as 2n rod act as anode
> ermine

*•ñ••• →
metal cab
and cathode is carbon rod which is
9. Aim for Nall
,
HU and CH
]
Coo Na are 126.4 425.9 and
,
surrounded by powdered Mr:* -02
91.0 s c. marmot
'
respectively .
Calculate Ñ too CHIC 00 "
Ani din Nat tinct c. m2 moi
I ① At Anode
Ay NaCl 126.4 s → zinc " esseecn-n.ae ,
-

+
- -
-

-
=
"
'
-20 zn the -0

÷!!!!!!!!
Ani HU =
din H+ + till
-

=
-425.9 S c. m2 Mot zn →

÷÷÷÷÷¥
At cathode
ninaescoona-aicgeoo-i-dmna-i-si.ose.mn "" ①
-
. I Grab
hiya cathode) -

7mn02 -1C Mno, -12N Hut +2 @ ◦ → Mnzog -12 Mtf -1110

have to calculate Ani CHZCOOH Anicthloo + ninth
-

we
.

. is cell potential of
= .
has a 1.54
⇐ terminal

operating ③ +20 ① 2nd

- '

390.5 Sam
-

MERCURY CELL as Anode

consist of Zinc mercury amalgam
.

It
Faraday 's Electrolysis :
-

law of
is a taste of mercuric oxide CHGO )
anode cab
The cathode
.

znaugl
( Amalgam and carbon powder The electrolyte consist of
First law
.

:
a mixture
The mass of substance deposit or liberated at separator aican
of KOH and 2h0 .

> cathode
Citgo) At Anode
any electrode
proportional to the amount of charge
during
electrolysis is directly 2h -120h -
→ 2h0 -1110+2 e -0
ii At cathode
passed Hg -120k
-

1190-1110+80
.

Mathematically w✗Q E. Ii It ] ZnO -111g

-6 W ✗ Ixt
Zn + Hgo →

[ Ixt =D ]
potential of a mercury cell is approximately
w = ZXIXT # The 1.35 V .

we mass substance deposit / liberate

of cell reaction no
ions
electrochemical equivalent It remains constant as in the overall

M%
↳
2-
are involved in solution Thus it lasts longer
-

=
◦ ◦
I> current t → time . . .

Uses of Mercury cell

Q What do you mean by Faraday constant ? It is suitable for low current devices
like watches,
And charge of one mole of e -0
↳
hearing aids , toys etc .

6.022×1023×1.6×10 96487 ( MOH

-

C Mol -1
Secondary Batteries
≈ 96500
A secondary cell after use can be recharged
Second law : it
when same amount of electricity passed through by passing current it in opposite direction so that can
-

two different electrolyte connected in series , amount be used

again A good secondary cell undergo large no
.
can a .

of substance deposited at electrodes is directly proportional of discharging and charging cycles .

Lee Pon
cadmium battery , battery
to their equivalent weight .

eg lead storage Battery, Mickel

-
-

Amount of Ag deposit
=
eq.wt.qAg_ LEAD -

STORAGE BATTERY : -

Amount deposit eqiwt of Cu consist lead anode

of Ca it
of a
.
.

A%ᵈ#
and lead oxide cathode .
A 38%

⊕ Solution of sulphuric acid acts

1 cathode as
electrolyte . Each cell give
A solution of Aesop is dedsolysed for 10minutes with the
voltage of 211 this

÷÷÷÷
g. a so
of 1.5 amperes What is the cell is give
÷÷÷÷
current mass of copper to
.

sufficient
NCER@AugAcc.to
deposited at cathode the
Rxn Cu 2-1-1250 Cu
voltage
of 1211 These .

%:*,
→ .

voltaic cues are sebarakd

by then fibreglass
Mgfˢ✗I✗t 632%4%5×600
w = 2✗I✗t =
a-
sheet
solution .

Pb Pb 02

During Discharging
are
≈ 0.2938g ,
the cell reactions
A solution of Nic Noda is electoolysed between platinum electrodes
AT ANODE
Pb -15042 Pbs 04+20
-

using a current of 5.0 ampere for 20 minutes what mass of

nickel will be deposited at the cathode
.
→

t.CAT mass of Ni -58.7) NCERT - -

AT CATHODE
Arg Acc to Reaction 2-1-12 eo Ni
Pby -150£ +4Mt + Leo → Pbs 041-2110
-

Ni
.

mgyjgmag.mx ÷ ✗
w ZXIXE Ixt 50×12 " The Overall Cell Rxn
-

:
-

1.825g 2 Pbs 041-2110

Pb + Pb
02 +211504 →

Q How much
charge is required current is passed through terminal
During charging the
YOU
.

support
,
lil 1 Mol of Aest to Al from external source . The reactions are reversed
The electrode reaction is }
nest + Seo → Al
Charge required =3 f
Mater °
it is commonly used in automobiles, power
inverters .

=
3×96500 C =

28950€ FUEL CELL : -

molten Caclz
Chemical energy from combustion of fuels
( ie ) 20.0g of Ca from
The electrode reaction is Ca 2-11-20 → Ca like hydrogen ,
methane and methanol is converted
If into electrical energy .

40g of Ca required =

If
20g of Ca required = .
 ④
cathode → It is highly efficient ( 70% )
£,
• " method when compared to the

/
of thermal tower beaut

%
""
efficiency Cleo %)
electrolyte which
→ side product is water which
when one or more substance undergo a
change
doesn't cause pollution .

results in the formation of a new product ,

called chemical
↳ In the cell hydrogen and oxygen reaction .

,
are bubbled through bonus carbon CHEMICAL KINETICS is the branch of chemistry which
_ electrodes into aqueous sodium deals with the study of gates of chemical reaction
,

hydroxide divided
blatinum
solution .

finely their mechanism and the conditions in which hate

or balladdum acts as a catalyst
%
.

can be altered .

↳ It was used
were
for providing electrical power
Apollo space programme The water vapours .
ON THE BASIS OF SPEED
produced condensed and added to the drink 'ʰf is VERY FAST REACTION : some reaction such as
water supply for astronauts .
ionic reactions occur very
test Agnos + Nacl Agu Nanos
At cathode e.g → +

40h
_

+ tee → it ) VERY SLOW REACTION : some reactions are

0 +
, 2h20 slow i. e takes
At Anode months to in eombletion
very
years
4h20 + tee
2h -140W
,
→
e.
g. Rusting of iron in the presence of air and moisture
overall •

formation of coal and betnlium

2112+02 2h20
•

→
cell Ron
iii) MODERATE REACTION i. Those reactions which are

very slow not neither

very fast but takes place at moderate speed .

inversion of cane sugar

e.
g.
921122011 +
H2O ↳ HI 206 1- CGH 1206
fructose Glucose
ON THE BASIS OF NUMBER OF STEPS
COMPLEX REACTIONS
ELEMENTARY REACTIONS when a sequence of elementary
us the
reactions gives product called
complex reaction each step in a
The reactions taking place
,

complex reaction is called elementary Rxh

in called
.

one step are

slowest step is called rate
elementary reaction
determining step .

RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION :

chemical kinetics
It is the change in molar
concentration
of species taking part in the chemical reaction
per unit time .

for the reaction A → B

→
Effect of Temperature on rate of reaction : -
Rate of disappearance of A
The rate of reaction increases with increase in temperature in of A
Decrease
Aˢ
=
cone .
= -

Arrhenius proposed an equation that related temperature Time taken

and rate constant for a reaction quantitative Rate of disappearance of B
Acc to Arrhenius Equation in QB
An!ˢ
.
Increase conc -

1-
Intercept
= =
A
*
=
log ,

.K%÷R
Time taken
.

- Ea / RT
K= Ae
NOTE
where concentration
The
of reactant
the R × " decreases so it
K= rate constant of log ,

resign
.

,
represent by -
while
,
A- Arrhenius factor / frequency the of product increases
=
conc .

facto-8
it + ve sign
&
/ pre exponential if tox so represented by .

Ea -
-
Activation Energy 11T TYPES OF RATE OF REACTION :
Constant
R Universal Gas
.LY?aiYYlnk-lnKi--Ea-pq-E--r-i A"erageRatew) L-nstantaneousrakm.am
=

1- =
Temp in Kelvin.
,

change in molar conc .

change in molar conc -

of reactant
Taking In both sides "" "
¥ E&( ¥4) = of reactant and product
interval of time
and product at a
instant
given
enk =
en Ae EAIRT
-

,
at a given of time .

R > P
lnk
Era % =+%¥
Inst
+1nA A"9 Rale

"↑oGk÷=Eaq(T¥y
t
?
2.303
^-¥=+n¥?
- .
◦ -

)
' -

rate + reaction
, reaction ◦

b• At temp Ti RELATION BETWEEN RATE OF REACTION AND STOICHIOMETRY

,

lnk , =
1nA
-

Egg -
① 191¥ &¥r( ¥-4,2 ) =
•
)
Rak do Rin
A+B > i-D

deaˢ= %- dd¥= +9k¥

,
,
-
-
+
=

Lad At temb 729

where
is clear from stoichiometry of reaction
It
enka
→
⑨ ) 2A → c. + p
1nA Ea_ Activation Energy
•

that the rate of disappearance

=
Ea of A
.
-

→
is twice the velocity of formation of cap
RI R → Gas constant
operating ⑨ ② -
 so
,
rate
of reaction can be given as below
SURFACE AREA ④
Rate of Ron
3- d&¥- +
%¥ +dd_ Greater the surface area of reactant higher
-

is
: ,
=

the role of reaction It is observed that if .

reactant is a solid substance then rate of reaction depends

e.g 5 Bo Broj GH -1 3 Bra 3h20
-

+ + > +
let upon the size of its particles
eaq ) .

caq ) .
Cag ) cg ,
A piece of wood slowly but it burns rapidly
.

burns
e.
g
Rate of Reaction
f- Af,B¥ 1¥05? -7^-41+-1=5^-1?¥=tA¥1¥ cut into small pieces
-

=
when
-

= .

EXPOSURE TO RADIATION :

UN1T0fRATE0FREACT10MwmmumnTtM increases rapidly in presence

The rate of some reactions
of radiation Luv and visible
"
Min "
Photons of UV and visible light having high energy
Motti ' sector Moll
A¥ Molt ' dissociates chemical bonds of reactants rapidly which
Molt hot
=

see amino , µ , or
'
increase the Gate of reaction .

with
Indah
Sun
HCl ( explosion\
Consider a
general reaction : Hills S 2h4 ( slow) Ha
-16262
aAtbB → CC
RATE LAW
Rate of Rate of Reaction is directly proportional to
reaction
_÷dd¥ˢ= -3%74=+12%+1 the product of molas concentration of reactant and
each raise power their coefficient on which
doffs
to
of disappearace of
rate A = -
the
rate of reaction actually depends .

Product
rate of disappearance of B
dofB aA+bB Rale Constant
= -
→

specific Reaction
¥ ¥
or
actual
Rate used rate
of appearance of C = +
dogg Rate of Rxn =
KIA]
✗
[ B)
P

9 A -12ps → 3C +217
what will be
,
the rate
of disappearance of B is 1×10 -2m¥ ,
↳ Rate law too any reaction can not be predicted
determined
c) Rate of Rxn dis Rate of change in cone .

q A and C. theoretically but must be

experimentally
Aux Rate of disappearance B
dEdB 1×10-2 mollis -1 RATE CONSTANT :
-

, =

hate constant is equal to hate

Rate 9AM reactant
tᵈeaA¥= -2-01%+1=-1}_dea¥=+zdG
= -

of reaction when concentration of each

becomes unity .

