Class 12 Boards 2023 For #BPARMY

CHEMISTRY
SHORT NOTES

Made with
By-Bharat Panchal Sir

· Telegram-Bharat Panchal Sir

Panchal
·chemistry
Gurujico
·Unacademy-Bharat
↳. Instagram-bharatpanchal 92
 2
Chapterwise one shot
of Class 12 Chemistry
Chabterwise D.Y.C9
Class 12 Chemistry
-
INDEX -

Galvalkanes and Haloauene- 1.3

Alcohol, Phenol and Ethers - 3 -
5

59
-

solution -

Electrochemistry -
9-12
12 15
Chemical kinetics -
-

d-and f-Block elements --

15-19
co-ordination compounds >
20 -
23

Amines >
23 -
26

Aldehyde, Kelones and carb. Acid- 26-30

Biomolecule -
31-35

TO help in our

Journey, you
can donate
HaloAlkanes F ①
Hydrogen atom in
• B.pt Order → R I -

> R Br > R
- -
U >R -

aliphatic hydrocarbons replaced by •

m.pt of p -
isomer is more than that of
halogen '
ortho and meta due to symmetry .

R ✗ -

( ✗= f. U,BKI) ◦
The density increases with increase in

classification : → 1° R CH, - -

×
no .

of carbon atoms , halogen atoms and

atomic mass of the halogen atom .

• Haloalkanes -
→ 2
'

R2 -
CH -
✗ •

Solubility Although Halo alkanes, are polar

but they can form
Hydrogen bond
not

Rz C- ✗ hence they are

'

→ 3
-
with water molecule

✗ insoluble in water and soluble em Organic

•
Allylic Halide i solvents .

CH
,
-_ CH -
CH
,
-

✗ Finkelstein Reaction
# R I + Nai
And Halide
-

Nat
Halide Vinyl Halide R ✗ +
Benzyl
-

•
Acetone

CHEX
×
Swarts Reaction
R ✗
-
Agf Hgf , (of
, 085b¥ R - f
r ✗ go
Preparation
-
+

É Properties
r-xca-Bn.IO
+ Pets
>
R U + HU
Chemical
>
-
+ Polls
É> R a Best
R OH + so -1114 method
Elimination Reaction
-
-
-

i. NaBr,H% R Br-
+ NAHSOU + Hao

From Alkene
CH -

4th °HCtf=CH -1 KU -1110

¥-41
] ,
Mark .

R -

cH=ctgtHX ¥ R -

ce
,

R -
CH = CH + Hbo
,
Éiᵈe R -
CH
,
-
CH
,
Anti -
markonikov's
Acc .
to Saytzeff Rule
Rule
Test 8
c=c + By Brag ay Br - ( unsaturation )
In elimination reaction, preferred
alkenes is one in which double
c- atom are more alkylated
ay-ctg-kxctg-CH-ctg-ctg-cq.iq?
ce
bonded
Halogenation : .

CH P ✗ P
¥4
-

,
major CH -
CH -
CH -
CH, CH
]
-
CH -_ CH CH -

]
, , 80%
I
Preparation of Haloarenes
D8 1- ( Hz CH __CHz
CHA
- -

¥1
20%

1- CUO , 2502 AY KOH alcohol

High Polarity
→
.

µ
→
→
R ✗ -

Ale KOH → Alkene → low Polarity

dark
.
.

sa¥¥rañ ¥1 Reaction with metal

✗
Galtermann R✗→ %
R ✗ -
+
Mg PER Mg ✗- -

÷→×
" Grignard Reagent

1¥ CH] -
U -1mg #
Ether
CH, -

Grignard Reagent
Mgcl

Physical Properties Grignard reagent are highly reactive

and react with any source of
B. P ✗ Mol Mass
give Hydrocarbons
.

proton to
B. P ✗ surface Area

BP ✗
11 Branching
 ...
WURTZ REACTION Resonance in Haloarenes :
②
R ✗
-
+ 2Nd + X -
R ¥3 R R -12 Nat
-

\ Aryl Halides are less reactive towards

Nucleophilic substitution reaction because
FITTIG REACTION c- a bond acquire partial double bond

¥ne¥_
due to resonance as a result the bond
✗ + 2Nd -1×-54
cleavage in Haeoarenes is difficult than
WURTZ FITTIG REACTION . - halo alkanes
;ii :

R ✗ -
+ 2Nd -1×-61 define ,
R -47
A
,

Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction :

when an atom or

group of atom is replaced by nucleophile

:✗°
E- É+Nu• →
¥-8 +
leaving group .

Snl ( Uni molecular Nucleophilic) SNL ( Bimolecular Nucleophilic )

fH ] CH }
^

¥- 0*07--1 ↑
④ ¥
¥
Br -0
CH Bo
[ ]
-

+ -
a → Ho . . .
a
,
CH
, , ie Tt H H

CH } FH] H
④ e'
'
+

em
+ OH CH
,
-

{ ,-
µ
OH
→ HO
-µ + a-

}
_

372 > 1° I > 2730

'

Reactivity
'

Reactivity order order

Polar Photic solvent is used

.

• •
Inversion of Conti . takes blace
◦
Racemisation takes place •
Nucleophile attack from obb side .

Aq, NaOH
, R OH + KX
..
-

µ .. . .. .,
.
is ortho and
KCN
R CN + kx
Halo group on benzene ring
>
directing
-

para due to +R effect

N R NC + Agx
1T¥
-

KN "
> R -
ONO + kx
É +
✗

Halogenation
↳ "" i
Agx
Fµ ,+
✗ R NO, +
N°2
_ -

cone . HNO ]
p × -
-

,
Cone
^-y Hzsou

€¥É
Ntfl HX
.

,
R -

R -
Coorg
>
R Coor -
'
+ Agx ,
?'
+
H

KCN is predominantly ionic the attachment ,

gyu il soil
ÉÉ ""

place mainly through carbon atom

¥,>€¥µ
takes -1

and thus form cyanide ,

T¥
covalent in nature
É%,µ
is ctgcoce coals
Agent
-

×
-1

nitrogen is free to donate the e-0 Faia ,

pair forming isocyanide .

Pasa isomer is the major product
 Alcohol, Phenol and Ethers @
Alcohol Phenol Ether
HCHO
i) RMgX
IP alcohol
↑

oft
ii) NgO/H+
R-HR-OH of top R- O-R1
R(HO i) RMgX
- 2 alcohol
str Str Si ii) HcO/H+

ChsXoH kx
- on -
cts 111.7.
↑
TCH, R-CO-R
i)
ii)
RMgX; 3 Alcohol
HgO/H +
due to
due to double due to Lucas test (Lucas Reagent HC+InC)
(p-Lp
bond character bulky alkyl
repulsion 1 alcohol & alcohol 3 alcohol
and so "hybridised group.
R-CHz-OH tHU -OH
R-H-OHtHG Rr
+ HC

Tubes of Alcohol
30
↳InQ ↓, zncz 1, 2nc
ye 29
R-CHc'd +k20 R

R-CHa-OHRYCH-OH RRcoH Turbidity

R-H-a + a - -
4+ 12

R
appears on Tubidity appears turbidity
Benzyl Alcohol vinul Alcohol in min.
Allyl Alcohol heating 5
appears
immediately.
CHy-CH=CH-CHg-OH oTCHc-OH CH
= CH
-
OH

Methods of Preparation Preparation of Phenol

CHy-c +ag,K0H ->CHg-OH tkU
+ NaOH
623K
oats toward to
CarbonylCompound out
From Puenol

&

Chsd-cHs+H Hi
CH-CHco e
OH

CHz-CH-CH
cost of you
were
t
e
IAM
ance
on
*
of
Alta
8 -
53
a. a R-cHo
Cumene Process ·CHs
Acid Catalysed
From Alkene:
Ys Hydration CHj-CH-CH 3 Ck-C001
RT Not
MY + tg0 FCHg-c 10 +Oa - *

c
=

Hydroboration Oxidation Ron

-
Physical Properties
CHy-cH =
cHc +
(BIts) -

(ts-CH-CHEB ·Due to
strong hydrogen bonding blu
molecules
of alcohol, they have higher

CHs-CHz-OH +HBO, <IHO bot

alkane
as

having
compared to molecules of
same molecular mass.

From Griguard Reagent: ·

As molecular weight increases

I-H -M-MgBr also increases
HE and
+ No- surface area
+CH,MgBr there is increase in van dev
Waal force. As a Result mopt
CHy-CHLOH + Mg /Or increases.
 incent
The bitof phenolincreases
HC
·
with
O
-
anm.2nc, Cctls-c+HcO

HI

Nature of Phenol: Redp

> CaHs+Ic + HcO

PUs
order of acidity (504) 10(2:3 x Cts-U + POU, +HC
electron
withdrawing group like NOC
-

increase SOUn, RH5-U+SOc+ HC

,-CHo,-COOH acidic
-

strength due to -
effect while
NH3
electron donating group like-R.-OR x
CzH5-NHc + HO
InC
decrease acidic strength due to +I
NO
effect CgH5-OH- Y CH5-ONG
Na ONG
Y
Ko + Hc CHICOOH
x CH,COOCgH5
ONG
NaOHy + HcO
#
He SOU
IN 413K
- CaHj-O-GHs
X
Distillation 10.+
Zno

#
iCHICHO ECH,COOH
NHS
InCz
I
itat Ho
OH Pas
Yo Ms CHc=CH+MO

I
+
A +
HgO
I O I <E-COU CH

x NaOH
<x-C00-EY 573KYCHsCHO + Ha
OH
BUz
water
Y
BrorBr 2,4,6-Thi
-
In +Naot CHIs

Oxidation
bromo
By
OH on phenol
BUz
*Br
2S2
-
( + Palcohol
to
Aldehyde
'Br
0. and b-Bromo phenol
2 alcohol to Keroue
OH
conc. HNOs
to
cons. He SO4
I
NOroe -
30 Alcohol No ROU

'No,
2.4.6- Trinito phenol Ethers R-O-B' CnHan+iO
Conc.
Hsoa, OH

99.
Notsost+ Ko 'SOgH
Preparation
on

YourNo 1
HNOs
Dehydration of Alcohol
·

x +

OH 'NO2
2((<H5-OH) #

> CaH5-O-gH5
KOLBE'S *_COOH 413K
Naon+COn, 10 salicylic
Reaction
(H5-c) AggO E; (H5-O-Hs
I t
- Acid ·
a +
OH
Reimer-Tiemann
CHMs+K90H, Salicyldehyde
S

I
->(No
RXM Ht
10
Y
Williamson Synthesis CSNY

R- X + Nu-O-R' ->R-0.R'
+ Nax
O

Narco.Ot
It
Oxidation RxY 1 ether will form
Bennos, wines ·If alkyl halide is
is so alkene will form
·
If alkyl halide
 ⑤
Ho
Br inCHCOOH OCHs
Chemical Properties
Bromination Bu

I
-

Ethers are less reactive than alcohols

is ortho and
/CHs
Alkoxy ion para

lear
·

cons. HNOs
it activates the
directing benzene
0
CH3 concson 101
+

sub.
sing towards electrophilic I

OCH] + - No,
s
*
+

OcHs
Il 11

↳ &CH]

AsMauchyAlsoe
-

of Y

E
CH

I
In
-

R-O-R+HX-R-OH
->

+R-X
CHy-"- 4 lan

I + HX -
+ R x -
EC.
>
Acelation
Alls

OCHS
3 I

o
order of reactivity
HI >HBr>HC

for
Hecan donate
Polyhalogen SOLUTIONS
compounds is
It a homogeneous mixture two
of or

pure substance
more

-Dissolved m Solvent Dissolved in

Chloroform (Trichloromethane, cas
->

In - -

<Hy+31 might, culls +3nc

smaller Quantity. larger quantity.
controlled
oxidation eg sugar, salt eg Water, Milk.
* Lodoform (triiodoform, CHI)

CHyCOCHy +
3E+1NaOn-ChIyy+3NaI +CHycooNa
3H2
-

In Carbon Tetrachloride [((1]

is CH1+A42 Sunlight, C++1HC

ii) CHU, +42 AC1+IHC
+ is a colourless, non-inflammable, poisonous liquid,
soluble in alcohol and ether.

Buses
·-asolventer oils,fats,estextinguisethe
or
-> solution exist in single phase
particle size in solution is less than 1um
trichlowethque)
->

PDT (bb-Dichlow Diphenyl

Dilute solution:Large amount of Solvent
-- 4

at0 e
Y- a -

concentrated solution:Small amount of solvent

in
=

ue

2,2-bis (calow Aqueous Solution Solventis water

chloral Phenyl)
chlorobenzene
1, 1, 1-pichlow ethane Non-Aqueous Solution:Solventis other
than
-

water
Mass Percentage (t) o
=solute
insol,100
Man
essure No significant effect. ⑥
of solution
Volume Percentage HENRY'S LAW the partial pressure
(F):me
Solute in soll
(100
the in vapour phase is proportional
volume of Solution of gas
Mass by volume Mass of solute insole
to the fraction of gas in solution.
more

percentage
(w) :

100
*
Volume of Soln p=KMC kn Henry's Constant
Parts per million Copans
parts ofcombonenixloevalue of kn increases with increase in the e

solubility · decrease with increase in kH.