Rate of Rxn
_±dEaB- -2=05×10-2
%
=
1-2×1.0×10 Moll is -1 -
ORDER :
It is the sum of powers ace . to rate law
Iii ) Rate of change in
concqA-daqnj.R.o.pe expression .

o.s-xio-z.mn Rate of Rxu B 02 des ✗+ B

KEA ] ✗
[ B)
=
=
e- is -1

CharacteristiesofRaleConstantwwmwM
Rate of change in cone .

GC
+
ddE¥ JXR OR 3×0.5×10-2
-

1.5×10%011-151 •
7 Indicates the speed of reaction Greater the value ,

of rate constant baster is the reaction

#fACT0RSAFrECT1N4RATE0fREACT10NÑmmw
uunwt.ge
.
.

very reaction has a particular value of rate

constant at a particular temperature .

CONCENT E RATION OF REACTANT

:[
•

+ is observed that rate

•
) The rate constant for the same reaction differs
of decreases
reaction with time we know that initially .
with temperature .

the cone of reactant is maximum so the rate of change value of rate constant for a reaction does
.

) The
is also maximum As the of reactant decreases
•
in cone . cone .

depend upon the concentration of reactant

.

not
when the rate of reaction also decreases
It means that the rate of reach is '

directly proportional to the cone of reactant .

.
•
1 The unit of rate constant is dependent on the
order
of reaction
TEMPERATURE OF SYSTEM :
.

Generally , the rate of all

reactions approximately increases on increasing temp .
MOLECULARITY OF REACTION
In other words the rate of reaction also decreases
of atoms , ions or molecules
,

on
decreasing temp Generally , the
.
rate of reaction mixture The total number
of the
increases two to three times on
increasing tent ubto 10°C .

reactant which collide effectively to

give product
•
NATURE OF REACTANT : is termed as its molecularity .

In a chemical reaction old bonds

broken and new bonds formed A → Product Molecularity =L ↳
are are
, Ntke NO, → N , -12110
so , the reactivity of substance depends on
Product ,
2A →
Molecularity =
2 ↳
breaking and formation of specific bonds .

Product
qHI→tg+Iz
A + B →
, Molecularity 2 .

↳
2ND -102 →
2m02 Gfast ) Product 2^10+02 → &M%
At Btc → , Molecularity =3
20 -102 →
202 C. Slow )
Characteristic of Molecularity :

•
EFFECT OF CATALYST :
catalyst
•

Molecularity of a reaction is always an integer .

increase the rate values (

of reaction It can not have fractional or zero a zero
•
a

are those substance which

collisions b/w
without
undergoing any chemical molecularity implies that no effective

change in them .
reactant molecule takes place i. e reaction doesn't
It is considered that occur at all ] .

judged by balanced chemical

presence of catalyst decrease
Molecularity
• can be a
Rxu
the activation energy of reactant • for a complex reaction molecularity has no
significance
which increase the
,
rate of 91 Ngos 2 HI 1921-1-2
.

2^1021-1-202 molecularity
→ →
= I
mole .
= z
 ORDER OF REACTION
④
•

Integrated Rate Equation

The order of a reaction is defined as the sum of bowers first Order
to which the concentration terms are raised in sale Those reaction whose rate depends upon one
law equation . concentration term of reactant .

A- + 2B → C +D r →p

( experimentally Put value in eq①

'
Rate law Rate of Reaction ✗ er ] of I
R :
Kea]m[B]n determined . )
_%ˢ= KER ] lnR= Kt + I
-

order writ A=m order w.at B- - n

, -
lnR= Kt -
ln Ro
overall order of given reaction =
Mtn
-

d{- t.dllnro-lnR.tt
=

g. what is the order of reaction ?

I. B.s ( Integrating both sides ) lnR◦ =
Kt
Aug Rate law, R -

_
KEATH [ B) 2 I
-

/ d{R = Kfdt

&÷lvgR£=t%ww)
order of reaction 2£ 2.5

kt+II±&ʳʰ°
: or
"

lnr constant
characteristics of Order of
=

a Reaction :

a) It represents the number of species whose concentration value of

to get the I UNIT =
Molt 's -1
affects the rate of reaction directly .

+ =
O R :
Ro
,
•
7 Reaction order can be obtained by adding all the exponents _
enr .
=
I t=&?÷ leg ¥ ,
of the concentration terms in rate expression .

•
1 The stoichiometric coefficients to each
corresponding .
- a

species in the balanced reaction have no effect on the

/
'_
T
T
order of the reaction
108 ty
e.) The reaction order of a chemical heaction is always last ¥ ,

↑
defined with the helb of reactant concentration and
not with product concentration .

> > >

1- →
( a- × ) → ( a- × , →
•
) for a complex reaction , the slowest stets is rate determining
step .

" "° Order Reaction

Zero Order Reaction : Those reaction whose rate depends
upon zero concentration terms of reactant
Clark
.

Rate :
KEATH, + 2 HCl :
2m20 → 2%+02 R→P
Rate of Reaction
°
✗ ER]
First Order Reaction :
2 Ha -102
ddEˢ= R
'
Rate KEA ] 21102 Kt + I
-

→
K
=
-

Second Order Reaction -

R -
-

Kt -
Ro
-
der ] :
K.dk
Rate =
KEAR B- R= "t
I. B.SC
Integrating both sides

R_R=ÉgwwT
e.
g C -10
,
→ CO -10
-

HER] :
Kfdt
2h10 INO -10
I±¥h legation
→
, -

R =
Kt + constant
UNIT OF RATE CONSTANT
to
" " get the .
value
of I "

(Moll -17msec -1
" "

Calm )
.

k= K sect
É÷
=

t=o R=R i
,
.
↑
Zero order
k=(mole -171 -0sec
A- ◦ , +
-
I
MOLL
-
I see -1 -
Ro -
_
I " %
" > "
First order ' • + →
( a- " ( a- a) →
(Matt )
-
→
h=1 K sect see i
put 1- in equation 1
-
-
-

'
second order
:(moll 1) -2sec I
' '
n=2 K
-
-

moi l sect Half life ◦

1- a Reaction :
The time in which the concentration
Half Order n -1k K :(Moll -111¥ sect → Molk [ 112 see -1 of a reactant is red iced to one half of its initial cone
-

It £ brewed by
"
ᵗY
g. Identify the reaction order "

Peggy
t-23Y Order -logr.li t . +
, ,
K= 2.3×10-51 Motts
-1 ,,
] → =2
Order
④
tyz-2.tk#lrgRp;-X2tyz=o.qgIuw)
K =
3×10-4 s
-
l → order =
I

Q . conversion of molecules ✗ to Y follows

The second
order kinetics , if concentration of ✗ is increased to t
R◦¥-
-

ty R Retz
_

1- = -

three times how will it affect the rate of formation 84 ?

_

,
,

AE The reaction is ✗ →Y
ty A
E
&÷
-

:
,

Acc to rate law Ta

Collision Frequency
.

rate : K [ ✗ 32
no . Of collisions bez second
If * is increased to Themes then
per unit volume of mixture It is
reacting
, .

rate ' KEITH

generally denoted
by 2
=

rate ' =
9 KEXP consider the biomolecular reaction
9 ✗ rate
At B → Product
Thus, rate of reaction becomes 9 times and hence rate of Acc to collision
.

Theory .

formation of increases
. .

9- times Ea / RT
Rate
.

ZA.ge
-

=
 PSEUDO FIRST ORDER REACTION
Elements
Reaction which are not
truly of the first order but under
d- and f- Block
certain conditions reactions of first
④
become order are called

pseudo first order Reactions .

d- Block elements
eg Acid catalysed inversion of cane sugar Those elements in which the last eo
enters in the d- subshell
of penultimate shell
421122011 1- H2O CGHIZOG -1 6111206
( excess]
Glucose rnectose General Electronic Configuration (n 1) d '
'°
nso -2
-

→ -

Rate : KECIZH, 2011 ]

Acid catalysed hydrolysis of ethyl acetate .

CH COO Is ↳ Hs OH
] GHS + H2O CHRSCOOH +

cexcess)
Rate : K [ CU COO
, GH5)
Both of the above reactions are biomolecular but are found
to be the first order because water is present in such a
large excess that its concentration remains almost constant
during the reaction .

P.Y.cl
g. A reaction is second order wit a reactant How .
is the
rate
of reaction affected if the concentration of
subdivided into four series
reactant is NCERT (2009,201%2014) They are . .

d) doubled di > reduced to half

&
Auto RAte-rk.CA]
.

EA ] =
Ia ,
rate = Kora )2= 4kg2
=
4 times
[A ] :
1-29 ,
rate =
K[az]& G- Kal :{
:
th

g. A first order is found is have a rate constant

K -5.5×10-14 sect Find half life of the reaction
in
-
.

The d- block elements which the atoms ions have

.

or

AE Half life for a first order Reaction is NCERT incomplete d- orbitals are called transition elements .

→ 2h , Cd and
Hg have completely filled Cn 1) d- Orbitals
+42
-

£6,9T ÷q
=

= = 1.26×1013 so
they do not show much resemblance with
other transition elements .

Q The half life for radioactive decay of % 6573011

6-
.
There are four series
of d- block elements .

An archaeological artifact contained wood that had 3d series csc to 2h)

only 80% of the C' 4 found in living tree Estimate .

led series CY to (d)
age the sample 5d Series
Hg ]
of NCER ,
Cla and Hf to
bd series C. Ac and Rf to (a)
the Radioactive decay follows first order kinetics
Electronic Configuration : By Bharat Panchal Sir
-
-

Decay
0¥91
[ K)
0.691
:
's '
=
21 .
se -
scandium [ As] 3d 452
5730 22 .
Ti -
Titanium [ As] 18 3dL Us 2
}
23 V -
Vanadium [ Ar 318 3d Us 2

£-
t
.

log
{¥ 2.3%-5,730×0.0969
=

:
24 .
Cr -
Chromium [ Air ]
'8
395µs '

25 .
Mn -

Manganese [ As ] 18 345 453

26 .
Fe -
Iron [ Ar] 18 3d 6452
1845 Year .

18 3d 't 45
Cobalt [ Ar ]
-

Co
.

27 .
-

18 3d8us2
Ni Nickel [ Ar ]
28
minutes
-
.

9 A first order reaction takes 20 for 20%

EAR ]
's
3d 4s '
"
29 .
Cu -
Copper
decomposition Calculate "
tyzrc log 0.0969) EARTH 3d 45
¥ 30 Zn zinc
.

= .
-

Are
2-3+1
"
log %
K
Co2 -1 [ As] 'S 3d 45
-
_

→
, 24
to halt
[ Ar] 183034 so (
stable due
Cpt
23.gg?-logkgg---&3g02g- filled tag )
=
→
24
✗ 0.0969 " "
It CAN 3d 45
→ ( fully filled )
0.011158=11.258×10-3 2-1
[Ar ) 18 3d 450
gacy
=
→

ty =

o6_ =
0.693
6%1 Mtn ] -1 18
[ A. 8)
,
4s °
° °
3d
11.158 ✗ to -3
'

235C →

All the Best ① fest → EAR ]

'S
39545 ( half filled )
g.
Atomic Radius
As we
from left to
right , atomic radii
e-

Ceo
g Tic
, MnqN , Ferg N,
interstitial compounds
V40.56 and Ti Hit etc
④
first decreases largely , then decreases slowly
The are very hard ,

retain metallic conductivity have high m.pt

and increases in the end
of the series .
,

and are chemically inert .

This decrease in atomic radii Alloy formation : -

in the
beginning is due to Alloys are homogeneous solid solution
d- block
the increase in effective nuclear Many & elements form alloys because
increase in they have similar atomic radii due to which
charge with the ,

atomic number .
they can
easily
replace the atom of other metal .

with the increase in . Alloys thus formed and often have high
number
of eo in (h 1) d. subshell M.pt
.

Brass ( Cee -12M Bronze ( Cutsn )

the screening
effect of these d- electrons on the outermost e.g q
ns electrons also increases This increased screening By Bharat Panchal Sir
-
-

Magnetic Properties
- -

: -

effect counterbalances the effect increased nuclear of Diamagnetic substances are rebelled
cHna'rge , therefore the atomic
.
radii remains by magnetic field while
paramagnetic substances
• m°ˢᵗ • attracted
Mein the series eo co
are
by magnetic field .

the end of
-

to Those substance which are attracted very strongly

repulsion takes place so the size atom increases
of
.

by the applied field are called ferromagnetic

ION " RADIUS
in the d- block elements and their compounds
of the same oxidation
general ,
ions Many of
in a given series show progressive decrease is due
state are
paramagnetic in nature it to
in radius with increase in atomic number due the presence unpaired in incomplete
to the increase in effective nuclear charge
of eo

" d- Orbitals
Radius 9 [ ionic Radii few > Fe ]
Ionic
o¥+ate → The
paramagnetic Nature 9 no -

of unpaired e◦

Melting and Boiling Point

High m.pt and B.pt moment cut Ñ+2 ) Bom
Magnetic
=

first increase and then decrease I

due to increase and decrease in n b number Bohr
number unpaired electrons
because the
of of unpaired e?
magneton
strength of bond
depends on number
of unpaired eo Complex formation : -

Many of d- block elements form

Note →
Tungsten CWI has the highest M.pt Complex compounds .
because

Mercury City) is the only metal in liquid foam Cil They have atomic radii
→
.
small

Metallic character Ciii High Nuclear charge

Iii ) Presence vacant d- orbital
•
show all the properties of general
metals
of so they can
•

strength of metallic bond a number

.

accept lone pair of eo from ligands -

ofunpaired eo which increase the chance and By Bharat Panchal Sir

catalytic Properties :
-
-
-

make the bond strong

Transition elements and their
Cr is a hard metal while Zn is a soft metal
.

Compounds show catalytic properties due to variable

•
.

oxidation state and their ability to adopt

Enthalpy of Atomisation :

They have strong metallic Multiple oxidation state .

bond due to which they have high enthalpy of %

-10 250 ] ( contact
Process)
atomization 250,
?

Ionisation Energy : _
BY Bharat Panchal Sir
-

Nz+3Hz 2A HI ( Haber Process )

]
Lies b/w S and b- block elements
in incomplete orbitals,
-

The d-
( more
of unpaired
◦
presence e is
than s block but less than b- block elements ) hence
-

to absorb and re emit

I. E increases from left to right in a period
possess the
capacity -

wide which is
as the effective nuclear charge increases range of energies used as an
.

activation energy .

I. E ✗ Effective Nuclear Charge Formation Of Coloured Ions : -

it unpaired %
Hg is very High
eo
•
Iot
of 2h
,
Cd and due to
fully .

present complex is coloured transition

filled orbitals , due to d d -

and also paramagnetic in nature

•
I. E
of 5d and Cod series elements is more than 3d
is absent ,
if unpaired eo

and led elements due to lanthanide and complex to the absence of

or compound is due
Actinide contraction . d- d transition and diamagnetic in nature
e.g cusoy is blue
formation of Interstitial compounds :
a
_

in
-

colour while
Transition metals have a
tendency 2h50 is
e
n
eg
u
form interstitial compounds
e
to with colourless I I -

H, C , B N atoms
or
&
.

+2g
-

stoichiometric
They usually
are non -

typically
and are neither
ionic nor covalent .
 Oxidation state :
due to the
'
-

show
participation of both ( n
large number
-
of oxidation
nd and ns
stale
electrons
④
in bonding in different compounds .

Oxide formation : -

Many of the d- block elements forms

oxides
of different types because
of the presence of
so
many different oxidation state .

NE Acidic character ✗ oxi Stale .

Ionic character a oxi state

. .

•
Mn shows maximum number
of oxidation state due to
F- Block Elements
presence of maximum number of unpaired
:
the e◦
-

Elements in which last eo

•
osmium cost show +8 oxidation state enters in f- orbital
of pre penultimate -
shell
→ cut is more stable than cult because it Undergoes
in aqueous General Electronic ""
disproportionation Reaction Solh = (n -
2) f- Ch 1) do -1ns 2
-

configuration
2 Cult → ( U2 -1 1- Cee

NOH The
ability of oxygen to stabilise these high
oxidation state exceeds that of fluorine because

oxygen can form double bond while fluorine form

single bond .

By Bharat Panchal Sir

fluoride is Mnfy
-
-

As a result
highest Mn yf series
whereas the highest oxide is Mnz07 .

or

Electrode Potential : -
Lanthanoid Series
The stability of a combo and or

depends upon electrode potential and it further Ist Inner Transition

depends Ubon
'

series
lil Enthalpy of atomisation / sublimation
Ii) Ionisation enthalpy
Liii ) Hydration enthalpy
By Bharat Panchal Sir -
.

Are" " Oxidation State :

Mileage )
-

Mcs ) > A-
atomisah.a.tl The oxidation
= + ye common state of
.

Ian than oids is with

A- + ] +2 and +4
A- H ^-ᵗʰᵈH ionisation H = + Ve .

9hm
H =
-
ve lanlhanoid Contraction : -

hydration
,,

Meg , > Mtg , The regular decrease in the atomic

and ionic radii increase in
of lanthanoids with the
atomic number
from left to right in lanthanoid
series is called lanthanoid contraction .

Cause of lanthanoid Contraction

→ increase in effective nuclear charge
Poor
screening effect of 4f electrons
→
.

Consequences of lanthanoid Contraction

The separation
◦

of lanthanides is difficult as there is little

very
difference in their size due to which they
have similar chemical
properties .

There is regular trend for m2 -11M Basic from left

no standard electrode strength of hydroxides decreases
•

potential due to irregularities in ionisation

the to right
enthalpies and enthalpy of atomisahin °
Covalent character of hydroxides increases from Hor .

The size 3rd transition series elements is similar

copper is the only metal having positive value of of
•

to the size
of 2nd transition series
to so it does not liberate the hydrogen gas from .

acids
chemical Reactivity : -

By -
Bharat Panchal six
. By Bharat Panchal Sir
-
-

use
of lanthanides
chemical in glass industry
reactivity
¥
✗
•

•
As an oxidising agent
•

Ecma -11m ) is very less ( more -

ve ) except Cee •
In
making magnetic
and electronic behaviour
so these metals are highly reactive
•

oxidising power 9 to
•
In
making alloy steel
which is in
used
making
Reducing Power
!
•
✗ bullets .

Misch metal
e.g
( lanthanides + Fe -1s

+ C + cat AD
 COMPOUNDS OF TRANSITION ELEMENTS
for Help
•
Potassium Dichromate ◦
Potassium Permanganate
YOU can donate
④
c. Km "°4 '
(14%07)
potassium Dichromate (192%07)
Chemical Reactivity →
it is prepared
Ln2O3 "
£
from chromite
-8%
ore
'
-1

si
pied
*
.in step -1 con er .sion
.

of feonoehoomale into sodium

chromate
Heated with S with halogens
t.nl/34feCr20p-16Na0H-70g---i8NajGe04+2F-g0z
Ings, g Ln >

,aµd*iÑ ¥
with
H2O Yellow
+8602
µ '
↳ (OH} -111 step -2 Conversion of sodium chromate into
L ,

t.hn sodium dichromate

Lng .

Uses
Nair 04+2116 → Nee ,GkO7 -12^9++110
lanthanoids for steels for
1) are used the production of alloy
.

Orange
Hates and bites step -3 into
ii) of lanthanoid is used in Mg - based conversion of sodium dichromate
Misch metal alloy
alloy to produce bullets , shell and lighter flint .

potassium dichromate
used catalyst in
Kg(8207+2
Ciii ) Mixed oxides of tanthanoids are as Nacl
→
Nagayo , 2kg
-

+
cracking of petroleum
Hut some lanthanum oxides are used as phosphorus in Orange crystals
television screen
→ chromates and dichromates are inter convertible
ACTINOID
These the elements in which taste ◦
Got Goin
are -
-

filled in Sf orbitals The actinoid

- . are radioactive elements

Electronic Confee structure . .

Conti 5ft
"
't "
"

dichromate ion ( ( 8207£ )

-

Gd
( Goyt )
electronic
The general chromate ion
.

irregularities in the electronic configuration of actinoid

stabileties of fog f7, f- 14 occupancies
11° 0

¥!
◦
is due to
/
of sf orbital
- .

°
"
Co

to -
-
¥-4
-
, ,

lo
Lanthanoids Actinoid O
-

Similarities btw and

e Both exhibit +3 oxidation state predominantly .

Properties
have high reactivity moderately soluble in
"

Both are electropositive and

1) These cold
orange red crystals
.

are ,
like lanthanoid Contraction , there is actinoid contraction also
water but
•

in hot water
.

readily soluble .

Difference b/w lanthanoids and Actinoid 2.) Action Of heat .

Actinoid
Lanthanoids
Oxi state
414%07 4K200g ¥-2620 ] -1302
They mainly show +3
- .

Oxi state They

show +3
3.) Action Of Alkali
• .
.

like
oxidate
-

+2 and +4 Oxidation State Higher

and +7
also exist 1-4-15, -16
¥28,87 -1 IROH →
2K280g + H2O
to "
They have boor shielding They have 2K260g -1 Hgs Of
•
even
→
KIKO 7+12504+110
•

effect shielding effect

paramagnetic CK0É- 200£

-

also
They paramagnetic and They are
•
◦
are
but their magnetic
their
can
paramagnetic character
be explained easily character can't be explained
easily
4)
Oxidising Property -

behave as a powerful
Kgfozorp
to They have tendency Crl # )
oxidising
•
more
have tendency
They agent em
less
◦

er (+1-1) is into
form complexes to form complexes changed
•

These are non radioactive •

These are radioactive Ionic Reaction

+1411++6 e -0-7203++7110
-

except promethium substance ( qoph

-

Application of Actinoid Molecular Reaction

Asteroids are used in nuclear

KgCsg0zt4H2S0q-YK2S04-CB@dg-4Ha0t3Eo3.A
•

reactors for the production of electricity .

ctinoids are also used for the synthesis of

transuranic elements .
↳ It
oxidise
CO2 +110
④
Oxalic acid →

I
-

I →
, SO → H 50¥
"
Fe → Fest ( ferrous salt to Ferric ) , ,

Has → s csulbhide to Sulbhier) I → ¥-2

→ soft ( Sulbhite to
"

5032 sulphate) Hg 0*2 %

-

SO →
Hasta Csulbhur dioxide to sulphuric Acid
) ☒
Oxidising Reactions in Neutral Medium
-

- . . .