Mass Fraction (x) =
a solutepation Effect of temperature:
is
As dissolution an
Mole fraction (K) = exothermic process i.e solubility of
Gases in liquid decrease with increase
un:
aug "B:tns in temperature.
Unitless
xA+xb = 2, more fraction is a
quantity.
Vapour Pressure: The pressure, exerted

Molarity (M) Number of moles of solute by the vapour m

per litre of solution. equilibrium with the

liquid/solution at
a particular temperature
ofsolutea wax to
Moles
M.
the factor. Weaker intermolecular forces greater
*
the vapour pressure.
Unit: molt or M or Mola
·

temperature 4, NP also increases

Molality (m): Number of moles of solute
per kg may of solvent * Molarity depends upon temperature but

molality doesn't
ofsolutean oxor
oeroles
m:

Application of Menus Law

Relation ship blw Molarity and Molality:

·
scuba divers suffer from bends
·
climbers suffer from anoxia.
M- Molarity

MMBscikg),MBeMolarky
M: memolality RAOULT's LAW:
Man partial vapour The
in
pressure component is equal
of a

to the vapour pressure of that

SOLUBILITY: Maximum amount that can
component in pure state multiplied
be dissolved in a specific
by the more fraction of that component.
amount of solvent at a specific temperature
PA =
PAXCA OB b3XCIB =

Factors Affecting SinL

for Volatile solute For Non-Volatile Solut
Nature of Solute and Solvent - Polar
PT =
PA +PB Pp: PA
solute dissolve in polar solvents and non
polar solutes dissolve in Non-polar 8
F: PAAXCIA
solvents i.e like dissolve like

effect of temperature
Exothermic AH:-ye Endothermic Atstre

solubility decreases solubility increases

with increase in with increase in
temperature temperature
 Tb → B. Pt of
solution
Kb✗WRms_☐Xl%÷
A- Tb =

T ;-) B.pt of bare

,
solvent

kb✗nI}¥%g
↳ MB =

Kb → molal
,
elevation
constant
00

a-
ebullioscobic
constant
m→
molality
Notz → value

of Kb
depends
upon
nature of
solvent

Depression in freezing Point CATF ) f.pt of

Azeotrope : These are liquid mixture
a solution

which distil over without change containing a non -

volatile solute is always
In composition lower than F. Pt of pure solvent and

+ ve deviation are known as min .

this difference in freezing point is
in
boiling azeotrope e.g GHSOH -1110
called depression freezing point .

Tf =
k.fm
deviation are known Max
.

-
ve as .

im
boiling azeobobes e.g HMOs -1110 A. Tf =
KI
used to calcul -

COLLI GATIVE PROPERTIES -

ate me for
normal
Depends upon number of mules of solute .
molecules
Relative lowering of vapour tressure Relative

lowering of vapour pressure is equal to

Kf → molal depression or
cryo Scobie
constant
the of solute in the solution constant
mole
fraction .

p; p
wmB_BXMwA_a Tf
-

Xz ATF Tf
¥
= =
= -

of V. P is not a colligate're booberty

-

Freezing point of bare solvent

Lowering Tf
-
=

-
RLVP is a colligate're Property g- =
freezing point of solution
p; -
v. P of pure solvent Wz -
Mass of solute
ATF = KFXM
M, Molar mass of solvent
P, V. P of solution
-
-

Kt ✗
%ˢ %÷g
=
✗
Wi -
mass do solvent Mr -
Molar mass do solute .

, ,

Boiling
Elevation in
"ᵗ¥Y¥w°°÷g
Point MB=
B- Pt of solution ,

containing a non -
volatile solute is
OSMOTIC PRESSURE :
always higher than
boiling point of
pure solvent and this difference in External pressure used to stop
boiling point is called elevation osmosis
in boiling point A. Teb
Tb Tb IT
¥2T
=
= -

A Tb _- Kbm
B M I
MB=WBhXT
:

Tb -_ Kb
 W e
of Association () and Van't Host factor (i)

⑧
If molecules
i Osmotic pressure
a
of a substance A associate to form An
=
T Temperature :

and a is the degree of association, then

R Ga, constant An

3 it is
nA-
v Volume
=

nee
=

initially 1 mol 0

At equilibrium 1
I
calculate Me for macromolecules
-

used to Total
no. moles atequili
I
1 -x
+
=

I
SOTONIC SOLUTION:
i association dissociation
have 1
=
no or

Two solution same

is particles undergoes dissociation
osmotic pressure (T) is a particles undergoes association

egsaline solution (0.9%) and Blood. ·

calculate the molarity of 9.8% (w/w)
solution of H2SO4 is the density
IA) MB
El ↳ of the solution is 1029ML/C Molar
Sol
Hypotonic Solution
mass of HSOG:909mol")
Hypertonic
have High osmotic Have low osmotic Man & Soluts:9.89
pressure Dressure Man of Solution:100g

Reverse Osmosis Density of solution:1.029mL-1

when a pressure more than
of
n
:Vol. Soln:
the osmotic pressure is applied to the
solution, the solvent may pass from
into the solvent through 98.039(1:0.0984
solution, agmc
=

the semi-permeable membrane

desalination of
by sea water.
X
Number of moles of solute, n=
9:0.1 mol

ABNORMAL MOLECULAR MASS

some cases, Molarity:Anmoles of solute
observed colligative proberties deviate from their normal
calculated values due to association or dissociation of
You. 8 Soln(m4
molecules.
1
=

colligative properly (i 0.098

= 102M

higher values observed in case a association e.g benzene

Lower values observed in case
a dissociation e.g ki
·
For a 5% solution of Urea (Molar Mass

:60g/moll calculate the osmotic

YANTHOFFFACTORCISraaid"again
·

e pressure at 300K 2020

TR:0.0821 (atm K-1 mol-]

property.

I
colligaleProbeeet
red
=

or i normal molecular
= mass AnMolality (m) of urea solution
observed molecular mass

owsom
or no.
=

A particles after association or dissociation ·

number of particles initially

08
Colligative Property
and Van't Host factor

AT ikom
=
I for strong like
electrolyte 0.5 m
=

AT1 11m KC 2, MgSOYNaCl =2, 2

= = =

i CRT kgSOy 3, Aly(SOnly= 5 Osmotic pressure (T)=CRT

= =

ic
= =0.877X0.0821 x 100 =

21.6 atm

Degree of Dissociation () and Van't Holf factor (i) h

if one molecule of a substance gets dissociated into calculate the solubility of CO2 in
In particles and x is the degree dissociation then water at 248K under 760 mmHg.
(kn for in water at 290K is

!
A up
>
co,

= e
-

initially 1mol o
1.25x100
At 1x 4x
mm teg)
29,

solubility of CO:* 60sxTo"

Ex,8
Total at
no.gmoles
equilibrium: 1-x+h<
 { Electrochemistry } Salt Bridge $ its functions : ⑨
Electrolyte : Those substance which dissociate into ions a U-shaped
concentrated
glass tube
son
containing
of an
in their aqueous Solh on
passing electricity are known as
inert electrolyte like Kai KNO
}
electrolyte eg Nacl KU
,

,
Non -

Electrolyte : ikzsos in agar agar form -

Those substance which whose one end is dibbed

in beaker and 2nd end
doesn't dissociate Into ions In their
one

is dipped in another beaker

solution
passing electricity
.

aqueous on

is known as non -
electrolyte
eg Sugar Urea Glucose function
passage of one electrolyte into
,
;) prevent the another
,
.

Ii ) It comblete the inner cell circuit .

ii 'D It maintains the electrical neutrality of Solh in both halt

cells .

iv ] Used to connect both the beakers

which dissociate completely which dissociate partially
.

into tons .
into ions .

ez Hel HMOs , Hasek etc e.

GNH-4011 Ca Hk Electrochemical cell / Galvanic cell / Voltaic cell : -

, . ,
It is used to
CH COOH etc convert chemical energy into electrical
} energy
.

CONDUCTORS beakers
.
we take two
'

conductors In Ist beaker take

Metallic Conductors Electrolytic we zn
•

rod dipped in 2ns 04 Solh .

•
Flow of
electricity is due to the •
Flow of electricity is due to •
In Ind beaker we take
flow of eo the flow of ions .
CU Ood dipped in CUS 04 Sol ?
electronic Also known as ionic
Also known as
Bridge is used
•

conduit.rs
•

Salt to connect
conductors .

both the beaker

.

flow of electricity takes Flow of takes place

•
place •

electricity
Oxidation takes place at
without the decomposition of by the decomposition of ◦

substance substance .
2h rod in Ist beaker
•
The electrical conduction decreases .
The electrical conduction increases
◦
Reduction takes place at CU
with increase of with increase of tents trod in 2nd beaker
temperature . . •
oxidation half Rxu
.

because kernals start

vibrating because increase of temp ,
increase zn → 2m£ -1+2 eo
which produce hindrance in in dissociation or decrease in •
Reduction half Rxn
the flow of electrons inter ionic attraction
cu2++2e0 →
.

Cee
.

well
low as as
High Only low voltage of current 2m£ + + Cee
• •

overall ¥ zn + cut →

voltage of current can pass can pass

through electrolytic
conductors conductor
through metallic

eyre ,
Al ,
Ag etc .

e.g Nale ,
NaOH ek .

Electrode Potential
the tendency of an electrode to either
Factors
Influencing Electrolytic Conduction
• :
lose or
gain eo when
it is placed in its own solution .

→
Nature of Electrolyte :

of ions is conductance ↓ ↓
larger the no .
more
Oxidation Potential Potential
,

Nature of Solvent :
Reduction
→
The electrolytes ionize em water but not in The tendency of an electrode The tendency of an electrode

organic solvents like benzene because water is polar whereas to lose eo to

gain eo
benzene is non polar So , electrolytic conductance increase in
STANDARD HYDROGEN ELECTRODE ( S.H.E ) Device which is
-
-

used to
Polar solvents
calculate standard electrode
.

M
→ solute -
solvent attractions / Solvation or
Hydration : Potential
of any electrode
larger the
.

solvation of ions ,
lesser is conductance → It can act as bothoxidation
as well as Reduction Potential .

→
Temperature : As the temp increases the conductance also
AˢAH2→ 211++2
.

increases because the dissociation of electrolyte increases .

eo
So , number of ions as well as the Steed of ions increases
Ascathode
-

→ Dilution : ions
As dilution increases ,
the number of of a
weak 211++250 → Ha
speed increases
.

electrolyte as well as their and so

conductance also increases .

Bharat Panchal Sir Electrochemical Series

g. what is cell ? Arrangement q various electrodes in the
Aux It is a device which used
into another form of
to convert one form of energy increasing order
of standard reduction potential .

energy .

Chet lithium -3.05 V

Li →
ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL ELECTROLYTIC CELL
ink Ca calcium
.

→
-2.87W
31kt At - Aluminium I. GGV -

UHT 2h → Zinc -
0.76 V
th Fe → Iron -

0.44W
oft Ni Nickel -0.25
Vieillot
→

Pb lead 0.13 V → -

& H
cute
→
Hydrogen 0.00 V
C" → copper +0.34W
Ziggy Ag → Silver +0 SOV -

Seki 311£ Br → Bromine +1.08W

3114¥BUT at Au Gold

50VG@BG-GoBharatPancha1-ChemistryGuruji2.o
→ + 1-
 Application
1) Comparison of Relative Reducing Power or
oxidising Power
Conductance of Electrolytic Solutions
⑩
·

Resistance: It the obstruction to the flow of electric

2)
Predicting the feasibility spontaneity of Redox
or a
Reaction through the conductor. YORK
current

metal will react with dilute is directly proportional to its (l) and length inversely
Predicting whether a will
3) t
*

mineral acids evolve

and Not. proportional to area of crossection (A)
Hydrogen gas or

2) Activity or
reactivity of metals.
RC
or R
s
=

A specific Resistance
3) Calculation of the EMF of a cell. or Resistivity.
Unit of Resistance =
ohm(l)
E.
M.F =
Ecel: Ep-Ec ohm metre (2m)
Unit of Resistivity =

Ecathode-EoAnode
=

conductance:
inverse of resistance
·

the
EReduction Foxidation
-

A
-

Newust Ea," a =
= =
k
Dependence of EMF on concentration of electrolyte is who let
and
Unit of conductance ohnt or or or siemens.
temperature
Nerust eq," for half cell Rx CONDUCTIVITY:
inverse of resistivity is called conductivity
·

The
M + uee - M(s) especific conductance)
unit: ohm-cm-
Em
EMF ens
rea a=k* 1= LiM
=
when Arkana
G = 15
EM: electrode potential of metal under given condition material is its conductance
conductivity of a

EM: electrode potential & metal under standard condition when it is som
long and its area of
R: gas constant 8.3145K-mol- =
cross section is Lama.

Temp in Kelvin
MOCARCONQUCTINITH:It is theconductivityofall toprese
T:
·

the
F: Faraday constant (96500 (mol 1)
n =

n0.6 to loss or gain in reaction It is denoted by am

am kXV or am
15x =kXo
=
=

EM:
Em-059llig[Mn+y +
Units: ohm" cmmoltor s come molt
acity

For cell: Note

-aAtbBEcC+dD R=
1 "The is called cell constant denoted by
qx==RK
te
Ecell-alligactcl
Excell:
8. Discuss the variation of conductivity and molar conductivity
(NCERT
Erecell-ol logo
with
concentration
Am In case of strong electrolytes the molar conductivity
increases slightly with dilution, as mobility of ions increase
In case of weak electrolates the degree
Ecell-0591 lg Oc equilibrium
=>

of ionisationincreases with dilution therefore, there is a

constant in
where is concentration quotient , large increase molar conductivity with dilution.
conductivity is conductance between two
At equilibrium Ecele: 0 and Qc= Kc opposite faces of one centimetre cube. On dilution, no. of
ions per cm3 decreases therefore conductivity decreases
Cat 298K)
Eiel=0591 lgkc on dilution

CHyCOOH xm limiting = molar conductivity

standard when concentration approaches
Maximum
Gibbs or work done A4=-hfEell zero, themolarconductivepresen
free by cell
energy KC
conductivity.