,
H✗ → ✗ C atogen 2km no 2mn02 -1-36]
2 Acid to
Halogen )
1-
Hyo → 2K OH +
5h2 -1 → sit -1
Mn 3e⊖ +4 OH
0*-1-211,0 Mng
_

+ →

ethyl alcohol → It Oxidise

→
acetaldehyde → acetic acid

Has
→
CHROMYL CHLORIDE TEST → 5

This test is done for Mn 02

the identification
Mn 504 →
of U ions
during analysis
-

salt ,

potassium dichromate is heated with conc .

Hzsoa Na
,S20] → Nags Op (thio sulphate
to sulphate
and a salt
having a Nau, KU ) and reddish
-

ceg →
brown vapours of
chromyl chloride are obtained .

Oxidising Reactions in Alkaline Medium

Kick 07 + 4kV
-161150, →
26029+6 KHSO
, -13110 214mn04 -121*-72*4-1 Hao + to]
disinfectant in
Uses It is used as an
oxidising agent ,
_

chromyl ¥02 + Hyo → Mno -1*11+36] ✗2

leather and in
volumetric analysis ,
for tanning in ,

chloride test
214mn04 H2O Mnoa -12K OH + to]
.

+ →
Physical Properties
reddish orange colour
solid having bright
.

ionic
crystalline Mn 05+211,0+350 Mnoii -140h
• , -

→
insoluble in alcohol, acetone
etc
soluble in water and
.

• it is
density around
-3
267 8 am
•
it is odour less ,
with NOTE

Potassium
The overall reactions in alkaline medium is
→
Permanganate CKMnod same as in neutral
kmno, is prepared from medium
byoolusite (
.

Mng) ore .

Structure of
↳ Pyrolusik ( Mnlf) react with alkali metal hydroxide
CKOH ) Mn 0*2 Mn0É
-

to
give potassium manganate O

O 11
-

2mn02 -14 KOH

-102 →
2192mn 0*+21120 I M"

↳
( dark green )
OF [ Mn

Potassium lol -

manganate disproportionate in acid

Tetrahedral permanganate ion
Tetrahedral manganate ion
or alkali to give potassium permanganate c. green ) ( paramagnetic )
burble l Diamagnetic]
2K, Mri 0*+62 → 211mn04 -1 QKU
USES
t
Properties oxidant in the
Pretend
" " ◦

solid soluble It is used as an

crystalline
.

KMn0q is dark purple .

:b Hack ,

organic compounds of ° ""

decolonisation
.

in warm water cotton silk,

bleaching of wool
in host "ʳᵈs
.
•
, ,

" Action ◦ 1- Heat -

instruments
in cleaning surgical
on
heating ,
it decomposes •

219mn04 → ks.mn 04 02+02

+ Mn

3.) In Acidic Medium

2km no, +311,50*-71%504
+ 2mn04 +3%0+58] for Help
"
-149°
mno ,
-

+ sat -150
→ Mn
YOU can donate
→ it oxidise
2-1
→ Fest ( ferrous salt .
into ferric salt ]

Hgs →s
 Am bidentate
Those ligands
ligands
which have ⑦
CO ORDINATION
-
two donor atoms but use one atom to attach with
a central metal atom So these
COMPOUNDS are mono dentate ligands
.

e.g CN ccyano )
-

{
SCN Cthiocyano )
-

Nc
cisocyano)
-

NCS cisothiocyano)
-

Transition metals large

form a no .

Negative ligands which have negative charge

complex compounds In which the metal atoms are bound Neutral ligands

{
symbol of Name of charge on
to a number
of anions 08 neutral molecule by sharing ligands ligands ligands NH ammine 0
Geo such compound are known as co-ordination
.
en
-

cyanide -
±

Compounds .
U
-

chloride -
I CH
]
-
NH
, Methylamine o
Br
Difference co ordination compound Bromide
-

b/w Double salt and -1

0
-

I
-

iodide -1 110 494A

co-Ordination Compounds
Noi Nitrite - N -
1 NO Nitrosyl 0
Double Salt .
Ono
-

Nitin -
o - 1
0
GO Carbonyl
They usually contain two simple
I
OH Hydro ✗ o
_ -

→
→ The simple salty from which no , Nipah
es Mio carbonyl °

salts in equi molar proportion

-

they are formed may or Sen

-

thioaeano -1 PH
} Phosphine 0
Ncs
-

isothiocyano -1

May not be in equi molar prob .

,
. . →
:* new .name .
.

→
They are ionic compound and
They may not be
→ -1
H Hydride
or
may
-

Thio 4.8C A
do not contain any co ordinate 02 TLNCSNH 0
ionic oxo
-
-

but the complex part → ,

92 beroxo
Pyridine
-

bond 2 °
-

always contain co-ordinate bond so ,2

.

suepnito → F
2- sulbhalo
The Kobe Hies of the double
-2
◦
soy Me 'M / °
The bro besties
of the co ordin -

coin carbonate -2 CH
-
-

}
salts are the same as those ation compounds are
Bidentate
-

of its constituent compounds Bidentate

.

different from its constituent .

94 914 " nato -1

•
In the double salt metal ions • In a coordination compound ethane -1,2 eh °
their normal valency the metal ion 0×2 oxalate
show Satisfy its
-

-2 -
diamine
two tube of valencies called
primary and secondary valency .

Chelating ligands : -

•
A double salt loses its •
A coordination compounds It is closed
ring type compound formed
identity in the solution by poly dentate
retain its identity in its
solution
ligands (
chelating ligand ) on binding
to
e.
9K250g Akcsou )] -24110 central metal atom
.

e.g Ky [ fe (( m ) , ] Importance

→ Types of coordination compounds

e.g M ← % ,
-
CH
,
• it forms more stable

cationic complex Anionic complex Neutral complex

←
N - {H complex , called
Ho
,
chelating effect
complexion camp complexion carry complex doesn't
Use
in
+ ve charge -
ve charge carry
°
softening of Hard water
4-
any °
Detection metal ion
cg [ Fe CCN )o7 charge of
[ COCNH> 7,32 -1
e.g [Niccolo ]
°
Seba ration of f- block elements .

Co-ordination Entity
ligands The atoms ions or molecules which can donate
The central metal atom and the ligands
which to it are enclosed in
, are
directly attached square
the lone pair of eo to central metal atom by co -
ordinate bond
bracket and called ordination sphere or coordination
co
in
-

coordination compounds are called ligands

e.g EFECCN )D4 is called coordination sphere entity
.
-

D. enticing of ligands : -

" "" * " "

The number of donor atoms present
The ionisabk written outside the square
in the ligand is called its denticity On the basis of
. groups
bracket and are called counter ions eg ksiefeccn ) , ]
denticity ligands
.

of different forms as :
are
called
mono dental , bidentate bidentate tetra :A÷÷entate poly dentate
,
where Ku ions are counter ions
, ,

hex 'd dentate etc Co-ordination Polyhedron

The spatial arrangement of the
.

Monodentate ligands when ligands around the central metal atom is called co-ordination
'

ligand is a bound to a metal ion

polyhedron e.g
through a
single donor atom
a-, Bo CN -

e.g
-

,
"

Hio ; NH, .CO

Bidentate ligands Co-ordination Number
when a
ligand can bind
through two donor
The total number of co ordinate
'

atoms
-

bond formed by
e.g oxalate ethane -1,2
9146 nato ( Gly )
ligands with central metal atom
,
diamine
,
Co-ordination Number { C Number of ligands Denhiity)
-

=
✗
400
-

°O° GHz MHz

-

EY the Efe CCN )o ]

CoClz@nzJHc.N
-

CH COO [
HY
-

MH
-

[µ ,
-

, ,
= 6×1 = G CN =
2×1+2×2 = 6
Poly dentate ligands Number
when have than two Oxidation
a
ligand more
The charge present on the central
donating sites .

metal atom in a coordination compound is called

e.g EDTA C. Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetate Ion ) oxidation number . It is always positive .

e.g Ku [ Fe ( CN )o ]
OOCH!
ÑfCᵗʰ COO
- -
• •

>N -
CH
,
-
CH -
g,
CHOO
, -

-00cg 4G ) -1×+61-17--0 ✗ = 2

Donor Atoms → 6

Hexi dentate ligands .

 [ Ni clip
④
-

ON THE BASIS OF LIGANDS •

Homolebtic in which only one type of ligands are present Nit → CAN 's 3d 845
28
19 Ky [ Fe CCN ) , ]
Helen lentic in ↑ " / Mkt / 4 IT ✗ ✗ 1×1 ✗
which different type of ligands are present
4s Ub
e.
g. [ Cock Centre za

hybridisation Geometry tetrahedral → sb3 →

Nomenclature of co ordination compounds
-

It is paramagnetic in nature
e.g •
KYEFECCN)o ] → potassium hexacyanido ferrate CII )
U 2) -
_ 4272+2 ) IF B. M = -
_

• @ Q(Hz0ki NO , →
Hlraaqua dichloride chromium GTI) nitrate
&
[ NICCN) 4)
-

tetraammtne.ch/oridonipo-N-cobaltC1I )
•
•
[ Coll ( NG ) (NH] )y] NO, →

nitrate
Kjfecczou }] potassium toioxalato ferrate CIII ) Ni 2-1 [ As ] 18 3d 45
'

→
•
→

28
]ECoCCNs(NO) ] potassium bentacyanido nitrosyl cobaltite #
1T¥
K
it / + At # IT
•
>
☐
•
[ Coclzcenljssoy dichloride bi:( ethane -1,2 diamine) cobalt 4s
→
3d
-

City sulphate
is pairing of e@ takes
•
[ ↳ • (0^10) HI>
CN a
strong ligand so

chlonieobiscethane -1,2 diamine ) nitito -0 -

Place

☒
'

cobalt ' # '

↑H↑Hqk / it ✗
17¥
' ° "
'

◦
[Nikola] → tetra carbonyl nickel (o )
• Li [ At the] → lithium tetra hydride aluminate CIII) 3d Up
hybridisation → dSb2
Werner Theory • two types of Valencies
Metals possess Geometry →
Square planar
primary
,
called ionisable valency c oxidation number
diamagnetic in
or

and ordination
It is nature
secondary or non ionisable valency ( co
.

- -

Number )
The
primary valencies directional
•
are non
CRYSTAL FIELD THEORY
-
.

:
complex show bribery
•
The compound do not any
and Metal ligand bond is in ionic nature so, there
central metal atom ligands present
-

of the the
-
.

in it .
B electrostatic force of attraction btw metal and

ligands
Valence Bond Theory :
-

The
ligands are treated as
negative centres and
these negative centres are so arranged around
Acc to this
.

theory ,
metal -

ligand
bond arises
central metal atom that here is minimum repulsion
due to the donation
of electron pair from ligands btw them
to central metal atom
.

the ion under the In a free transition metal ion all the fire d-
metal atom
-
.
or
Influence of ligands can use (n 1) d , ns , nb , nd
-
orbitals have equal energies ( degenerate orbitals )
orbitals for hybridisation
but when it takes part in complex formation
these d- orbital } split in two parts
Hybridisation C. N Geometry Example
.

it is called d- d transition or crystal

Sb 2 linear
[Aeg ( ( N) ]
-

field shitting .

Trigonal blanar [HGI} ] For Octahedral For Tetrahedral Complex

_

Sbz 3 Complex
Sb } 4 Tetrahedral [ Nikola ) z .

5949 " planar e Nice NKT

dsp 2 4
] 59149M pyramidal fellow
dsb 5
"
d2sp3 6 Octahedral finned [Cr( NH] } )
}
'
Octahedral (outer) ( Feff )
-

sp ] d 6
"
e.
g [ COCNH, } ] of d- orbitals
shape

{
( 03-1 → EARTH 3d 6
At
G- Ao
-
-

63-1 Mla HUH ☐ I 1 1

27
3d Us Up
Go NH] is a
strong ligand so
pairing of e -0

takes place

↑H↑HHXH × XIXIX
Spectre chemical series :
3d Us UP → it % arrange mint of all ligands
diamagnetic of increasing
in order CFSE value is called
hybridisation d%b3 →
spectochemical series .

The ligands with small value

Geometry Octahedral →
U -
_

¥-4 of CFSE are called weak ligands and the

ligands
0 Bom
with higher value of cf.SE are called strong
-

ligand
inner
=

orbital complex
I ( Br ( S2 ( SCN { Cl < F- { OH { OX
_ -
- - - -

{ H2O ( NCS { NH ] ten { NO { CN { CO

-
-
-

,
 ISOMERISM → Tetrahedral complexes do not show Geometrical isomerism
coordination compounds
which
Two or more →
have same molecular formula but have different square planar complexes of formula [ mxgl.sn ] ( ✗ and L

central are unidentak

ways of attachment of their ligands to the ligands) show geometrical isomerism . The
two
metal atom and have different properties These .
are called ×
ligands may be arranged adjacent to each
isomers The phenomenon is known as isomerism
.
.
Other in a cis -
isomer or opposite to each other in a
trans isomer
ISOMERISM
2①
_

'
↓ ↓
9
NH] Ntt
"
-

stereoisomers
- -
-
- - -

structural Isomers

:*
Npg
. .
.

!
. .
.
. . .

arises due to the difference arises due to the different ÷ ;

in the str of coordination spatial arrangement of : :
.

around the metal ion NHS

compounds ligands
-
-
. .
.
.

q
. . . .
'
r
r r
,
,

g.
, , ,

cis Trans
↳
Ionisation
↳
→
Geometrical isomerism
Hydrate
↳
→
Obtical isomerism Octahedral complexes with C. N 6
coordination
-
.

TY be M✗a↳
[CoCNH%U
↳
Linkage e.g
-

Hi
4) IONISATION ISOMERISM
isomerism arises due to

¥
This

exchange
,

of ionisabk anion with anionic

ligands e.g .

l
Eg [ Co Bo CHAO )s ] -1cL and [ COUCH
Ok ]
+
cis
-

,
Bo -

✗
Trans
ECOCNH, )sS0jBr and ECOCMH, )sBr ] SO
,
TY be -

M✗2Az ( ✗ Uni dentate

A- Bidentate
-

& ) HYDRATE
ISOMERISM Or SOLYATE ISOMERISM
In this ×
ligands
✗
ligands )
isomerism water is taken as solvent It has different
? t
.
,

Of water

m-F
no molecule in the coordination sphere and
- - -
- -
-
- -
.
_

g.
1-
My
outside it e.
g A A
:
[ COCH, [
Us (041%42) 4.2140
. . . -
"
.

/
.

, ,

- A cis ✗ Trans
[ LOCH
, 07,4] ] -3110
→ In Octahedral Complexes of the formula [ MA]X ] ]
CO-ORDINATION ISOMERISM % ECOCNH]
}( NO ) ]
tybe of isomerism
occurs when
, ]
This
is interchange cationic and anionic
there
ligands btw of No ,

complexes of different metal ion present in a complex

pity
.

!?
^

% ?
Ecr cnn.HU Cenk ] and ecommerceNW
iffy
11^1%-1
NO ,

NHS
, .

LINKAGE ISOMESISM
isomerism is shown by the NO ,
This type of NO ,
coordination compounds bidentate ligands fac facial
having am
-

Mer -
meridional .

EG ECO (
Nlt ) g-
( NO ) ] Cl
,
and ECOCNH] )s( ONODU
same
ligands occupy same ligands are in
STEREOISOMERISM one face of an octahedron one plane
a

Geoiiinetrical optical
ti →
OPTICAL ISOMERS
Isomerism
Isomerism A optical isomerism is common
- in
These the complexes
are Octahedral complexes
This isomerism is common
which have chiral sp The .
→
The
bidentate ligands
involving
in complexes with Molar mixture of
C- M4&6 pair of stere isomers are the
'
d and
' '
l
'
isomer is termed
as the
.

Geometrical isomers minor racemic mixture

are of images of each other
two thebe but
may not be superimposed
→
Trans isomer cant show optical isomers
C On the stereoisomers .
These ④ 4 4
same ligands are mirror images are called #4 "
% -
t In
÷
. .

bresent at adjacent enantiomers The enantiomers

"si " "
n¥ᵗ_ ✓
.

,
• • which rotate the plane
% polarised light in a clockwise mino ,

direction is called dextro rotatory ⑨ ⑨

" (d) or 4)

ligands are and the enantiomer which rotate ④ Eco CNH

@ n )]
-1

Present at
same
the blane bolarised in anti
,
NH,
)2U , NH,
opposite position light NHS /
clockwise direction / "
:iÉ%
is laevo rotatory
%
"' " "
In E
ce
; a
mirror
 e.g [ MCAA} <3
✗
"

4 -1
DIAZONIUM SALT -

Diazonium salts are written

④
cis -
Eco Cenk 423-1 7
as pm,+ ×
.

where
a
" "
% -

type ,
R =
aryl group
I Co
B r
-11
e n
ion can be a- Br Hsoa and
i -

×
-

:-/ 1- - , ,
I
-

cen Nat group is called diazonium salt

[In
-
-
-

'
minor
-

Mia ME Hsoci -

METAL CARBONYLS
es
, Et
Complex compounds that
contain ↳ benzene diazonium ↳ benzene diazonium
carbonyl ligands only are termed as metal carbonyl chloride hydrogen bulbhate
%
Niccolo Fe CCO)s Creed , STABILITY OF DIAZONIUM SALT
CO CO
co
Arenediazonium salts
Nti Fife
◦°
-
co
0¥ { co
are stable than the alkyl diazonium salts
more .
This can
/ 1-
CO
I 0C
, ◦
be accounted on the basis
of 1- R effect
CO
Coco CO

Tetrahedral Trigonal
Bipyramid at octahedral

BONDING IN METAL CARBONYLS

↳
In metal bond has
carbonyls ,
the metal -
carbon both
S and b- character CO
ligand attach itself to metal atom
-

from the carbon atom to form metal -

carbon bond It is
.

a
weak dono .se
me

on the
- bond is formed by the donation of lone bairqeo
Preparation ( Diazotizatioh Rxy ) -

carbonyl carbon to the vacant orbital of metal

,N=N -4

↳
M
from the
- C it bond

filled
is

d-
formed by
orbital of the metal
the donation
to
of
vacant
a pair of eo
ᵗʰ+ NANO
,
-12 HCl É 1 1- Nall -121120

antibonding IT *
orbital of co This property of back bonding Diazonium salts are prepared and used only in
.

which stabilise the metal -

ligand bond is termed as

solution because in solid state
synergic effect
an
aqueous
they explode
-0m€ +
☒⇐o: -
⊖m☒*ic=o : PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Benzene diazonium chloride is a
a-
overlap colourless crystalline solid and is readily soluble
Donation of lone pair of eo from carbon in water It is stable in cold water but reacts
.

atom into a vacant orbital of the metal with water when warmed It also decomposes easily .
.

in the dry state

€ MA-BEB-B.EE#-E-:( :-D
.

C- •
Benzene diazonium fluoro borate is water insoluble
+ ⇐◦ → =,
① -⑦aiEE ¥¥ and
① g. ① +0 stable at room temperature .

IT
CHEMICAL REACTION -

overlap cut Hs Port

Donation
,
+ N< ↑ + Hypos + HU
of from a filled metal d- orbital
into a vacant
antibonding IT -
orbital of co .
CH '
"ʰ% + N, -1 HCl + CH] CHO

ms =o
"""
%
ÉI + %

]
sand meyer
0
¥-0 ☐ .
CUUIHU
, +µ,
Reaction

Factors
Affecting stability
ns.cnar.eon.ennaemeiaearom.ascna.e.ncenaaem.ae " of a complex a- + Galtesmann

÷;+•
rm
•
,
increases
atom
of complex increases
.

stability ,

/
¥Ñ
""
Nature of metal ion
% ↳
•

+%
stability -
order is 3d<4d45d series
•

Nature of cbenzonibi / e)
ligands strong field ligands
¥-1
form more
"I
-

stable complex 7 + N , -1 KU
°
•

Presence %
of chelate Ring McBeal
-

:
chelation More
the HBF,
more
stability ¥1 ¥1
,

> ,
the Bak Schliemann
Effect of multi dentate ligands
-
• : -

&"
If the ligands are
"2?/ ᵗʰˢ°&
multi dentate the stability of complex increases
,
> HU
AZO DYE TEST + Ng +
-
•
significance of co -
ordination compounds Boiling
EI Nil + H -1¥ -

OH £57M -5-7 -
OH
• In
Biological System b- hydroxy azobenzene
Grange)
↳ In medicinal
☒ Chemistry Nill -1
H-t-7-NHz-T-7-Ns-F-7-NH.IN
-

Analytical chemistry amino b- benzene

?⃝
?⃝
 AMINES
Amines are considered amino as
Preparation of Amines :
-

①
of hydrocarbons or alkyl derivatives An Reduction Of Alkyl Nitrite
of ammonia " ^' " "
> R CHZNIH
Aliphatic amino compounds
-

,
are called amino alkanes and arom .
R CIN
-

-
atic amines are called amino Na
arches c.
g CH]NH , , czHsNHz ,
-
NH
, Ethanol
>
RCHaNH2
Rxn is used for ascent of amine

R NH , -
Primary Amines Csi ) Am Reduction of Nitro alkaline :

Raney Ni
R AH R
-
-
secondary amines (27 1-- N°2
>
A- NH2
Fe / Hee

¥
,

R - N R -

Tertiary Amines ( 3° HYPT >

Sn
'
/ He ' >
r
Reduction with Fe
/ HCl is preferred
STRUCTURE OF AMINES : Eu Reduction of Amides :

R -
É
-
NH
" AIH "
> RCH,NH
, -1110
,

µ Pyramidal
shape of Amine
Reduction of amides give amine
/ 1-H
R µ
with same number of carbons .