Calculate the eat of following cell at 298K:

Mg/Mg* (0.001 M) //CuS(0,000 M) /Cu EmgCtMg=-2.37V KOHLRAUSCH LAN: -

En+/(u = 0.3AV
is
Limiting molar conductivity of an

0.36-(-2.37) electrolyte the of individual contribution of

Am Etell: Ep-Ec
sum
> =
2.71V
anion and cation of electrolyte.
AAB AAT AmB-

Ecell -Excell-fousal engrooved

intere
= +

AAt- limiting molar conductivity of cation.

NinB: limiting molar conductivity of Anion.
Applicationscalculation of limiting molar conductivity of weals
electrolyte.
2.71-591 log of
=
ii) Calculation of the Degree of Dissociation
-

Degree of Dissociation (c)

am- Molarconductivityatanyprote CONC.C.

2.71-0.02955=52.68V
=

standard Gibbs free energy

iii) Calculation of dissociation constant of weak electrolyte:
Calculate
=
change for the
reaction: concentration
given Dissociation Constant (k):
c
2=

An DC:=-UFEcee
2n+cat-ZnattFiel: How =
Degree of Dissociation.
= -

2X96500X1.10
=-2193005 mol = -212.3K5 molt
 determine
BATTERIES
•
Suggest a way to the Ain value of water .

which
These are source of electrical energy
AI Ain CHAO) tin H+ + din OH
-

in series
MAY have
=

one or more cells connected .

find Ain CHU) nine NaOH) and Ani CNAU ) E.•

out Then
combat and
we
, Good quality battery should be light ,

ninety = Ain CHUI + Am CNAOH) -

Ain (Nau )
is
its
voltage should not vary
PRIMARY BATTERIES
during its use .

④
g. The conductivity of 0.20M Solution of KU at 298k and after use
reaction
◦ " er
the occur only once

0.0248 S Cm -1
. Calculate its molar conductivity ☒ CERE ] .
a period of time , battery
becomes dead and can't be
reused again .

AT DRY CELL OR LECLANCHE CELL

Km%°nµ
Nm
0°%◦
=
124s cm2md "
= =
This cell consist as 2n rod act as anode
> ermine

*•ñ••• →
metal cab
and cathode is carbon rod which is
9. Aim for Nall
,
HU and CH
]
Coo Na are 126.4 425.9 and
,
surrounded by powdered Mr:* -02
91.0 s c. marmot
'
respectively .
Calculate Ñ too CHIC 00 "
Ani din Nat tinct c. m2 moi
I ① At Anode
Ay NaCl 126.4 s → zinc " esseecn-n.ae ,
-

+
- -
-

-
=
"
'
-20 zn the -0

÷!!!!!!!!
Ani HU =
din H+ + till
-

=
-425.9 S c. m2 Mot zn →

÷÷÷÷÷¥
At cathode
ninaescoona-aicgeoo-i-dmna-i-si.ose.mn "" ①
-
. I Grab
hiya cathode) -

7mn02 -1C Mno, -12N Hut +2 @ ◦ → Mnzog -12 Mtf -1110

have to calculate Ani CHZCOOH Anicthloo + ninth
-

we
.

. is cell potential of
= .
has a 1.54
⇐ terminal

operating ③ +20 ① 2nd

- '

390.5 Sam
-

MERCURY CELL as Anode

consist of Zinc mercury amalgam
.

It
Faraday 's Electrolysis :
-

law of
is a taste of mercuric oxide CHGO )
anode cab
The cathode
.

znaugl
( Amalgam and carbon powder The electrolyte consist of
First law
.

:
a mixture
The mass of substance deposit or liberated at separator aican
of KOH and 2h0 .

> cathode
Citgo) At Anode
any electrode
proportional to the amount of charge
during
electrolysis is directly 2h -120h -
→ 2h0 -1110+2 e -0
ii At cathode
passed Hg -120k
-

1190-1110+80
.

Mathematically w✗Q E. Ii It ] ZnO -111g

-6 W ✗ Ixt
Zn + Hgo →

[ Ixt =D ]
potential of a mercury cell is approximately
w = ZXIXT # The 1.35 V .

we mass substance deposit / liberate

of cell reaction no
ions
electrochemical equivalent It remains constant as in the overall

M%
↳
2-
are involved in solution Thus it lasts longer
-

=
◦ ◦
I> current t → time . . .

Uses of Mercury cell

Q What do you mean by Faraday constant ? It is suitable for low current devices
like watches,
And charge of one mole of e -0
↳
hearing aids , toys etc .

6.022×1023×1.6×10 96487 ( MOH

-

C Mol -1
Secondary Batteries
≈ 96500
A secondary cell after use can be recharged
Second law : it
when same amount of electricity passed through by passing current it in opposite direction so that can
-

two different electrolyte connected in series , amount be used

again A good secondary cell undergo large no
.
can a .

of substance deposited at electrodes is directly proportional of discharging and charging cycles .

Lee Pon
cadmium battery , battery
to their equivalent weight .

eg lead storage Battery, Mickel

-
-

Amount of Ag deposit
=
eq.wt.qAg_ LEAD -

STORAGE BATTERY : -

Amount deposit eqiwt of Cu consist lead anode

of Ca it
of a
.
.

A%ᵈ#
and lead oxide cathode .
A 38%

⊕ Solution of sulphuric acid acts

1 cathode as
electrolyte . Each cell give
A solution of Aesop is dedsolysed for 10minutes with the
voltage of 211 this

÷÷÷÷
g. a so
of 1.5 amperes What is the cell is give
÷÷÷÷
current mass of copper to
.

sufficient
NCER@AugAcc.to
deposited at cathode the
Rxn Cu 2-1-1250 Cu
voltage
of 1211 These .

%:*,
→ .

voltaic cues are sebarakd

by then fibreglass
Mgfˢ✗I✗t 632%4%5×600
w = 2✗I✗t =
a-
sheet
solution .

Pb Pb 02

During Discharging
are
≈ 0.2938g ,
the cell reactions
A solution of Nic Noda is electoolysed between platinum electrodes
AT ANODE
Pb -15042 Pbs 04+20
-

using a current of 5.0 ampere for 20 minutes what mass of

nickel will be deposited at the cathode
.
→

t.CAT mass of Ni -58.7) NCERT - -

AT CATHODE
Arg Acc to Reaction 2-1-12 eo Ni
Pby -150£ +4Mt + Leo → Pbs 041-2110
-

Ni
.

mgyjgmag.mx ÷ ✗
w ZXIXE Ixt 50×12 " The Overall Cell Rxn
-

:
-

1.825g 2 Pbs 041-2110

Pb + Pb
02 +211504 →

Q How much
charge is required current is passed through terminal
During charging the
YOU
.

support
,
lil 1 Mol of Aest to Al from external source . The reactions are reversed
The electrode reaction is }
nest + Seo → Al
Charge required =3 f
Mater °
it is commonly used in automobiles, power
inverters .

=
3×96500 C =

28950€ FUEL CELL : -

molten Caclz
Chemical energy from combustion of fuels
( ie ) 20.0g of Ca from
The electrode reaction is Ca 2-11-20 → Ca like hydrogen ,
methane and methanol is converted
If into electrical energy .

40g of Ca required =

If
20g of Ca required = .
 ⑫
Itegeficent.cois

trodE E E NE FNcaMONY
I

method when compared to the

of thermal bower plant

efficiency (40%)
-side product is water which when one or more substance undergo a
change which
doesn't cause pollution. results in the formation of a new product, called chemical
⑲ In the and oxygen reaction.
cell, hydrogen
through porous carbon CHEMICAL KINETICS, i the branch of chemistry which
are bubbled
electrodes into aqueous sodium deals with the study of lates of chemical reaction
hydroxide divided
platinum
solution.
Finely their mechanism and the conditions in which rates
or balladium acts as a catalyst
in can altered.
providing
be
↳It was used
for electrical power
were
pollo space programme. The water vapours
A

ON THE BASIS OF SPEED

produced condensed and added to the drinking i) VERY FAST REACTION: Some reaction such as
water supply for astronauts ionic reactions occur very
At cathode fast
e.g AgNOs+Nacl -> Agle + NaNOs
10 -> you-
02 + CH0 + ii) VERY SLOW REACTION: Some reactions are
slow it takes
At Anode months to in completion
very
years
21+ you-- 4Ho+ fee moister
e.g.Rusting of ironinthepresence
air and in
overall of
cell RxU &HatOc ->&HcO
iii) MODERATE REACTION: Those reactions which are

very slow nor

neither

very fast but takes place at moderate speed.

inversion of cane sugar
e.g
E CsH1zO6 +CoHizOc
C2HecOll +HO
Glucose fructose
ON THE BASIS OF NUMBER OF STEPS =>
COMPLEX REACTIONS
ELEMENTARY REACTIONS when asequenceofdementeentire call it
complex reaction, each step in a
The
in
reactions taking
called
place complex reaction is called elementary RXL.
one steps are
slowest step called rate
elementary reaction
determining step.
RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION:

Chemical Kinetics
It to the change in molar
taking
concentration of species part in the chemical reactionin

*
Effect of Temperature on rate of reaction: - for the reaction -> B

The rate of reaction increases with increase in temperature Rate of disappearance of A

that related temperature in
Arrhenius proposed an equation Decrease
conc.gA=-
-

Time taken
and

Acc.
rate

to
constant for
Arrhenius Equation
a reaction
quantitately Rate of disappearance of B

-Increase inCOUCgB E
+R
losercebt=logan
=

K = Ae
-

EaIRT
NOTE
where concentration
the
of reactant
x rate constant of
the RX decreases, so it
sign,
=

represent by-we while

A= Arrhenius factor/Frequency
factes
the cone
of product increases
it the sign.
①
I are exponential fastox so represented by

=
a= Activation Energy 1/T ↑ YPES OF RATE OF REACTION:
Constant
Runiversal Gas
a-ET Same maneous
=

enky-ln(, =
Rate Rate
:Temp. in Kelvin (absolute
↑
re
change in molar conc change in molar concoreactan
Taking
enck E(
In both sides and product at a given

lnK = InAe-EaIRT
=

of reactantandproductinte instant of time.

R i p
enk Ea
dealto
OnA InSt.
Alg. Rate
2.303%0gk E(T
-
of
-Mtr-tP
-

+
Rate of Reaction
=

RT
= Reaction

*
At temp Tc RECATION BETWEEN RATE OF REACTION AND STOICHIOME TRY
,

enk1 =
ent
-

E
--0 ecgK= sm(Fea ·)
Rate
A+ B -2 + D

At Hemp T2
↳ 9
Qxn-A=-deB= +E= +RD
where
enkz NvA
=

-
Ea
-
Q
Ea-Activation Energy ·( 2A-C+D rbclearfromstoichiometryofreactor is

⑰T &- Gas Constant

b twice the velocity of formation gcOD
O
operating @-1
 So, rate
of reaction can be given as below
SURFACE AREA ⑮
Rate Ron d= +c: tp greater the surface area of reactant, higher
↑the rate of reaction. observed that if
It is
rectant is a solid substance then rate of reaction depends
5Bx + BrO5+6nt <3Bvc
eg
eag) cag) (ag.) (g)
+3HcOce) upon the size of its particles
e.gA piece of wood burn slowly but it burns rapidly
of tBr
Reaction= eBrzBrot
immond
when cut into small pieces.
EXPOSURE TO RADIATION:
the rate of some reactions
increases rapidly in presence of radiation (UV and visible
at
Photons of UV and visible light having high energy
Molemin hr-
MoL("sect
E dissociate rapidly which
1
A =
MLL -

>
or chemical bonds of reactants
seconminovar 2 innease the rate of reaction.

Consider a
general reaction: Matt, Indark, ence(slow) atcantance (osion
& A + bB ->CC
BATELAN
Rate of Rate of Reaction in directly proportional to
reaction
--EdtA=-EdBBtad the product of molar concentration of reactant and
each raise power their coefficient on which

raleodisabbeavaceg AFdA
to the
or rate of reaction actually depends
aA+DB->Product Rate Constant

Rate
actual
used d or
specific
rate
Reaction

appearance ofc:+dae Rate 1*TA) <

2B]*
gQxn =

&
AtCBICtCD,
the rate
of disappearance of Bis 2x10*mo's"Rate law for any reaction can not be to
predicted
determined
(i) Rate GRX (iicRated change in conc.
G A and ( theoretically but must be
experimentally
AmRate I disappearance B,
= 1x10-2 molLs-
-d RATE CONSTANT:
rate constant is equal to rate

RakgRxn=-IdCAS-IdBs=tds= td of reaction when concentration of each reactant

becomes unity.
:RatedRxnIdB=X1.0x101: 0.5X107 mol(-19-1
ORDER:
It is the sum of powers acs to rate law
(ii) Rate I change in
ConcoA-dea)=R0.R = 0.5x100m on
(v15-1
expression.
Rate of Rxn = KTA)<TDTP - order: a + B

Immunistics
Rate of Change in conc. of < of Bate Constant

+dc:3XR.0.R = 3 X0.5x10-
5x10molts' ") Indicates the speed of
1. reaction, greater the value
of rate constant, faster is the reaction.