☒ Hofmann Ammonolysis Method :

NOMENCLATURE
NH} RX
RX > RÑH > Rjnitt
393K ,
CH -

CHECHEN H2 Protean -
1- amine
( 1- )
,
(2.)
RX
CH
CY CH }
RzÑ ( Ranil)
-

]
-

Protean ×
-

-
2- amine >
NH
,
(3)
CH
}
-
CH, - N
,
-

CyHq N, N -

Diethyl
cuts batan - 1- amine order of reactivity → RI > RBr > RU

CH = CH -
CH -
NH Prob -
I en 1- amine Mti
- -
amine is obtained as major
, , ,
" ,NH↳ product when excess of NH
]
is taken

Aniline b- Bromo
% 1¥ HOFMAN BROMAMIDE DEGRADATION :
£ aniline
it] RCONH + BK -14 NaOH → RNH -12 Nabs
"
% , ,

N N
,
- Dimethyl +
Nails
benzenamine +2110
↳ Amines
formed contains one

carbon less than that present in

NH, -

¢117 ,
- NH
,
the amide
diamine
.

Hexane -1,6 -
?⃝
GABRIEL PHTHALIMIDESYN .
•

Alkyl amines are stronger bases than NH3⑦

°
o ◦
Basic nature of aliphatic amines increases
with increase in the number of alkyl
me nik ¥
-

i. e
groups +I effect of alkyl group
"
o
" increases their basicity .

◦
0 °

dona
'
order of basicity in gaseous phase
•
. . .

nr

§oNa+R^"ʰ amine > 1° amine > NH}

'
-1- 3° amine > 2

In
aqueous phase ,
solvation effect and
↳ Only 1° amines can be synthesized steric hindrance ,
besides inductive

by this method effect of alkyl grouts dead the basic

↳ Aromatic 1° amines can not be strength of alkyl amines .

prepared by this method as aryl ↳ when alkyl group is ethyl group

C2Hs-kNH7@Hs-bN7GHs-NH27NHssub.Rx
halide do not undergo nucleophilic
n with potassium phthalimide
↳ when alkyl group is methyl 920Wh
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES :
KHANH > CHzNH2 > KHAN > NH}

PHYSICAL STATE An BASIC NATURE Of aniline or

any /
The lower aliphatic amine would be less than that

amines are gases with fishy odour 1° ,

Of ammonia .

amines with three or more carbon ↳ less basicity of aniline as compared to

atoms are liquid and ones

higher MHz is attributed to -
I effect of
are solid . benzene
ring and de localisation of
lone pair of N .

COLOUR Pure amines are colourless Note ERG like -

OCH
, Ctg increase
but develop colour on
keeping whereas
}

in air for
basic strength
long time like NO, SO> H decrease
E. v4.4 ,

SOLUBILITY amines basic strength

readily
.

Lower are
soluble in water ,
which
decreases in water and increases in CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF AMINES
organic solvents with an increase in
molecular weight . FOR ALIPHATIC AMINES

BOILING POINT :
ALKYLATION
1° amines are
and 2°
in intermolecular association R ✗ R' R NHR
'
RX
engaged
-
+
NH2=f× -
+
127
while
due to
Hydrogen bonding ,
C)
RNR
'
+ R X
-
→ R Ntr '
✗
3° amines do not have inter moi -
,

-
ecular association ( due to absence (3) Quaternary
ammonium salt
of H -
atoms
order of B. Pt of isomeric amines • It yields a mixture of 152° and 3°
1° > 2
.
> 3
'
amines and also quaternary ammonium
salt .

BASIC CHARACTER OF AMINES : ◦

major product is obtained when

larger the value

of Kb or smaller the a mine is taken in excess .

Value of pkb stronger

,
is the base
NH.ci?-ctgR1Ar-ini-HcHsc0dYR1Ar
ACYLATION -

MHz 4*3%0
> If -

ni Aniline Pyridine Acetanilide

§ Ctg
-
- -

h CH} ( 010 4
Base
BROM / NATION
⑨
The reaction
base stronger than (
is presence of
carried out in + 3Br, BÉ :B
! 3HBr

e.g pyridine ]
a '
Br
which removes HCl so formed and
↳ To mono substituted derivative
shifts equilibrium to
right side .
get
BENZOYL AT/ ON
""
Bra
,NHÉcH }
son
> ;
R NH, -1 Coo R NHCO -5£ + HCl CHSCOOH
by
- -
- -
'

Br
CARBYLAMINE REACTION :

R CHU -13 KOH

^-
R NG -13kV NITRATION
NHL >
-

""É%{¥ᵗʰ+¥,y+Éⁿ
-

, 1-
3h20
"
secondary and tertiary amines do not 988k
N°2 (& %)
show this reaction . (47%3
(g- , , ,
It is used as a test for 1° AMINES
To get mono substituted para derivative
,NHC0CH]
[ᵗʰ
" " " "↳
REACTION WITH NITROUS ACID : HNO, ,
those
'
R NH
-

,
+ HOMO → R OH +
-

Ha ↑ -1 HU NO
,
NO ,

REACTION WITH ARYL SULPHONYL

SUL PHONATION :
CHLORIDE HINS BERG
-50,4
REAGENT '
" £9
,
Mason
, ¥-473k
RNH -1%-7-50,6 Ig so NH R

⑦
- -

, , "
soluble in alkali ↑"
2°

B. NH -1
SGU -7, 4-7-502^1 R2 ↳H to]⊖
-

3. twitter Ion

BN -1
-596 No Reaction
is
→
p -
amino benzene sulphuric acid
Reaction is used to distinguish btw the major product because distance

of amines and Famines

soztl is
'
three classes 132 . btw -
NH, and maximum .

↳ sulbhanilic acid exist in

AROMATIC AMINES 2. WITTER 10N FORM .

NH , grouts is ortho and para directing

-

and powerful activating group .

for Help

Activating effect of NH, group in aniline YOU can donate

-
-

can be controlled by protecting the

with
NH, group by acetylation
-

acetic anhydride and then carrying

Out the desired substitution Rxu ALDEHYDE , KETONE AND
CARBOXYLIC ACID
-
7
 PREPARATION OF ALDEHYDES
Inorganic compounds containing carbon - AND KETONES :

oxygen double bond (15-0) called

carbonyl group
is CnH2n0
. Their general
O
formula 1.) By oxidation of
REC
alcohols

R
:

CHO
④
R CH, OH
- -
i -

-
É -
µ p
-
& -
p
,
" alcohol

003
Aldehyde
R R -
CH -
R
'
4 R -
C -
R'
Aldehyde ketone
tote 2. alcohol
% Ketone
The
carbonyl compound in which

carbonyl group is bonded to an oxygen 2. By Dehydrogenation Of Alcohols

atom of hydroxyl group c- OH ] are Cu / 573K
R CHO
É
>
known
caboxylic acid R CH,
-

as - -
OH
aldehyde
R OH alcohol
'

-
- 1

0415731' R C R
'

R -
CH -
R
'
> - -

Nomenclature of Aldehyde to
ion 2. alcohol ketone

methanol CH
,
-H ethanol
3. By Ozonolysis of Alkenes :

]\°
°
µ µ CH : lil 03 CH
]
CHL > 'f=o + HCHO

% Dentinal
11° CH } Iii ] 2h .
1420 CH
}
' H
µ
ce
4. By Hydration Of Alkynes OH
2- Chloropentanal
11° CHICH
di " "2504
> c. Hi -5%
I ↑, dit .

Hgsoy
H H

3- Methyl butanol Butanol

Tautomerism Ctg
-
CHO

All other alkynes give ketones .

°"
Nomenclature of ketones dit
Hzsoje
-

R -
CICH R -
C- ketone
diitegsoy
CH CH H
Tautomerism
,
R -
-

Ctg
] ] ]

Propanone Acetobhenone
( acetone ) ( methyl phenyl ketone ] BY Heating Ca salt
of Acid

R°°%a A- R CO R - -
+ Caco
,

Rool
2- Penton ◦ he By Decarboxylation and Dehydration of
benzophenone
Aromatic Acids
i
i ¥
1 COOH + HCOOH
a
IF CHO -1110+0 ,

butanone
3- hexanone
3- Methyl -
2-
M£° > COCH -1110+10
-

COOH -11100C CH -
} ,
,

STRUCTURE OF CARBONYL GROUP

120
'
PREPARATION OF ALDEHYDE ONLY
L
1. C- spa hybridization
( 0 2 Bond is 120
. →
ROSEN MUND REDUCTION
angle
. :

3. 30 bond ,
11T bond
1Pa Ha ,
Pd /
Bask R
# µ + HU
4 .
Carbon -

Oxygen R ,

11T Acid chloride aldehyde

double bond consist 1- &

É -
ce
th ' Pd /
Basjhe CHO

E- 5 . Carbon -

Oxygen bond
✗ Benzaldehyd

is polar in Nature → STEPHEN REDUCTION

G.) In carbonyl gb Ct is
elecbobhilicp-c.IN snarl R - CH __ NH É R CHO
-

O
-

b Nucleophilic Partial
Reduction
 ETARD REACTION : and ethers due to dipole dipole interactions But

⑧
-

their b.pt are lower than alcohols

( Ocr OHCI ,) ,
.

CH } ↳2 CH
[¥-
^-
+ (ro, ( 1 , , SOLUBILITY :
chromium
comb/ ex
Lower members
of aldehyde and

H3 '
- CH ◦
ketones are soluble in water because of H Bond
-

Benzaldehyde
.

>
The solubility of aldehyde and ketones decreases
By Side Chain Chlorination of methyl benzene rabidly on increasing the length of alkyl chain .

followed All aldehyde and ketones are fairly soluble in

by Hydrolysis :

organic solvent .

CHU
¥0s f¥cH°
CH
Clothe
-

]
-

, CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Toluene Benzol Chloride Benzaldehyde

Polar Nature Of Carbonyl Group -7
:÷÷÷ ⇐. mmercial method to manufacture of Benzaldehyde
The polarity of carbonyl group arise due to high
GATTERMAN -

KOCH REACTION :
electronegativity of 0 atom
-
.

CO , HU
,
A- CHO
\# > _ § a- Nucleophile center
Anhy AKI, / Cua Benzaldehyde
C. Lewis Base )
electrophile center
PREPARATION OF KETONES C. lewis Acid )

From Acid Chloride

Acidity Of ✗ -

Hydrogen Atom :

2 R -

Mg -
✗ +
Cdclz → Rzcd + 2m98 The strong electron withdrawing effect
2 R' of carbonyl group and resonance
§ -4
'
Rid R -1 Cda
§
+ → 2 R
-
-
-

,
stabilisation of conjugate base

areresponsible for the acidity of

2.) From Nitriles :
4- hydrogen atom .

É
É¥:☐→f¥
CH CIN o
-

]
-
CH
,
-
+ ☒ Mg Br -

E- d-
c.
-
-

Ctf -

Ctf -
C = N
' e
Mgbr
NUCLEOPHILIC ADDITION REACTION
" tf Ot
Cates -
c
-
{ the reactivity of aldehyde is more than that
of ketones , due to
1- Phenyl probanone
↳ steric Reason ↳ Electronic Reason

3.) Frieda Craft Acylation

The attack of nucleophile The presence of two
◦ =
C-
AHR
is
É carbonyl carbon alkyl group in ketones
on

+ As / R Ll ¥4s hindered by the presence the electrophile city of

'

%
- -

AIU
, of large substituent on
carbonyl carbon more
ketones
effectively than aldehyde
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ALDEHYDE
.

REDUCTION
AND KETONE

fzn.mg/Hce
NaBH4 or
> Alcohol
liAlH4
•
lower member of aldehyde and ketones
Who 40 are colourless _ volatile timid Aldehyde
white formaldehyde is a
gas at ordinary and
_

Clemmensen
> > (%
temp Higher members of both are solids
.

ketones Reduction
with fruity odour .

NH , MHz / OH
-
-

•
B.pt of carbonyl compounds are
higher than " ><%
Wolff Kishner
-

those of non -
polar compounds ' hydrocarbons Reduction
 CARBOXYLIC ACID C- C- OH )
NUCLEOPHILIC ADDITION REACTION
110 ⑧
HCN /OH CN
; > c. /
cyanohydrin The
-
on carboxyl group ,
consist
of a carbonyl gb
NAH 3 SUNA Bisulbhite addition
Attached to a hydroxyl group .

y in OH Product
Aliphatic ( R -
COOH) or Aromatic ( COOH )
ROH ROH
> ice::* > nor Their is
µ. , or Acetal general formula CnH2n0z
4th OH
-

CHU -
OH
, )cT¥! ketal H -
COOH CH
]
-
COOH

Methanoic Acid Ethanoic Acid

Z
HN
-

M z c. formic Acid ) Acid )

>
>[ =
-
( Acetic
2 = OH, -

Nth , COOH
CHI -

CHI OH
Loose Oxalic Acid
My
Propanoic Aid [ Ethane -1,2 dioicacidl -

"° "
OXIDATION REACTION '
cooee

KING / H+ #
, R -
COOH

[
Benzoic Acid
2- Methyl cyclopentane
"" " """ "↳◦ ✗%
{
[ Be " " "
" & " + "" °
" l
carboxylic Acid
- -

Aldehydes}
.

Acid )
Totten's Test

2am -150h METHODS OF PREPARATION :

-

RCOO { Only
> Cy OH
-

+
Fettling 's Test Aldehydes}
From alcohol by oxidation :

{ amnedthefha"n%
NAOX "
Nat
'

> CHX, + RCOO É" CH CHO CHSCOOH

(µ
,ayoµ
-

Halo form ,
give this test } '°)

¥1,00
"
"

REACTION DUE TO ✗ -
HYDROGEN
"ʰ° -0

CH, -

¢117 -
OH CH
]
-

CHD, -
COOH
,

OXIDATION OF ALDEHYDE AND KETONE

CH, -
CHO
¥5s ( Hy COOH -

CH
,
-
É -
CH
,
-

Ctg
KMn04
,
[ °]
( Hy COOH + CHGCOOH

Oxidation of ketones is done with

difficulty ace . to POPOFF 's RULE i. e

Metonic group remain with smaller gsoub .

FROM ALKYL BENZENE

ICOOH
y3kM > Benzoic Acid

""
CH
] KMNOY pnthalic
,
acid

"↳
Benzoic
¥, acid
?⃝
 HYDROLYSIS OF NITRILES Acidity of carboxylic Acid ⑤
¥ LRCOONA ↑
tho É H2
R CN
-
+ RCONH R COOH
-
+
,
Carboxylic Acid
R COOH RCOO Ma
COMH # + Hao
-

C.
Hs Ctf CN 1- H2O → ( Hz Ctf
_
-
- -
-

CH
,
-

CTLCOOH NAHH} RCOONA -1110+102

,
FROM GRIGNARD REAGENT
•
Carboxylic acids are stronger acids than
0=0-0 +
Ctf Mg Br -
→ 0=6-0
,
alcohols and many simple phenols but weak -

↳ MgBr -
er 1ha mineral acids .

•
Electron withdrawing group stabilise
the carboxylate anion and strengthen
the acid
CHSCOOH -1 My -8,4
,

whereas eo
donating group
destabilise the
carboxylate anion and
FROM ACYL HALIDE
weakens the acid .

R Coq
-
RCOOH + HCl → Rxn
involving cleavage of C- OH bond

↳ Formation
Ctgcoce Ctg COOH + HU
of anhydride ◦
'

FROM ACID DERIVATIVE

LR -
COOH
H? A
, R -
d- -
p
08%05 A

↳
R -
coz É R - COOH Esterification :

Ordifaqoty '
R -
COOH + R' OH RCOOR -1110
Ease of Hydrolysis ↳ Rx with and 5042 :
Pug Pug ,

RCOU > @ coho > RCOOH > RCONH,

P , RCOU + Poll + HU
,
R COOH PU }
H3P0]
-

>
3 Roll +
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES sock
> race + so, + tea
•
Aliphatic carboxylic acids upto nine carbon
↳ Rxn with ammonia
atoms are colourless liquid at room tents

with unpleasant odour .

The higher acids are RCOOH + NH
]
→ RCOO
-

Miki ¥5 RCONH
,

like Solids
wax .
Rxn involving -
COOH group
-
Reduction lil LIAIHY /ether
rctgotg
•
Due to presence of intermolecular forces the lowest Rcoo ,, orBates
,
Lii )
Hyo -1
carboxyl acids are freely miscible with water
But the solubility in water decreases
•
Decarboxylation
Rcoo Nat R H+ Naacos
-

gradually due to increase in size of alky/ gb

-

↳ 11.11.2 Rxn ( Hell V01 hard Zelinsky Rxh )

stronger intermolecular forces increases ii.

•

Cte, -
Coote CX] -
Coote
the
b.pt of Mono carboxylic acids as
compared to the alcohols
of comparable
↳
Electrophilic ring substitution
molecular masses .

carboxyl group acts as a

deactivating
- -
-
H -
◦
and meta directing group °"
Brr
to '
c- R OH /repro
R -
c.
' " A IB
O H - -
- -

O I _
8,004
Cone .HN? ]
A
Hydrogen Bonding in carboxylic Acid cone .

thou
F- N°2

R
pg ↑ They do not undergo Frieda craft reaction because
-
n -10 . . .
n - o . _ . H - O - - -

carboxyl group is
deactivating group and

in Alcohol / catalyst Alas gets bonded to carboxyl group

Hydrogen Bonding
.
 Configuration of d- amino acids

④
•

Biomolecules coon
Coon

Introduction
H&M H NHL
:
H
Biomolecules are the organic compound
which form the basis of life i. e
they build up
CD amino acid )
R ( L -
amino acid ) R
living system and
-

the responsible for their growth this ) CNH on AHS )

and main fence CNHa on
,

that relates bio molecule to living organism is

amino acids
✗ amino acids
occurringoccur
The sequence 1-
→ Naturally - are
Biomolecules ells cells living amino acids in antibiotics and
→
Organ → → Tissues →
organs → D- some
organism bacterial cell walls .

living
→
systems are made up of various complex
biomolecules like carbohydrate ,
proteins nucleic acids,
,
Zwi Her ion : when a proton is migrated from carboxyl
" bids dt amino group ,
to dual ion is formed
Proteins and carbohydrates are essential group a

constituents our food and this dual ion is called zwi Her ion
of
.

→ In addition , some simple molecules

like vitamins and mineral salts also play an
important role in the
function of organism .

"

Amino Acids & Proteins at

The compounds containing amino group c- NHN and

carboxylic group c- cook ) are called amino acids -

Isoelectric Point ( PI )
R=H ,
Zwi Her ion which is
where ,

aebye or
electrically neutral only
can specific exist at a

aryl group pH , that pH is called isoelectric point

which is different for all amino acids .

leucine pH
e.g pI of
-6.0
-

↑
→ except glycine ( na g Coote) , others optically
pI of Arginine
are
-
-

to -8
active in
" pH = .

nature .

* Classification of amino acids

structure of amino acids :

a. pay - amino acids depending upon the position of on

-

NH, with respect to COOH group R NIH COO

-

CH
- -
. -
-

Him du higher pH )
Neutral having one NH and one COOH 980Mt 2

-1
as anion
→
(
-
-

,
,
Coo
-

-
-

EG NH F- COOH ( glycine ) R
,
ion
-

Twitter
te
( isoelectric point )
+
HN -
de -
COOH
Acidic
having NH, and
pH )
,
one two COOH
grouts cation c low
-

→
-

,
as
.

MHS
%H00C CH Coote ( Aspartic Acid
)
gu Peptide peptides condensation products of
-
- -

•
,
are

two or more ✗ amino acids -

Basic having and

.

NH

in %
two or more one COOH
group
- -

cie-coon-qn.ci?coot-y-.yn-ci!
, , .

4ᵗʰ Han
.com
% ftp.k-q-COOHCLYsfne )
-

HAN
.
. . . . . . . . . . . .
-

dipeptide
%
he
.

Essential and Non Essential Amino Acids : -

-
NH - is known as peptide linkage or peptide bond .

*
-

Those amino acids which can be synthesized by → 2 molecules of 4- amino acid form dipeptide .

essential amino acids

our body are known as non -

3 Molecules of d- Amino acid form bipebtide .

while which can't be synthesized

by our body so must be supplied through our → Dipeptide has only peptide bond
one .

amino acids
diet are called essential .
Tri peptide has only two peptide bond .

Polypeptide :
condensation products of many amino acid
( ≈ 10000 ) is known as polypeptide and those
polypeptide which have molecular mass above

than 10000 u are called booteins .

•
Proteins they are linear polymers of ✗ -
amino
acid .
 Str .

of Proteins : in this 1° Str

Any change .

i. e the sequence

④
of amino acid creates different broken
1.) Primary Structure :
It simply reveals the sequence
a

of amino acids .

2.) Secondary structure :

✗ -
helix Sir maintained
.

by H Bond
-

oops -

pleated sheet Str .

when R is small
00ᵗʰ
secondary structure of Proteins :
3.) Tertiary structure : The secondary stg
superimposition
.

The folding and

of proteins refers to the shake in which a
long
of polypeptide chains shake
forms a compact globular .

polypeptide chain can exist .

termed as tertiary Sir .

They are found to exist in two different

It is stabilised by covalent, ionic , H Bond -

and disulphide bonds .

types of Str .

4.) Quaternary Structure : The precise arrangement of ✗ -

helix stir .

B- bleated sheet str .

constituents Most common ways In this Slr .

all peptide
.

in which a boybe chains are stretched

the Basis Hide chain form
Classification on of Hydrolysis out to
•

nearly
-

all possible H Bond -

maximum extension
simple Protein into and then laid side
by twisting
:

which
give only ✗ amino acid ubon held
by side
-

are
sight handed
hydrolysis
a

e.
g albumin screw ( helix)
together by intermolecular
conjugated Protein
✗ amino acid and
: H
These proteins give - with the NH -
-

group
-

Bond .

non protein part called prosthetic of each amino acid residue

, group
Tertiary Str Proteins
of :
.

Protein Prosthetic Group the tertiary sto of proteins .

represents folding of boy bebtide chains i. e

overall

further folding of the secondary structure

It gives rise to 2 major molecular

shapes i. e fibrous and Globular

The main forces which stabilize
the 2° and 3° Sto .

of proteins are H -
Bonds ,

Derived Proteins disulphide linkage , van . der Waal and electrostatic

These obtained by partial hydrolysis forces attraction
are
of .

of simple or conjugated Proteins .

Polypeptides ]
[ Proteins
of Proteins
Proteose Pebtones Str
Quaternary
→ → → .