SmFRS
AFFECTING RATE OF REACTION ·

I Every
constant
reaction
at a
has a

particular
particular value of
temperature.
rate

·
CONCENTERATION OF REACTANT:
It is observed that rate · The rate constant for the same reaction differs
# reaction decreases with time. We know that initially with temperature.
the cone of reactant is maximum so the rate of change
decreases) The value of rate constant for a reaction does
in cone is also maximum. As the cone reactant
not depend upon the concentration of reactant
whentherateofreactionbusdecreasesrateof
a
in
reaction
o
The unit of rate constant to dependent on the
order
of reaction.
·
TEMPERATURE OF SYSTEM:

her
theroleofliterate
reactions approximatelyincreagenerally MOLECULARITY OF REACTION

on
decreasing temp. Generally, the rate of reaction mixture. The total number of atoms, ions or molecules of the
increases two to three times on
increasing temp. upto 20% readant which collide effectively to give product
·
NATURE OF REACTANT: is turned as its molecularity
In a chemical reaction old bonds
are broken and new bonds are formed A-Product, Molecularity 1 = 3
NHyNOc -> Nat CHO
so, the reactivity of substance depends on 2A-> Product, Molecularity C
=

3
breaking and formation of specific bonds anI - > Ha +2
A+ B Product, MolecularingC
-
↳
2 NO tOc ->
aNOc (fast) A+ B+c -> Product, Molecularity: 3
(NO +02- 2NOL
CC0 +02-2COc(Slow Characteristic of Molecularity:
·
EFFECT OF CATALYST:
Catalyst
·

Molecularity of a reaction is always an integer

values (a
increasethewaterorfeactiornepresent fractional
·
It can not have a or zero zero

molecularity implies efective collision blu

that no

in them. reactant molecule takes place it reaction doesn't

change
It considered that
is occur at all).

presence of catalyst decrease judged by balanced chemical

Molecularity
· can be a
MyU
the activation energy of reactant
·for a complex reaction, molecularity has no
significance
which increase the rate of
a N205-CNOc+t@ molecularity: 1 CHI-Hc+F
mole: 2
 ORDER OF REACTION
④
•

Integrated Rate Equation

The order of a reaction is defined as the sum of bowers first Order
to which the concentration terms are raised in sale Those reaction whose rate depends upon one
law equation . concentration term of reactant .

A- + 2B → C +D r →p

( experimentally Put value in eq①

'
Rate law Rate of Reaction ✗ er ] of I
R :
Kea]m[B]n determined . )
_%ˢ= KER ] lnR= Kt + I
-

order writ A=m order w.at B- - n

, -
lnR= Kt -
ln Ro
overall order of given reaction =
Mtn
-

d{- t.dllnro-lnR.tt
=

g. what is the order of reaction ?

I. B.s ( Integrating both sides ) lnR◦ =
Kt
Aug Rate law, R -

_
KEATH [ B) 2 I
-

/ d{R = Kfdt

&÷lvgR£=t%ww)
order of reaction 2£ 2.5

kt+II±&ʳʰ°
: or
"

lnr constant
characteristics of Order of
=

a Reaction :

a) It represents the number of species whose concentration value of

to get the I UNIT =
Molt 's -1
affects the rate of reaction directly .

+ =
O R :
Ro
,
•
7 Reaction order can be obtained by adding all the exponents _
enr .
=
I t=&?÷ leg ¥ ,
of the concentration terms in rate expression .

•
1 The stoichiometric coefficients to each
corresponding .
- a

species in the balanced reaction have no effect on the

/
'_
T
T
order of the reaction
108 ty
e.) The reaction order of a chemical heaction is always last ¥ ,

↑
defined with the helb of reactant concentration and
not with product concentration .

> > >

1- →
( a- × ) → ( a- × , →
•
) for a complex reaction , the slowest stets is rate determining
step .

" "° Order Reaction

Zero Order Reaction : Those reaction whose rate depends
upon zero concentration terms of reactant
Clark
.

Rate :
KEATH, + 2 HCl :
2m20 → 2%+02 R→P
Rate of Reaction
°
✗ ER]
First Order Reaction :
2 Ha -102
ddEˢ= R
'
Rate KEA ] 21102 Kt + I
-

→
K
=
-

Second Order Reaction -

R -
-

Kt -
Ro
-
der ] :
K.dk
Rate =
KEAR B- R= "t
I. B.SC
Integrating both sides

R_R=ÉgwwT
e.
g C -10
,
→ CO -10
-

HER] :
Kfdt
2h10 INO -10
I±¥h legation
→
, -

R =
Kt + constant
UNIT OF RATE CONSTANT
to
" " get the .
value
of I "

(Moll -17msec -1
" "

Calm )
.

k= K sect
É÷
=

t=o R=R i
,
.
↑
Zero order
k=(mole -171 -0sec
A- ◦ , +
-
I
MOLL
-
I see -1 -
Ro -
_
I " %
" > "
First order ' • + →
( a- " ( a- a) →
(Matt )
-
→
h=1 K sect see i
put 1- in equation 1
-
-
-

'
second order
:(moll 1) -2sec I
' '
n=2 K
-
-

moi l sect Half life ◦

1- a Reaction :
The time in which the concentration
Half Order n -1k K :(Moll -111¥ sect → Molk [ 112 see -1 of a reactant is red iced to one half of its initial cone
-

It £ brewed by
"
ᵗY
g. Identify the reaction order "

Peggy
t-23Y Order -logr.li t . +
, ,
K= 2.3×10-51 Motts
-1 ,,
] → =2
Order
④
tyz-2.tk#lrgRp;-X2tyz=o.qgIuw)
K =
3×10-4 s
-
l → order =
I

Q . conversion of molecules ✗ to Y follows

The second
order kinetics , if concentration of ✗ is increased to t
R◦¥-
-

ty R Retz
_

1- = -

three times how will it affect the rate of formation 84 ?

_

,
,

AE The reaction is ✗ →Y
ty A
E
&÷
-

:
,

Acc to rate law Ta

Collision Frequency
.

rate : K [ ✗ 32
no . Of collisions bez second
If * is increased to Themes then
per unit volume of mixture It is
reacting
, .

rate ' KEITH

generally denoted
by 2
=

rate ' =
9 KEXP consider the biomolecular reaction
9 ✗ rate
At B → Product
Thus, rate of reaction becomes 9 times and hence rate of Acc to collision
.

Theory .

formation of increases
. .

9- times Ea / RT
Rate
.

ZA.ge
-

=
 Elements
PSEUDU FIRST ORDER REACTION
Reaction which are not
truely oft he firsto rder butunder
d-and +- Block
certain conditions reactions of first
⑮
become order are called

pseudo first order Reactions.

d-Block elements
egAcid catalysed inversion ofcane sugar Those elements in which the last ed
Is CotzUs+GH1206 enters in the d-subshell of penultimate shell
C12H2201 +HO
<excess)
Glucose auctose General Electronic configuration -
(n-1)d'-onso-2
Rate:KIC12Hax01]

Acid catalysed hydrolysis of ethyl acetate.

# +CaMsOH
CHyCOOCHS + HaO cHycooH
cexcess)
Rate:K [CH, C00 [H5]
Both of the above reactions are biomolecular buta re found
be the firstorder because
to water' presentin such a
large excess that its concenteration remains almostconstant
during the reaction.

P. Y.D
9. A
reaction is second order, wire a reactant. How is the

affected of
rateof reaction
the concentration in
subdivided into four series.
NCERT (2009, 2012, 2014) They are

vi) doubled (ii) reduced to half

Am.Rattik. TAJE
(2012:
TAS:2a, rate:K
4K9"times
SAT:
I 9, rate:
4[2]2-1499:t h

9. Afirst order is found is have a rate constant

K 3.5x10-4 seal. Find half life of the reaction.
in
=

The d-block elements which the atoms or ions have

Hall life for a first order reaction in NCERT incomplete d-orbitals are called transition elements.
-> In, cd and
Hg have completely filled (n-1) d-orbitals
ty
=P-14:1.26x10's
=

so
they do not show much resemblance with
other transition elements.

9 The half life for radioactive decay g "45730y.2 There are four series
of d-block elements.
An archaeological artifact contained wood that had 3d Series (SC to In)

only 80% of the c' found in living tree. Estimate 40 Series CY to (a)
age the sample 50 Series
HftoHg)
of NCERT
(La and
6d series CAC and RA to (u)
AnRadioactive decay follows firstorder kinetics
Electronic configuration: By-Bharat Panchal six
Decay [K):
= 21.
22.
S-Scandium
Ti-Titanium
[Ar]183d'4.S
-A5]18 392 USY
[ArJ18 3d3
E. "Vanadium
use

sos eg):25730x0.09
t =

Chromium
-

[Ar]'8 3954s'
25. Mn-Manganese [Ar]18 305 4S3
Fe-Iron
[AU!Base
26.
1845 4995.
Co-Cobalt
-

27.
28. Ni-Nickel [A2] 18 3d8Us
9 A firstorder reaction takes 20 minutes for 20%
[Ar]'s 3dUsi
29. cy-copper
decomposition. Calculate
ty 0.0969) -AU]18 Id4s
(19978 =
30. In-zinc

-7
A Cr2+-[Ar) 18 3044so
a -
x 24
to half
suC+- [Ar7183d
due
4s(stable
filled teg)
8 x0.0, e
=

can't- [ArY'* 3d"usefully filled)

0.011158:11.158x10-3
2qC4St-> [Ar18 3d*4so
=>

+y2:0 0.692
62.Imin.
23Sc3 +- [AU] 3d0450
=

- 18
1 1.158 X 10
-
3

All the Best O sofest- [Ar]'8 39545Chalf filled)

Atomic Radius
As we
from left to
right, atomic radio
⑳
e.g Tic, MuaN, FeyN,
interstitial compounds
YHo.56 and TiH7et
⑯
first
The are very hard,
decreases largely, then decreases slowly retain have
and increases in the end the series.
metallic conductivity, high mipt
of and are chemically inert.
This decrease in atomic radio Alloy formation: -

in the
beginning is due to Alloys are homogeneous solid solution
the increase in effective nuclear Many od-block elements from alloys because
increase in they have similar atomic radidue to which
charge with the
atomic number: they can
easily
replace the atom of other metal
on

withtheincreasethe
Alloys thus formed and often have high
number, shell Mopt
Brass (Cu+2n), Bronze ((u+Sn)
the screening effectof these d-electrons on the outermost eg
By-Bharat. Panchol fix
gus-electronsalso increases.This increasedscreeningresear Magnetic Properties:
Tiamagnetic substances are rebelled
charge, therefore the atomic radii remains by magnetic field while
paramagnetic substances
almost attracted
same are
by magnetic field.
the end of the series eo-c
Those substance which are attracted very strongly
repulsion takes place to the size atom increases.
of by the applied field are called fenomagnetic
IONICRADIUS
the d-block elements and their compound
in general, ions
of the same oxidation Many of
is due
state in a
given series show progressive decrease are
paramagnetic in nature it to

in radius with increase in atomic number due the presence unpaired in incomplete
increase in of to
to the effective nuclear charge
d-orbitals
Ionic Radius 9 t Zionic Radio rest rest) Nature (no. of unpaired to
oxi.state
- The
paramagnetic
Melting and Boiling Point
high mipt and Boot moment (x): 1+2) BoM
Magnetic
first increase and then decrease - #
due to increase and decrease in n is number Boby
number of unpaired electrons
of unpaired to
Magneton
because the strength g bond
depends on number
of unpaired to complex Formation: -

Many of a-block elements form

Note -
Tungsten (W) has the highest Mot complex compound. because

Mercury (Ng) is the only metal in liquid form. (i) They have atomic racis
-
small

Metallic Character (iis High Nuclear charge

vii) Presence vacant d-orbital
·
snow all the properties of general
metals.
of so they can
·

strength of metallic bond a number accept lone pair of to from ligands.

qunpaired which increase the chance and
to
Catalytic Properties: -
By-Bharat. Panchol fix
make the bond strong.
Transition elements and their
Cr is a hard metal while In is a soft metal. show catalytic
·

componade properties due to variable

oxidation state and their ability
Enthalpy of Atomisation: to adopt

bond due
They have strong metallic multiple oxidation state.
to which they
tO0-Cs0,
have high enthalpy of e.g (contact Process
alomization as0a
Ionisation Energy: -
By-Bharat. Panchol fix Nat3Hz entitis CHaber Process
Lies blws-and 6-block elements The
of unpaired
in incomplete d-orbitals,
(more thans-blockbut
presence eo's

less than beblock elementpriced hence

wide
possess the
capacity
which
to absorb and re-emit

is
as the effective nuclear charge increases. range of energies used as an
activation energy.
IOE & Effective Nuclear charge formation of Coloured Ions: -

it unpaired i
o In, Cd and Hg is very High due to fully
·
IoF · to
present, complex is coloured transition
filled orbitals due to d-d

paramagnetivateinto
and also
·
IE g5d and 66 series elements is more than Jd is absentas
and ad elements due to lanthanide and complex to the absence of
or compound is due
Actinide contraction. did transition and diamagnetic in nature
egcusOn is blue
formation of Interstitial Compounds:
2
-

in
-

color while
eg
i
Transition metals have a
tendency i
enson
to form interstitial compounds with colourless 11 -

H, c, B Natoms.
or
qu tag
-

They are usually non-stoichiome

tric and are neither typically
ionic nor covalent.
 Oxidation state :
due to the
'
-

show
participation of both ( n
large number
-
of oxidation
nd and ns
stale
electrons
④
in bonding in different compounds .