On the Basis of Molecular shape some

of the proteins are

composed of two or more

1
polypeptide chains referred
fibrous Protein Globular Protein to as sub -
units

The spatial arrange -

merit
of these subunits
-

with respect to each

other is known as
quaternary structure

Denaturation of Proteins
The Process that changes the
native proteins is
3- D Sto .

of
called denaturation of proteins .

It can be caused
by change in pH , change in Hub .

addition of electrolyte addition

,
solvent like water
of ,
alcohol , acetone .

Primary shot Proteins : Nucleic Acids : These are the polymers which are
proteins may have one or
prepared by Nucleotide also known as holy nucleotide
more bolybebtide chains
→ each polypeptide in a Protein has amino acids a nucleotide contain .
. . .

linked with each other in a

specific sequence and *] Pentose sugar *) Nitrogenous *) Phosbhate
it is this
sequence of amino acids that is said Base 920M .

to be Slr that protein

the si of Pentose Sugar :
either ribose
. . .

5 carbon sugar or

ribose
for Help deoxy
you can donate ( not contain

oxygen at →

2nd position )
 Nitrogenous Base Vitamins
, The organic compounds other than carbohydrates
Pyrimidine
,
purine proteins
and fats which are required in the diet in

→ Adenine →
Thymine small amount to perform specific biological functions,
→ Guanine
→
Uracil maintain normal health , growth
and nutiritition are
Cytosine
④
→
called vitamins
Two H Bonds present A&T CA =D basis of
solubility
are between Classification the
on
-

while three hydrogen bonds are present between

C & a C E- G) Fat Soluble Vitamins
Vitamins A , D, E , K are soluble In fat
and oils but insoluble in water .
They are stored in
liver and adipose ( fat
storing ) tissues .

Water Soluble Vitamins

group vitamins
-

B and C are
soluble in water . water soluble vitamins must be
supplied regularly in diet because they are readily
excreted in urine and can not be stored in
our body (except vitamin B12 )
Bun vitamin K is responsible for coagulation of blood .

Structure of D. NA
consist
It of chain
two
poly nucleotide
chains , each form a
right handed helical spiral
with His bases in one turn of
the spiral
The two chains coil
to double helix and run in
opposite direction These . are

held together by H -

bonding .

Types of RNA
1.) Mess anger RNA Cm RNA ) -

is produced in the
It
nucleus and carries information for the synthesis
of protein .

2.) Transfer RNA

is found in cytoplasm
It .
Its function
is to collect amino acids from cytoplasm for ENZYMES
protein Synthesis .

Enzymes are biocatalyst ,

almost all the enzymes

3.) Ribosomal RMA ( TRNA )

are
globular proteins They are generally named after the
.

provide site for compound class of compound upon which

This or
they work
protein synthesis
e.
g the enzyme that catalyse hydrolysis of maltose
into
glucose is named as maltase
'

functions of Nucleic Acid

421122011 + H2O É 26111206
Direct the synthesis of protein
•

Maltose Glucose
◦
Transfer the genetic informations .

Some Common Example

→
Reb"caᵗiI : Product
process in which Substrate
-

It is a a molecule can Name

duplicate . Urea Urease CO2 -1MHz

→
Templates It means pattern ,
in the process of replication Maltose Maltase Glucose
of DNA the parent strand serves as template Sucrose Glucose + Fructose
,
Invertase
.

Gene Starch
The portion of DNA carrying information about Amylase Maltose
Proteins Amino Acids
a
specific protein is called gene .
Trypsin
Genetic Code : The relation between the amino acid Mechanism Of Enzyme Action -

and the the nucleotide triplet is called

genetic code .

Codons The nucleotide bases in RNA function

amino
in
group of three Clriblet ) in coding
acid
called codons
.

These bases triplets are .

Characteristic feature of Enzyme :

•
Rate of Reaction :
They increase the rate of reaction
upto 106 to 107 times .
•
Specific Nature -

urease catalyse the hydrolysis of Urea

Str .

of Glucose ④
and not methyl urea , so these are specific in nature .

•
Optimum Temperature -

It is active at 20 -30%
•

pH of medium -

it is about 7
,
for bebsiu 18-2-21
for trypsin 7.5-8.3
•
Concentration -
Dilute solutions are more effective
•
Amount of enzyme -

Very small amount can accelerate

the reaction
is known carbon
}
anomeric
{
as
•

Enzyme Inhibitors -
These compound inhibit the enzyme Str of fructose : The G
compounds called
.

and these are an omen

action , with the help such
of
compounds , the reaction can be controlled .

HARMONIES
These are the chemical substance which are
produced by endocrine C.ductless ) in the
glands body .

Harmonies acts as chemical messengers .

Some examples of ductless (endocrine ) glands are

thyroid , pitutary , adrenal, pancreas , testes and ovaries .

Hormones are divided into three types :

is steroids &; proteins Ciii, Amines six membered cyclic
ring
fire membered cyclic ring
ce. £

Reducing Sugar Non Reducing Sugar

free 'C Do not have any free
Aldehyde or
•
•

aldehyde or ketone group

ke tonic group
.

Do not reduce towns

fettling Solh
-

Reduce
Reagent and f- ehling Solh
or Totten 's Reagent

carbohydrates These active bowl hydro

.

e.
g
Maltose & Fructose e.
g sucrose
are
optically -

✗y aldehydes / Ketones or the substance which

Chemical Properties of Glucose
these hydrolysis are called carbohydrates
give on .

CHO
General formula ↳ (Hao
)y 7
4110
• ◦

( CHOM ),
Acetic ( {H O
-
E CH ]
Classification
-

the basis Hydrolysis

-

on
of Anhydride
>
I
,
&

Monosaccharides Glucose
,

CHI O
É CH]
not be hydrolysed further eg CHIH
-

can
• - . - -

fructose
•

Oligosaccharides give 2- Lo molecules Glucose Penta acetate

of monosaccharides
_

eJ Glucose ,
fructose CHO COOH
Polysaccharides monosaccharides 1
Bra
[ÉHOHL
•

give large of )
-
•

no
( CHOH )q [ 0]
.

+ 614 conic
¥
,
e.
g starch cellulose .

1
acid
,
'

CH OH
•
Preparation of Glucose : CHIH ,

fromSucrOI CHO COOH

" N°3
( { Hotel ( { HOH ) ,
6111206 ( 6111206 saccharic
421122011+110 +
•
) ,
>
acid
914 fructose 1
from starch
se
↳ OH
ago ,, OH

¥4
-

↳ H1206 glucose
( Co Hioos )n+nHaO n

{ GHO
"°
structure
aldehyde 900Mt
.
)
µ, GH] •
)
"A- OH
← one ( CHOH )q (( HOH )
CHO ( CHOHI, > ( CHA ) ,
I , 1
,
1
Alcohol
( ( HOH ) a ← four 2° IH { H2O
CHyoH ]
CHyOH
alycoxine
{ 11011 1° alcohol n Hexane
-

← one

"◦
SH ' ^'
Glyceraldehyde )
Glyceraldehyde 1-
4110 ICH
'
D-
µ,µ glucose
CHO CHO
( CHOH )q 7 ( CHOHI, cyanohydrin
* OH HO -1 H I
1

CH OH
CHIH CHIH
, CHIH
Mata rotation when either the two forms
D OH in RHS 2 means OH in 1- His of of glucose
means is dissolved in water there is . a spontaneous
change in specific rotation till the
equilibrium
value of +52.5° .
This is known as mutarotation .
✗ -
DC -11 Glucose Equilibrium B- Da Glucose The two monosaccharides are joined together by an
Mixture
+ 111.50 +19.5° oxide linkage formed by loss
of a water molecule
This is is called
actually an ether
group and

Importance of carbohydrate
carbohydrates are essential for life in both blank and
glycosidic linkage .

④
&
•

•
They are major portion of our food .
animals -

& ☒&- -
-
→ -

& -0 - -

+11,0
•

carbohydrates are used as storage molecule as starch

SUCROSE
in plants and in animals
glycogen .

cell wall
of bacteria and blunts is made up of cellulose
•

x-p Glucose
_

Honey has been used for a

long time as an instant +
source of energy . P D
- -

Glucose
Ebimers monosaccharides in configuration
◦

differing at

a carbon other than anomeric carbon are called ebimers

eg glucose and galactose differ in configuration at 14 ,
hence called epimers MALTOSE
.

B- D- Galactose
+

B- D Glucose

Non
sugars and -

Sugars LACTOSE
monosaccharides and oligosaccharides having sweet
•

taste , soluble in water are known as

sugars
water and B- D- Galactose
•

Polysaccharides which are insoluble in not

+
sweet in taste are known as non -

sugars B- D- Glucose

ˢ• *→É⇐:•¥¥¥¥i
:⇐•÷A•¥•Bg¥EBÉ¥DB¥G%F B.hharaattipaannehhaaksiirr
Panchal Chemistry Guruji 2.0
GBAGBO Bharat
-

INVERSION OF SUCROSE -

DISACCHARIDES AND POLYSACCHARIDES

Sucrose on dextro -

rotatory
hydrolysis either
-

but on with dilute acid or with

CARBOHYDRATES Hydrolysis Linkage Reducing enzyme invertase the solution is changed into
Probert
,
Product
laevo -

rotatory solution .

sucrose x-D Glucose & C- I @ Hose)& Mon -

As dextro rotatory sucrose is changed

Cpisaccharide ) B D fructose
-
C- 2 (fructose ) Reducing to laevis rotatory solution after hydrolysis
Maltose is called invert sugar
Reducing
"
✗ D- Glucose C- 1 Glucose & The sucrose
a

Cpi saccharide)
-

C- 4 Glucose
lactose
( Disaccharide)
B- D-
& B- D- Glucose
Galactose c- 1 ( Galactose) &
c- 4 ( Glucose ]
Reducing 921122011 1- H2O → Co Hiroto + ↳ H' 206
Dt) Glucose
-
DG ) fructose
-

+66.5°
cellulose C- 1 ( Glucose] & Non +52.5° -92.4°
B- D- Glucose
Polysaccharide)
-

C. c- 4 cameos e) Reducing since the laevo rotation of fructose C- 92.4° ) %

Glycogen ✗ D- Glume c-I cameos &
Non more than dextrorotation of glucose C -152.5° ) , the
-

(polysaccharide)
-

c-4 ccelulose] Reducing is laevis

mixture rotatory .

MUTA ROTATION
When
glucose
is dissolved in water Polysaccharides
its specific
.

then rotation changes into an equilibrium units and it consist

is
value This spontaneous change in specific rotation of
starch it a
polymer of ✗ -

glucose
Amylopectin
.

two components and

an
optically active substance to an equilibrium value -

Amylose
is called mutarotation
Amylose Amylopectin
The two
anomersq glucose i. e x-D glucose &

p D Glucose in specific
-
solution changes their rotation
to an equilibrium value which is the rotation of a

chain str
straight .

X-D Glucose 7-
Obenchain B- D- Glucose
Csp .
rotation Str .
Csbeaefic
= -1110 )
.
C. Sp rotation
. rotation

-152.5° ) -119.2 ]
.
= =

DISACCHARIDES
Disaccharides are the carbohydrates
which on hydrolysis with dilute acids or with
enzyme give two molecules of either same or

different monosaccharides