Oxide formation : -

Many of the d- block elements forms

oxides
of different types because
of the presence of
so
many different oxidation state .

NE Acidic character ✗ oxi Stale .

Ionic character a oxi state

. .

•
Mn shows maximum number
of oxidation state due to
F- Block Elements
presence of maximum number of unpaired
:
the e◦
-

Elements in which last eo

•
osmium cost show +8 oxidation state enters in f- orbital
of pre penultimate -
shell
→ cut is more stable than cult because it Undergoes
in aqueous General Electronic ""
disproportionation Reaction Solh = (n -
2) f- Ch 1) do -1ns 2
-

configuration
2 Cult → ( U2 -1 1- Cee

NOH The
ability of oxygen to stabilise these high
oxidation state exceeds that of fluorine because

oxygen can form double bond while fluorine form

single bond .

By Bharat Panchal Sir

fluoride is Mnfy
-
-

As a result
highest Mn yf series
whereas the highest oxide is Mnz07 .

or

Electrode Potential : -
Lanthanoid Series
The stability of a combo and or

depends upon electrode potential and it further Ist Inner Transition

depends Ubon
'

series
lil Enthalpy of atomisation / sublimation
Ii) Ionisation enthalpy
Liii ) Hydration enthalpy
By Bharat Panchal Sir -
.

Are" " Oxidation State :

Mileage )
-

Mcs ) > A-
atomisah.a.tl The oxidation
= + ye common state of
.

Ian than oids is with

A- + ] +2 and +4
A- H ^-ᵗʰᵈH ionisation H = + Ve .

9hm
H =
-
ve lanlhanoid Contraction : -

hydration
,,

Meg , > Mtg , The regular decrease in the atomic

and ionic radii increase in
of lanthanoids with the
atomic number
from left to right in lanthanoid
series is called lanthanoid contraction .

Cause of lanthanoid Contraction

→ increase in effective nuclear charge
Poor
screening effect of 4f electrons
→
.

Consequences of lanthanoid Contraction

The separation
◦

of lanthanides is difficult as there is little

very
difference in their size due to which they
have similar chemical
properties .

There is regular trend for m2 -11M Basic from left

no standard electrode strength of hydroxides decreases
•

potential due to irregularities in ionisation

the to right
enthalpies and enthalpy of atomisahin °
Covalent character of hydroxides increases from Hor .

The size 3rd transition series elements is similar

copper is the only metal having positive value of of
•

to the size
of 2nd transition series
to so it does not liberate the hydrogen gas from .

acids
chemical Reactivity : -

By -
Bharat Panchal six
. By Bharat Panchal Sir
-
-

use
of lanthanides
chemical in glass industry
reactivity
¥
✗
•

•
As an oxidising agent
•

Ecma -11m ) is very less ( more -

ve ) except Cee •
In
making magnetic
and electronic behaviour
so these metals are highly reactive
•

oxidising power 9 to
•
In
making alloy steel
which is in
used
making
Reducing Power
!
•
✗ bullets .

Misch metal
e.g
( lanthanides + Fe -1s

+ C + cat AD
 COMPOUNDS OF TRANSITION ELEMENTS
for Help
•
Potassium Dichromate ◦
Potassium Permanganate
YOU can donate
④
c. Km "°4 '
(14%07)
potassium Dichromate (192%07)
Chemical Reactivity →
it is prepared
Ln2O3 "
£
from chromite
-8%
ore
'
-1

si
pied
*
.in step -1 con er .sion
.

of feonoehoomale into sodium

chromate
Heated with S with halogens
t.nl/34feCr20p-16Na0H-70g---i8NajGe04+2F-g0z
Ings, g Ln >

,aµd*iÑ ¥
with
H2O Yellow
+8602
µ '
↳ (OH} -111 step -2 Conversion of sodium chromate into
L ,

t.hn sodium dichromate

Lng .

Uses
Nair 04+2116 → Nee ,GkO7 -12^9++110
lanthanoids for steels for
1) are used the production of alloy
.

Orange
Hates and bites step -3 into
ii) of lanthanoid is used in Mg - based conversion of sodium dichromate
Misch metal alloy
alloy to produce bullets , shell and lighter flint .

potassium dichromate
used catalyst in
Kg(8207+2
Ciii ) Mixed oxides of tanthanoids are as Nacl
→
Nagayo , 2kg
-

+
cracking of petroleum
Hut some lanthanum oxides are used as phosphorus in Orange crystals
television screen
→ chromates and dichromates are inter convertible
ACTINOID
These the elements in which taste ◦
Got Goin
are -
-

filled in Sf orbitals The actinoid

- . are radioactive elements

Electronic Confee structure . .

Conti 5ft
"
't "
"

dichromate ion ( ( 8207£ )

-

Gd
( Goyt )
electronic
The general chromate ion
.

irregularities in the electronic configuration of actinoid

stabileties of fog f7, f- 14 occupancies
11° 0

¥!
◦
is due to
/
of sf orbital
- .

°
"
Co

to -
-
¥-4
-
, ,

lo
Lanthanoids Actinoid O
-

Similarities btw and

e Both exhibit +3 oxidation state predominantly .

Properties
have high reactivity moderately soluble in
"

Both are electropositive and

1) These cold
orange red crystals
.

are ,
like lanthanoid Contraction , there is actinoid contraction also
water but
•

in hot water
.

readily soluble .

Difference b/w lanthanoids and Actinoid 2.) Action Of heat .

Actinoid
Lanthanoids
Oxi state
414%07 4K200g ¥-2620 ] -1302
They mainly show +3
- .

Oxi state They

show +3
3.) Action Of Alkali
• .
.

like
oxidate
-

+2 and +4 Oxidation State Higher

and +7
also exist 1-4-15, -16
¥28,87 -1 IROH →
2K280g + H2O
to "
They have boor shielding They have 2K260g -1 Hgs Of
•
even
→
KIKO 7+12504+110
•

effect shielding effect

paramagnetic CK0É- 200£

-

also
They paramagnetic and They are
•
◦
are
but their magnetic
their
can
paramagnetic character
be explained easily character can't be explained
easily
4)
Oxidising Property -

behave as a powerful
Kgfozorp
to They have tendency Crl # )
oxidising
•
more
have tendency
They agent em
less
◦

er (+1-1) is into
form complexes to form complexes changed
•

These are non radioactive •

These are radioactive Ionic Reaction

+1411++6 e -0-7203++7110
-

except promethium substance ( qoph

-

Application of Actinoid Molecular Reaction

Asteroids are used in nuclear

KgCsg0zt4H2S0q-YK2S04-CB@dg-4Ha0t3Eo3.A
•

reactors for the production of electricity .

ctinoids are also used for the synthesis of

transuranic elements .
↳ It
oxidise
CO2 +110
④
Oxalic acid →

I
-

I →
, SO → H 50¥
"
Fe → Fest ( ferrous salt to Ferric ) , ,

Has → s csulbhide to Sulbhier) I → ¥-2

→ soft ( Sulbhite to
"

5032 sulphate) Hg 0*2 %

-

SO →
Hasta Csulbhur dioxide to sulphuric Acid
) ☒
Oxidising Reactions in Neutral Medium
-

- . . .

,
H✗ → ✗ C atogen 2km no 2mn02 -1-36]
2 Acid to
Halogen )
1-
Hyo → 2K OH +
5h2 -1 → sit -1
Mn 3e⊖ +4 OH
0*-1-211,0 Mng
_

+ →

ethyl alcohol → It Oxidise

→
acetaldehyde → acetic acid

Has
→
CHROMYL CHLORIDE TEST → 5

This test is done for Mn 02

the identification
Mn 504 →
of U ions
during analysis
-

salt ,

potassium dichromate is heated with conc .

Hzsoa Na
,S20] → Nags Op (thio sulphate
to sulphate
and a salt
having a Nau, KU ) and reddish
-

ceg →
brown vapours of
chromyl chloride are obtained .

Oxidising Reactions in Alkaline Medium

Kick 07 + 4kV
-161150, →
26029+6 KHSO
, -13110 214mn04 -121*-72*4-1 Hao + to]
disinfectant in
Uses It is used as an
oxidising agent ,
_

chromyl ¥02 + Hyo → Mno -1*11+36] ✗2

leather and in
volumetric analysis ,
for tanning in ,

chloride test
214mn04 H2O Mnoa -12K OH + to]
.

+ →
Physical Properties
reddish orange colour
solid having bright
.

ionic
crystalline Mn 05+211,0+350 Mnoii -140h
• , -

→
insoluble in alcohol, acetone
etc
soluble in water and
.

• it is
density around
-3
267 8 am
•
it is odour less ,
with NOTE

Potassium
The overall reactions in alkaline medium is
→
Permanganate CKMnod same as in neutral
kmno, is prepared from medium
byoolusite (
.

Mng) ore .

Structure of
↳ Pyrolusik ( Mnlf) react with alkali metal hydroxide
CKOH ) Mn 0*2 Mn0É
-

to
give potassium manganate O

O 11
-

2mn02 -14 KOH

-102 →
2192mn 0*+21120 I M"

↳
( dark green )
OF [ Mn

Potassium lol -

manganate disproportionate in acid

Tetrahedral permanganate ion
Tetrahedral manganate ion
or alkali to give potassium permanganate c. green ) ( paramagnetic )
burble l Diamagnetic]
2K, Mri 0*+62 → 211mn04 -1 QKU
USES
t
Properties oxidant in the
Pretend
" " ◦

solid soluble It is used as an

crystalline
.

KMn0q is dark purple .

:b Hack ,

organic compounds of ° ""

decolonisation
.

in warm water cotton silk,

bleaching of wool
in host "ʳᵈs
.
•
, ,

" Action ◦ 1- Heat -

instruments
in cleaning surgical
on
heating ,
it decomposes •

219mn04 → ks.mn 04 02+02

+ Mn

3.) In Acidic Medium

2km no, +311,50*-71%504
+ 2mn04 +3%0+58] for Help
"
-149°
mno ,
-

+ sat -150
→ Mn
YOU can donate
→ it oxidise
2-1
→ Fest ( ferrous salt .
into ferric salt ]

Hgs →s
 Ambidentate ligands
those ligand which have ⑳
CO.ORDINATION two donor atoms but use one atom to attach with
a central metal atom. So these
COMPOUNDS (N- (Cyano)
are monodental ligands
eg SCN-(thiocyano
NC
-

Cisocyano) 3 Ncs-cisothiocyano
Transition metals large
for a no.
Negative ligands which have negative charge
complex compounds in which the metal atoms bound Neutral ligands

↓
are
Symbol of Name of charge on
to a number
garious or neutral molecule by sharing ligands ligands ligands ammine
Co-orde nation NH O
·

geo. Such compound are

known as IN-

McBr.EwAmMid TEARN
I

Compounds. Chiocide CHy-NHz Methylamine O

Difference blw Double salt and Co-ordination compound HO 99Ua O

Co-ordination compounds
NOT Nitrito-N No Nitosyl O
Double salt O
so Carbon
-> they usually contain two simple - the simple salts from which NOs Nitrato
is this
carbonyl O

salts in equimolar proportion

T
they are formed may or INthiocyanone
5
Only Phosphine O

not be in equimolar prob.

-They are ionic combound and
may CH,C00
-

Acetab
#go Tribheryl Phosphine O

contain any co-ordinate

-They may or
may not be H-Hydride
Thiouirea O
do not ENCSNHL
ionic
ofthe
OXO
but the complex part
-

beroxo
bond Pyridine C
always contain coordinate bond so-sulphito E
·
The properties of the double soy-sulphat
The properties of the coordin- Methyl O
coje-carbonato
-
2
CH3
salts are the same as those ration combounds are
its constituent compound Bidentale
of different from its constituent: Bidentale
gly glucenate 1
metal ions. In a co-ordination compound
-

·
In the double salt ethane- 1.2 0
on
their normal valency the metal ion 0x2 oxalalo-2
f

show satisfy its

-

-
diamine

twotypeof valencies calledrecy

·
A double salt loses its ·
A co-ordination compounde
chelating ligands: -

It is closed ring type compound formed

identity in the solution by polydentate
retain its identity in its ligand (chelating ligand) on binding
solution.
to
e.g KeSOy· Al(sOuly 294,0 central metal alom
Importance
kn[Fe((N),]
·

eg

-Types of coordination compounds

eg MXM-CH2o it forms more stable

*a-ce
complex, called
cationic complex Anionic complex Neutral Complex
chelating effect

complexioncanbe
use
complexionare complex
carry any
doesn't in softening Hard water
Detection metal ion
·

& Co(NHz),]2 + eg [Fe((N)676- charge of

e.g [Ni((O)+)
·
separation of t-block elements

Co-ordination entity
Ligands the atoms, ions or molecules which donate
can
the central metal atom and the ligands
which to it are enclosed in
are
directly attached square
the lone pair geo to central metal atom by co-ordinate bond bracket andcoordination sphere or coordination
called
m co-ordination compounds are called ligands.
eg FreCCN]"-is called coordination sphere. entity
Denticity of ligands: -

counter on
The number of donor atoms present
the ionisable written outside the square
in the ligand is called its denticity. On the basis of groups
bracket and are called counterion e.g K+7Fe(CN)s
denticity ligands
·

are
of different forms as:
called
monodetate, bidentale, tridentate, tetradentate, polydentate
where Knions are counter ion

hexidentale etc. Co-ordination Polyhedron

The spatial arrangement of the
Monodentate ligands when ligands around the central metal atom is called coordination
ligand bound a to a metal ion
polyhedron e.g
through a
single donor atom
e.g C- Br; CN-

HO: NHs, CO
Bidentate ligands Co-ordination Number
When a
ligand can bind
through two donor
The total number of Co-ordinate
a foms
bond formed by ligands with central metal alom
eg oxalate, ethaned, 2
-diamine,
Elucinate (Gly)
Co-ordination Number: E(Number of ligand x
Denticity)
0on CH2-NH 2
e.g kn [Fe((N)o] [CoU_(en),J't
CH,-NHe HN-CH-COO
-

c. N 6 X1 =
= G C.N= 2x1 + 2x2 = 6

Polydentalligands oxidation number

when have than two
a
ligand more
the charge present on the central
donating sites. metal atom in a co-ordination compound is called
eg EDTA (Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetate Ion) oxidation number. It is always positive.
e.g kn[re((No]
-
oocGi-CH-CH-income CH, COO
-

a(+ + 6( -
0(
=
= 2

Donor Aloms -> 6

Nexidentate ligands
 [ Ni clip
④
-

ON THE BASIS OF LIGANDS •

Homolebtic in which only one type of ligands are present Nit → CAN 's 3d 845
28
19 Ky [ Fe CCN ) , ]
Helen lentic in ↑ " / Mkt / 4 IT ✗ ✗ 1×1 ✗
which different type of ligands are present
4s Ub
e.
g. [ Cock Centre za

hybridisation Geometry tetrahedral → sb3 →

Nomenclature of co ordination compounds
-

It is paramagnetic in nature
e.g •
KYEFECCN)o ] → potassium hexacyanido ferrate CII )
U 2) -
_ 4272+2 ) IF B. M = -
_

• @ Q(Hz0ki NO , →
Hlraaqua dichloride chromium GTI) nitrate
&
[ NICCN) 4)
-

tetraammtne.ch/oridonipo-N-cobaltC1I )
•
•
[ Coll ( NG ) (NH] )y] NO, →

nitrate
Kjfecczou }] potassium toioxalato ferrate CIII ) Ni 2-1 [ As ] 18 3d 45
'

→
•
→

28
]ECoCCNs(NO) ] potassium bentacyanido nitrosyl cobaltite #
1T¥
K
it / + At # IT
•
>
☐
•
[ Coclzcenljssoy dichloride bi:( ethane -1,2 diamine) cobalt 4s
→
3d
-

City sulphate
is pairing of e@ takes
•
[ ↳ • (0^10) HI>
CN a
strong ligand so

chlonieobiscethane -1,2 diamine ) nitito -0 -

Place

☒
'

cobalt ' # '

↑H↑Hqk / it ✗
17¥
' ° "
'

◦
[Nikola] → tetra carbonyl nickel (o )
• Li [ At the] → lithium tetra hydride aluminate CIII) 3d Up
hybridisation → dSb2
Werner Theory • two types of Valencies
Metals possess Geometry →
Square planar
primary
,
called ionisable valency c oxidation number
diamagnetic in
or

and ordination
It is nature
secondary or non ionisable valency ( co
.

- -

Number )
The
primary valencies directional
•
are non
CRYSTAL FIELD THEORY
-
.

:
complex show bribery
•
The compound do not any
and Metal ligand bond is in ionic nature so, there
central metal atom ligands present
-

of the the
-
.

in it .
B electrostatic force of attraction btw metal and

ligands
Valence Bond Theory :
-

The
ligands are treated as
negative centres and
these negative centres are so arranged around
Acc to this
.

theory ,
metal -

ligand
bond arises
central metal atom that here is minimum repulsion
due to the donation
of electron pair from ligands btw them
to central metal atom
.

the ion under the In a free transition metal ion all the fire d-
metal atom
-
.
or
Influence of ligands can use (n 1) d , ns , nb , nd
-
orbitals have equal energies ( degenerate orbitals )
orbitals for hybridisation
but when it takes part in complex formation
these d- orbital } split in two parts
Hybridisation C. N Geometry Example
.

it is called d- d transition or crystal

Sb 2 linear
[Aeg ( ( N) ]
-

field shitting .

Trigonal blanar [HGI} ] For Octahedral For Tetrahedral Complex

_

Sbz 3 Complex
Sb } 4 Tetrahedral [ Nikola ) z .

5949 " planar e Nice NKT

dsp 2 4
] 59149M pyramidal fellow
dsb 5
"
d2sp3 6 Octahedral finned [Cr( NH] } )
}
'
Octahedral (outer) ( Feff )
-

sp ] d 6
"
e.
g [ COCNH, } ] of d- orbitals
shape

{
( 03-1 → EARTH 3d 6
At
G- Ao
-
-

63-1 Mla HUH ☐ I 1 1

27
3d Us Up
Go NH] is a
strong ligand so
pairing of e -0

takes place

↑H↑HHXH × XIXIX
Spectre chemical series :
3d Us UP → it % arrange mint of all ligands
diamagnetic of increasing
in order CFSE value is called
hybridisation d%b3 →
spectochemical series .

The ligands with small value

Geometry Octahedral →
U -
_

¥-4 of CFSE are called weak ligands and the

ligands
0 Bom
with higher value of cf.SE are called strong
-

ligand
inner
=

orbital complex
I ( Br ( S2 ( SCN { Cl < F- { OH { OX
_ -
- - - -

{ H2O ( NCS { NH ] ten { NO { CN { CO

-
-
-

,
 ISOMERISM → Tetrahedral complexes do not show Geometrical isomerism
coordination compounds
which
Two or more →
have same molecular formula but have different square planar complexes of formula [ mxgl.sn ] ( ✗ and L

central are unidentak

ways of attachment of their ligands to the ligands) show geometrical isomerism . The
two
metal atom and have different properties These .
are called ×
ligands may be arranged adjacent to each
isomers The phenomenon is known as isomerism
.
.
Other in a cis -
isomer or opposite to each other in a
trans isomer
ISOMERISM
2①
_

'
↓ ↓
9
NH] Ntt
"
-

stereoisomers
- -
-
- - -

structural Isomers

:*
Npg
. .
.

!
. .
.
. . .

arises due to the difference arises due to the different ÷ ;

in the str of coordination spatial arrangement of : :
.

around the metal ion NHS

compounds ligands
-
-
. .
.
.

q
. . . .
'
r
r r
,
,

g.
, , ,

cis Trans
↳
Ionisation
↳
→
Geometrical isomerism
Hydrate
↳
→
Obtical isomerism Octahedral complexes with C. N 6
coordination
-
.

TY be M✗a↳
[CoCNH%U
↳
Linkage e.g
-

Hi
4) IONISATION ISOMERISM
isomerism arises due to

¥
This

exchange
,

of ionisabk anion with anionic

ligands e.g .

l
Eg [ Co Bo CHAO )s ] -1cL and [ COUCH
Ok ]
+
cis
-

,
Bo -

✗
Trans
ECOCNH, )sS0jBr and ECOCMH, )sBr ] SO
,
TY be -

M✗2Az ( ✗ Uni dentate

A- Bidentate
-

& ) HYDRATE
ISOMERISM Or SOLYATE ISOMERISM
In this ×
ligands
✗
ligands )
isomerism water is taken as solvent It has different
? t
.
,

Of water

m-F
no molecule in the coordination sphere and
- - -
- -
-
- -
.
_

g.
1-
My
outside it e.
g A A
:
[ COCH, [
Us (041%42) 4.2140
. . . -
"
.

/
.

, ,

- A cis ✗ Trans
[ LOCH
, 07,4] ] -3110
→ In Octahedral Complexes of the formula [ MA]X ] ]
CO-ORDINATION ISOMERISM % ECOCNH]
}( NO ) ]
tybe of isomerism
occurs when
, ]
This
is interchange cationic and anionic
there
ligands btw of No ,

complexes of different metal ion present in a complex

pity
.

!?
^

% ?
Ecr cnn.HU Cenk ] and ecommerceNW
iffy
11^1%-1
NO ,

NHS
, .

LINKAGE ISOMESISM
isomerism is shown by the NO ,
This type of NO ,
coordination compounds bidentate ligands fac facial
having am
-

Mer -
meridional .

EG ECO (
Nlt ) g-
( NO ) ] Cl
,
and ECOCNH] )s( ONODU
same
ligands occupy same ligands are in
STEREOISOMERISM one face of an octahedron one plane
a

Geoiiinetrical optical
ti →
OPTICAL ISOMERS
Isomerism
Isomerism A optical isomerism is common
- in
These the complexes
are Octahedral complexes
This isomerism is common
which have chiral sp The .
→
The
bidentate ligands
involving
in complexes with Molar mixture of
C- M4&6 pair of stere isomers are the
'
d and
' '
l
'
isomer is termed
as the
.

Geometrical isomers minor racemic mixture

are of images of each other
two thebe but
may not be superimposed
→
Trans isomer cant show optical isomers
C On the stereoisomers .
These ④ 4 4
same ligands are mirror images are called #4 "
% -
t In
÷
. .

bresent at adjacent enantiomers The enantiomers

"si " "
n¥ᵗ_ ✓
.

,
• • which rotate the plane
% polarised light in a clockwise mino ,

direction is called dextro rotatory ⑨ ⑨

" (d) or 4)

ligands are and the enantiomer which rotate ④ Eco CNH

@ n )]
-1

Present at
same
the blane bolarised in anti
,
NH,
)2U , NH,
opposite position light NHS /
clockwise direction / "
:iÉ%
is laevo rotatory
%
"' " "
In E
ce
; a
mirror
 eg [M(AA), X, 3"+ DIAZONIUM SALT-
Diazonium salts written
⑯
iee
are
cis--cocen 423+ as RN,X-where

sincet i as
B aryl group
=

X-ion can be C1, Br HSO and BE

Not group is called diazonium salt
Mirror

egisdiazonium so
Mat C-

METAL CARBONYLS
complexcompounds that
contain ↳ benzene diazonium
carbonys ligands only are termed as metal carbonyl chloride hydrogen sulbhate
eg NiCCO) 1 Fe(CO)5 (r[CO)6 STABILITY OF DIAZONIUM SALT
CO CO
CO
Arenediazonium salts

ste
I
are stable than the alkyldiazonium salts. This can
more

co
Ni -
co CO
be accounted on the basis to effect
coco CO
CO

Tetrahedral Trigonal
Bibyramidal octahedral

BONDING IN METAL CARBONYLS

↳
metal
In
carbonyls, the metal-carbon bond has both
5- and
b-character, co ligand attach itself to metal atom
from the carbon atom to form metal-carbon bond. It is
a
weak donor
M-3

on
-

the
bond is formed by donation ofl one pair geo
the
Preparation (Diazotization Ryn->
carbonyl carbon to the vacantorbital of metal N N-D
=

↳
M-c
from the
i bond

filled
is formed by
d-orbital of the metal
the donation
to
of
vacant
a pair of ea
+ NaNO2 +2NC +Na +CH

antibouding * orbital of 10. This property

of back
bonding Diazonium salts
which stabilise the are prepared and used only in
metal-ligand bond is termed as
solution because in solid state
Synergic effect
an
aqueous
they explode
emD+(E0:-MIN1 ( E0: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Benzene diazonium chloride is a
-overlap colourless crystalline solid and is readily soluble
Donation of lone pair of to from carbon in water. It is stable in cold water but reacts
alow into a vacant orbital of the metal. with water when warmed. It also decomposes easily &

in
the dry state.
&my co is Benzene diazonium
·

fluoroborate is water insoluble

① TO and stable atroom temperature.

M
CHEMICAL REACTION-
overlap cut, HPOLIMY, [oT
-

+N,4 +HyDUs +ne

fare,
into
a vacantonationcongeebmbilledmetaldrabital CHICRON,
1 +NatHC+ CHyCHO

Factors
Greg reiteratein
Sanamever
Reaction

Affecting stability of a complex N,g. Gatttermann

I Rx Y
central metal
i
charge

Nenzonite
central metal atom
·

on - as charge on

alom increases, stability of complexincreases

·

·
Nature of
metalion-stability order's 3d<7d45d series KCN/CUCN, ent
+Ne

>I
Nature of
ligands-strong field ligands form more KI
stable complex Nat Ki
+

· o
Presence N2CBF)-
of chelate Ring:more the chelation, more
stability HBE,-
He IT Balz. Schiemann
·
Effectof multidentate ligands: Ry
If the ligands are

multidentate, the stability of complexincreases

Co-ordination compounds
AIO DYE TEST
H28,/ H2SO4
Boiling + Nat
Significance of
-

NU+ny on Non
·In
Biological System b-hydroxyazobenzene
corange)
↳ In Medicinal chemistry NeC +4-Y-NH- YNaXYNe
In Analytical p-aminobenzene
 AMINES
Amines are considered amino as
Preparation of Amines :
-

①
of hydrocarbons or alkyl derivatives An Reduction Of Alkyl Nitrite
of ammonia " ^' " "
> R CHZNIH
Aliphatic amino compounds
-

,
are called amino alkanes and arom .
R CIN
-

-
atic amines are called amino Na
arches c.
g CH]NH , , czHsNHz ,
-
NH
, Ethanol
>
RCHaNH2
Rxn is used for ascent of amine

R NH , -
Primary Amines Csi ) Am Reduction of Nitro alkaline :

Raney Ni
R AH R
-
-
secondary amines (27 1-- N°2
>
A- NH2
Fe / Hee

¥
,

R - N R -

Tertiary Amines ( 3° HYPT >

Sn
'
/ He ' >
r
Reduction with Fe
/ HCl is preferred
STRUCTURE OF AMINES : Eu Reduction of Amides :

R -
É
-
NH
" AIH "
> RCH,NH
, -1110
,

µ Pyramidal
shape of Amine
Reduction of amides give amine
/ 1-H
R µ
with same number of carbons .

☒ Hofmann Ammonolysis Method :

NOMENCLATURE
NH} RX
RX > RÑH > Rjnitt
393K ,
CH -

CHECHEN H2 Protean -
1- amine
( 1- )
,
(2.)
RX
CH
CY CH }
RzÑ ( Ranil)
-

]
-

Protean ×
-

-
2- amine >
NH
,
(3)
CH
}
-
CH, - N
,
-

CyHq N, N -

Diethyl
cuts batan - 1- amine order of reactivity → RI > RBr > RU

CH = CH -
CH -
NH Prob -
I en 1- amine Mti
- -
amine is obtained as major
, , ,
" ,NH↳ product when excess of NH
]
is taken

Aniline b- Bromo
% 1¥ HOFMAN BROMAMIDE DEGRADATION :
£ aniline
it] RCONH + BK -14 NaOH → RNH -12 Nabs
"
% , ,

N N
,
- Dimethyl +
Nails
benzenamine +2110
↳ Amines
formed contains one

carbon less than that present in

NH, -

¢117 ,
- NH
,
the amide
diamine
.

Hexane -1,6 -
?⃝
GABRIEL PHTHALIMIDESYN .
•

Alkyl amines are stronger bases than NH3⑦

°
o ◦
Basic nature of aliphatic amines increases
with increase in the number of alkyl
me nik ¥
-

i. e
groups +I effect of alkyl group
"
o
" increases their basicity .

◦
0 °

dona
'
order of basicity in gaseous phase
•
. . .

nr

§oNa+R^"ʰ amine > 1° amine > NH}

'
-1- 3° amine > 2

In
aqueous phase ,
solvation effect and
↳ Only 1° amines can be synthesized steric hindrance ,
besides inductive

by this method effect of alkyl grouts dead the basic

↳ Aromatic 1° amines can not be strength of alkyl amines .

prepared by this method as aryl ↳ when alkyl group is ethyl group

C2Hs-kNH7@Hs-bN7GHs-NH27NHssub.Rx
halide do not undergo nucleophilic
n with potassium phthalimide
↳ when alkyl group is methyl 920Wh
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES :
KHANH > CHzNH2 > KHAN > NH}

PHYSICAL STATE An BASIC NATURE Of aniline or

any /
The lower aliphatic amine would be less than that

amines are gases with fishy odour 1° ,

Of ammonia .

amines with three or more carbon ↳ less basicity of aniline as compared to

atoms are liquid and ones

higher MHz is attributed to -
I effect of
are solid . benzene
ring and de localisation of
lone pair of N .

COLOUR Pure amines are colourless Note ERG like -

OCH
, Ctg increase
but develop colour on
keeping whereas
}

in air for
basic strength
long time like NO, SO> H decrease
E. v4.4 ,

SOLUBILITY amines basic strength

readily
.

Lower are
soluble in water ,
which
decreases in water and increases in CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF AMINES
organic solvents with an increase in
molecular weight . FOR ALIPHATIC AMINES

BOILING POINT :
ALKYLATION
1° amines are
and 2°
in intermolecular association R ✗ R' R NHR
'
RX
engaged
-
+
NH2=f× -
+
127
while
due to
Hydrogen bonding ,
C)
RNR
'
+ R X
-
→ R Ntr '
✗
3° amines do not have inter moi -
,

-
ecular association ( due to absence (3) Quaternary
ammonium salt
of H -
atoms
order of B. Pt of isomeric amines • It yields a mixture of 152° and 3°
1° > 2
.
> 3
'
amines and also quaternary ammonium
salt .

BASIC CHARACTER OF AMINES : ◦

major product is obtained when

larger the value

of Kb or smaller the a mine is taken in excess .

Value of pkb stronger

,
is the base
NH.ci?-ctgR1Ar-ini-HcHsc0dYR1Ar
ACYLATION -

MHz 4*3%0
> If -

ni Aniline Pyridine Acetanilide

§ Ctg
-
- -

h CH} ( 010 4
Base
BROM / NATION
⑨
The reaction
base stronger than (
is presence of
carried out in + 3Br, BÉ :B
! 3HBr

e.g pyridine ]
a '
Br
which removes HCl so formed and
↳ To mono substituted derivative
shifts equilibrium to
right side .
get
BENZOYL AT/ ON
""
Bra
,NHÉcH }
son
> ;
R NH, -1 Coo R NHCO -5£ + HCl CHSCOOH
by
- -
- -
'

Br
CARBYLAMINE REACTION :

R CHU -13 KOH

^-
R NG -13kV NITRATION
NHL >
-

""É%{¥ᵗʰ+¥,y+Éⁿ
-

, 1-
3h20
"
secondary and tertiary amines do not 988k
N°2 (& %)
show this reaction . (47%3
(g- , , ,
It is used as a test for 1° AMINES
To get mono substituted para derivative
,NHC0CH]
[ᵗʰ
" " " "↳
REACTION WITH NITROUS ACID : HNO, ,
those
'
R NH
-

,
+ HOMO → R OH +
-

Ha ↑ -1 HU NO
,
NO ,

REACTION WITH ARYL SULPHONYL

SUL PHONATION :
CHLORIDE HINS BERG
-50,4
REAGENT '
" £9
,
Mason
, ¥-473k
RNH -1%-7-50,6 Ig so NH R

⑦
- -

, , "
soluble in alkali ↑"
2°

B. NH -1
SGU -7, 4-7-502^1 R2 ↳H to]⊖
-

3. twitter Ion

BN -1
-596 No Reaction
is
→
p -
amino benzene sulphuric acid
Reaction is used to distinguish btw the major product because distance

of amines and Famines

soztl is
'
three classes 132 . btw -
NH, and maximum .

↳ sulbhanilic acid exist in

AROMATIC AMINES 2. WITTER 10N FORM .

NH , grouts is ortho and para directing

-

and powerful activating group .

for Help

Activating effect of NH, group in aniline YOU can donate

-
-

can be controlled by protecting the

with
NH, group by acetylation
-

acetic anhydride and then carrying

Out the desired substitution Rxu ALDEHYDE , KETONE AND
CARBOXYLIC ACID
-
7
 PREPARATION OF ALDEHYDES
Inorganic compounds containing carbon - AND KETONES :

oxygen double bond (15-0) called

carbonyl group
is CnH2n0
. Their general
O
formula 1.) By oxidation of
REC
alcohols

R
:

CHO
④
R CH, OH
- -
i -

-
É -
µ p
-
& -
p
,
" alcohol

003
Aldehyde
R R -
CH -
R
'
4 R -
C -
R'
Aldehyde ketone
tote 2. alcohol
% Ketone
The
carbonyl compound in which

carbonyl group is bonded to an oxygen 2. By Dehydrogenation Of Alcohols

atom of hydroxyl group c- OH ] are Cu / 573K
R CHO
É
>
known
caboxylic acid R CH,
-

as - -
OH
aldehyde
R OH alcohol
'

-
- 1

0415731' R C R
'

R -
CH -
R
'
> - -

Nomenclature of Aldehyde to
ion 2. alcohol ketone

methanol CH
,
-H ethanol
3. By Ozonolysis of Alkenes :

]\°
°
µ µ CH : lil 03 CH
]
CHL > 'f=o + HCHO

% Dentinal
11° CH } Iii ] 2h .
1420 CH
}
' H
µ
ce
4. By Hydration Of Alkynes OH
2- Chloropentanal
11° CHICH
di " "2504
> c. Hi -5%
I ↑, dit .

Hgsoy
H H

3- Methyl butanol Butanol

Tautomerism Ctg
-
CHO

All other alkynes give ketones .

°"
Nomenclature of ketones dit
Hzsoje
-

R -
CICH R -
C- ketone
diitegsoy
CH CH H
Tautomerism
,
R -
-

Ctg
] ] ]

Propanone Acetobhenone
( acetone ) ( methyl phenyl ketone ] BY Heating Ca salt
of Acid

R°°%a A- R CO R - -
+ Caco
,

Rool
2- Penton ◦ he By Decarboxylation and Dehydration of
benzophenone
Aromatic Acids
i
i ¥
1 COOH + HCOOH
a
IF CHO -1110+0 ,

butanone
3- hexanone
3- Methyl -
2-
M£° > COCH -1110+10
-

COOH -11100C CH -
} ,
,

STRUCTURE OF CARBONYL GROUP

120
'
PREPARATION OF ALDEHYDE ONLY
L
1. C- spa hybridization
( 0 2 Bond is 120
. →
ROSEN MUND REDUCTION
angle
. :

3. 30 bond ,
11T bond
1Pa Ha ,
Pd /
Bask R
# µ + HU
4 .
Carbon -

Oxygen R ,

11T Acid chloride aldehyde

double bond consist 1- &

É -
ce
th ' Pd /
Basjhe CHO

E- 5 . Carbon -

Oxygen bond
✗ Benzaldehyd

is polar in Nature → STEPHEN REDUCTION

G.) In carbonyl gb Ct is
elecbobhilicp-c.IN snarl R - CH __ NH É R CHO
-

O
-

b Nucleophilic Partial
Reduction
 ETARD REACTION: and others due to dipole-dipole interactions but
their butare lower than alcohols. ⑱
CYCHs + crOCI orand SOLUBILITY: Lower members
of aldehyde and
comblex
H30,TCHO Benzaldehyde kelones are soluble in water because of H-Bond.
-
The solubility of aldehyde and ketones decreases
By side Chain Chlorination of Methylbenzene rapidly on increasing the length of alloy chain.
followed All aldehyde and beloves are fairly soluble in
by Hydrolysis:
organic solvent.

%TCH3 CIIGU,TYCHCl H,0

->
A
---
101
CHP
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
- - -

Tomene Benzal Chloride Benzaldehyde

Polar Nature of Carbonyl Group=>
commercial method to manufacture of benzaldehyde
The polarity of Carbonyl grown arise due to high
GATTERMAN-KOCH REACTION:
electronegativity
of 0-atom.

aldehyde Ic*-
-- CO, H4
1 # Nucleophile center
Anhy AICl /CUCI
Lewis Base)
electrophil center
PREPARATION OF
KETONES <Lewis Acid)
·

From Acid Chloride

Acidity of <-Hydrogen Atom:
2
R-Mg-X +
CdCk -> R2Cd + 2 Mg !Y election withdrawing effect
The strong
2B - of carbonys group and
4- 4 Ryd
2R1-4-R+cl
+
- > resonance

stabilisation of conjugate base

2.) From Nitriles: are responsible for the acidity of

a-hydrogen alom.
Ether O
D-CH (EN [MgBU O
-
- +

--
-

- -
Cty-CH-C = N
I
↳'MgBu
NUCLEOPHILIC ADDITION REACTION
-O Hy0t
Cals -- ↳ thereactivity of aldehyde is more than that
Y
of kelones, due to
1- Phenyl probanone
↳ Steric Reason 4 Electronic Reason

3) Friedal Craft Acylation the

The attack of nucleophile presence of two
0 c-AvIR is
carbonyl carbon allay group in
=

ketones

ArsR- -n
I on

+ [, hindered by the presence

of large substituenton
the electrophilicity of
carbonyl carbon more
Ketones
effectively than aldehyde.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ALDEHYDE REDUCTION
AND KETONE

I
NaH4 or
Alcohol
LiAIH4
·
lower member of aldehyde and ketones
upto 10 are colourless, volatile liquid Aldehyde In-Hg/HC
while formaldehyde is a
gas at ordinary and
-

Clemmensen
>CH
temp. Higher members of both are solids Ketones Reduction
with odour.
fruity
NHc-NH /OH- I
carbonyl compounds higher
Y -P
·
Bot g are than
woll-Kishner
those of non-polar compounds, hydrocarbons Reduction
 CARBOXYLIC ACID C- C- OH )
NUCLEOPHILIC ADDITION REACTION
110 ⑧
HCN /OH CN
; > c. /
cyanohydrin The
-
on carboxyl group ,
consist
of a carbonyl gb
NAH 3 SUNA Bisulbhite addition
Attached to a hydroxyl group .

y in OH Product
Aliphatic ( R -
COOH) or Aromatic ( COOH )
ROH ROH
> ice::* > nor Their is
µ. , or Acetal general formula CnH2n0z
4th OH
-

CHU -
OH
, )cT¥! ketal H -
COOH CH
]
-
COOH

Methanoic Acid Ethanoic Acid

Z
HN
-

M z c. formic Acid ) Acid )

>
>[ =
-
( Acetic
2 = OH, -

Nth , COOH
CHI -

CHI OH
Loose Oxalic Acid
My
Propanoic Aid [ Ethane -1,2 dioicacidl -

"° "
OXIDATION REACTION '
cooee

KING / H+ #
, R -
COOH

[
Benzoic Acid
2- Methyl cyclopentane
"" " """ "↳◦ ✗%
{
[ Be " " "
" & " + "" °
" l
carboxylic Acid
- -

Aldehydes}
.

Acid )
Totten's Test

2am -150h METHODS OF PREPARATION :

-

RCOO { Only
> Cy OH
-

+
Fettling 's Test Aldehydes}
From alcohol by oxidation :

{ amnedthefha"n%
NAOX "
Nat
'

> CHX, + RCOO É" CH CHO CHSCOOH

(µ
,ayoµ
-

Halo form ,
give this test } '°)

¥1,00
"
"

REACTION DUE TO ✗ -
HYDROGEN
"ʰ° -0

CH, -

¢117 -
OH CH
]
-

CHD, -
COOH
,

OXIDATION OF ALDEHYDE AND KETONE

CH, -
CHO
¥5s ( Hy COOH -

CH
,
-
É -
CH
,
-

Ctg
KMn04
,
[ °]
( Hy COOH + CHGCOOH

Oxidation of ketones is done with

difficulty ace . to POPOFF 's RULE i. e

Metonic group remain with smaller gsoub .

FROM ALKYL BENZENE

ICOOH
y3kM > Benzoic Acid

""
CH
] KMNOY pnthalic
,
acid

"↳
Benzoic
¥, acid
?⃝
 HYDROLYSIS OF NITRILES Acidity
of Carboxylic
ING
Acid ⑬
- >
GRCOONa +HeY
R-CN+ H0 RCONH HR-COOH Acid
Carboxylic R-COOH NaOH
H
- - > RLOONA +HO
CH-CH-CN +40 CH3-CH-CONAC
->

CHy-CH2COOH NaHCOs, RCOPNa + HaO+(Ve

FROM GRIGNARD REAGENT
·
Carboxylic acicb are stronger acid
than
alcohols and many simple phenols but weal
0 c0 CH MgBr
gr
=

=
+
-
- 0 =

er the mineral acids.

with
Electron drawing group stabilises
n
·

the carboxylate anion and strengthen

the acid,
CHCOOH+MyTBY whereas to
donating
group
destabilises the
carboxylate anion and
FROM ACYL HALIDE
weakens the acid.

R-coU RCOOH + HC
->
Rx
involving cleavage of c-on bond

L CHCOOH ↳ Formation
CHICOL
+H4
of anhydride O 0
-

FROM ACID DERIVATIVE

2R-COOH
NT, A
S R -
- -R
or P205 A

ssterification,
dilHD
R-1OZ -
R-COOH
or dil N90H
RCOOR'-
e
Ease of Hydrolysis ↳ Rx
with and sock:
PCs, P4,
RCOSe> RRCOKU) RCOOH > RIONAC
RICOOH
> RCOC +POU, the
-3 RCO4 HyPOs
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
+

SOC12
> RCOG +
SO2 HC+

·
Aliphatic carboxylic acids upto wine carbon
↳ Rx" with ammonia
atoms are colourless liquid atroom temp

unpleasantodour. The
with higher acids are RCOOH + Niy -> RCOONMYT TRCONMe
like solich.
wax Rxx involving -
Cool group
·
Reduction
·
Due to intermolecular forces the lower
his
LiAttylether,RCH,OH
presence of RLOOH orB246
(ii) Hy0+
carboxyl acids are freely missible with water
Butthe solubility in water decreases
·
Decarboxylation
RLOO-Nat a0 R-H+NacCOs
gradually due to increase in size of alkyl gl.
↳ H.Y.2Rx (Hell Volhard Zelinsky Rxn)
Stronger intermolecular forces increases
· is X2 /RedP

the
CHy-COOH
(XS-COOH
bipt of monocarboxylic acids as
4
compared to the alcohols
of comparable Electrophilic Ring substitution
molecular masses. carboxyl group acts as a
deactivating
--- Ho
and meta directing group
R- xD -R COOH
BU2
/FeBUs cook
-

-Br,
I
-
-0-H---o
A
101 - coon
- conc. HN3
Hydrogen Bonding in Carboxylic Aud conc. H2SO4
, Noz

... ... ....

They do undergo
not friedal craft reaction because
-
n
carboxyl group deactivating group
is and

in CatalystAll, gets bonded to carboxyl

Alcohols group.
Hydrogen Bonding
 Configuration of d- amino acids

④
•

Biomolecules coon
Coon

Introduction
H&M H NHL
:
H
Biomolecules are the organic compound
which form the basis of life i. e
they build up
CD amino acid )
R ( L -
amino acid ) R
living system and
-

the responsible for their growth this ) CNH on AHS )

and main fence CNHa on
,

that relates bio molecule to living organism is

amino acids
✗ amino acids
occurringoccur
The sequence 1-
→ Naturally - are
Biomolecules ells cells living amino acids in antibiotics and
→
Organ → → Tissues →
organs → D- some
organism bacterial cell walls .

living
→
systems are made up of various complex
biomolecules like carbohydrate ,
proteins nucleic acids,
,
Zwi Her ion : when a proton is migrated from carboxyl
" bids dt amino group ,
to dual ion is formed
Proteins and carbohydrates are essential group a

constituents our food and this dual ion is called zwi Her ion
of
.

→ In addition , some simple molecules

like vitamins and mineral salts also play an
important role in the
function of organism .

"

Amino Acids & Proteins at

The compounds containing amino group c- NHN and

carboxylic group c- cook ) are called amino acids -

Isoelectric Point ( PI )
R=H ,
Zwi Her ion which is
where ,

aebye or
electrically neutral only
can specific exist at a

aryl group pH , that pH is called isoelectric point

which is different for all amino acids .

leucine pH
e.g pI of
-6.0
-

↑
→ except glycine ( na g Coote) , others optically
pI of Arginine
are
-
-

to -8
active in
" pH = .

nature .

* Classification of amino acids

structure of amino acids :

a. pay - amino acids depending upon the position of on

-

NH, with respect to COOH group R NIH COO

-

CH
- -
. -
-

Him du higher pH )
Neutral having one NH and one COOH 980Mt 2

-1
as anion
→
(
-
-

,
,
Coo
-

-
-

EG NH F- COOH ( glycine ) R
,
ion
-

Twitter
te
( isoelectric point )
+
HN -
de -
COOH
Acidic
having NH, and
pH )
,
one two COOH
grouts cation c low
-

→
-

,
as
.

MHS
%H00C CH Coote ( Aspartic Acid
)
gu Peptide peptides condensation products of
-
- -

•
,
are

two or more ✗ amino acids -

Basic having and

.

NH

in %
two or more one COOH
group
- -

cie-coon-qn.ci?coot-y-.yn-ci!
, , .

4ᵗʰ Han
.com
% ftp.k-q-COOHCLYsfne )
-

HAN
.
. . . . . . . . . . . .
-

dipeptide
%
he
.

Essential and Non Essential Amino Acids : -

-
NH - is known as peptide linkage or peptide bond .

*
-

Those amino acids which can be synthesized by → 2 molecules of 4- amino acid form dipeptide .

essential amino acids

our body are known as non -

3 Molecules of d- Amino acid form bipebtide .

while which can't be synthesized

by our body so must be supplied through our → Dipeptide has only peptide bond
one .

amino acids
diet are called essential .
Tri peptide has only two peptide bond .

Polypeptide :
condensation products of many amino acid
( ≈ 10000 ) is known as polypeptide and those
polypeptide which have molecular mass above

than 10000 u are called booteins .

•
Proteins they are linear polymers of ✗ -
amino
acid .
 Str .

of Proteins : in this 1° Str

Any change .

i. e the sequence

④
of amino acid creates different broken
1.) Primary Structure :
It simply reveals the sequence
a

of amino acids .

2.) Secondary structure :

✗ -
helix Sir maintained
.

by H Bond
-

oops -

pleated sheet Str .

when R is small
00ᵗʰ
secondary structure of Proteins :
3.) Tertiary structure : The secondary stg
superimposition
.

The folding and

of proteins refers to the shake in which a
long
of polypeptide chains shake
forms a compact globular .

polypeptide chain can exist .

termed as tertiary Sir .

They are found to exist in two different

It is stabilised by covalent, ionic , H Bond -

and disulphide bonds .

types of Str .

4.) Quaternary Structure : The precise arrangement of ✗ -

helix stir .

B- bleated sheet str .

constituents Most common ways In this Slr .

all peptide
.

in which a boybe chains are stretched

the Basis Hide chain form
Classification on of Hydrolysis out to
•

nearly
-

all possible H Bond -

maximum extension
simple Protein into and then laid side
by twisting
:

which
give only ✗ amino acid ubon held
by side
-

are
sight handed
hydrolysis
a

e.
g albumin screw ( helix)
together by intermolecular
conjugated Protein
✗ amino acid and
: H
These proteins give - with the NH -
-

group
-

Bond .

non protein part called prosthetic of each amino acid residue

, group
Tertiary Str Proteins
of :
.

Protein Prosthetic Group the tertiary sto of proteins .

represents folding of boy bebtide chains i. e

overall

further folding of the secondary structure

It gives rise to 2 major molecular

shapes i. e fibrous and Globular

The main forces which stabilize
the 2° and 3° Sto .

of proteins are H -
Bonds ,

Derived Proteins disulphide linkage , van . der Waal and electrostatic

These obtained by partial hydrolysis forces attraction
are
of .

of simple or conjugated Proteins .

Polypeptides ]
[ Proteins
of Proteins
Proteose Pebtones Str
Quaternary
→ → → .

On the Basis of Molecular shape some

of the proteins are

composed of two or more

1
polypeptide chains referred
fibrous Protein Globular Protein to as sub -
units

The spatial arrange -

merit
of these subunits
-

with respect to each

other is known as
quaternary structure

Denaturation of Proteins
The Process that changes the
native proteins is
3- D Sto .

of
called denaturation of proteins .

It can be caused
by change in pH , change in Hub .

addition of electrolyte addition

,
solvent like water
of ,
alcohol , acetone .

Primary shot Proteins : Nucleic Acids : These are the polymers which are
proteins may have one or
prepared by Nucleotide also known as holy nucleotide
more bolybebtide chains
→ each polypeptide in a Protein has amino acids a nucleotide contain .
. . .

linked with each other in a

specific sequence and *] Pentose sugar *) Nitrogenous *) Phosbhate
it is this
sequence of amino acids that is said Base 920M .

to be Slr that protein

the si of Pentose Sugar :
either ribose
. . .

5 carbon sugar or

ribose
for Help deoxy
you can donate ( not contain

oxygen at →

2nd position )
 Nitrogeneous Base Vitamins
I

Pyrimidine
The organic compounds other than carbohydrates,
purine proteinsand fats which are required in the diet in

Adenire the mine small amount to perform specific biological, functions,

->
->

uracil maintain
guanine normal health, growth and nutritition are
->
->

cytosine
⑬
-
called vitamins
Two H-Bonds present between A&T (A T) basis of
solubility
are
classification the
=

on
while three
hydrogen bonds are present between
(842( =4) Fat Soluble Vitamins
Vitamins A, D, E, K are soluble in fat
and oils but insoluble in water. They are stored in
liver and adipose (fat
storing)
tissues.

Water soluble Vitamins

group vitamins
-

B and care
soluble in water. Water soluble vitamins must be
supplied regularly in diet because they are readily
excreted Urine
m and can not be stored in
our body (except Vitamin Bre)
Vitamin K is responsible for coagulation of blood

structure of D.N.A
consist
It of chain
two
polynucleotide
chains, each form a
right handed helical spiral
with tell bases in one turn of
the spiral
The two chains coil
f
to double helix and run m

opposite direction. These are

held together by
H-Bonding.

Types of RNA

toproducedin thereprenesis
12MessangerRNACM-RNA
& protein.

C.) Transfer RNA

is found in cytoplasm. Its
It function
is to collect amino acids from cytoplasm for ENZYMES
protein Synthesis. Enzymes are blocatalyst, almost all the enzymes
3.) Ribosomal RNA (5-RNA)
are
globular proteins. They are generally named after the
This provide site for compound or class of compound upon which they work
protein synthesis
eg the enzyme that catalyse hydrolysis of maltose
into
glucose is named as maltase
·

functions of Nucleic Acid

ClaHacOn tHO Hse 2CsHizOG
Direct the synthesis of protein
·

4)lucose
Maltose
·
transfer the genetic informations. Some Common example
↑lication: Product
process in which substrate
-

It is a a molecule can Name

duplicate. Urea Urease CO2 +NHs

-template
- It means battern, in the process of replication Maltose Maltase Glucose
GDNA, the parent strand serves as template. sucrose Glucose fructose
Invertase
+

Gene Starch
the portion of DNA carrying information about Amylase Maltose
Proteins Amino Acids
a
specific protein is called gene. Trypsin
genetic code: the relation between the amino acid Mechanism of Enzyme Action-
and the the nucleotide triplet is called
genetic code.
codous the nucleotide bases in RNA function
amino
i
group of three Ctriplet) in coding
acid.
these bases triblets are called codons.

Characteristic feature of Enzynne:

·
Rate of Reaction:
They increase the rate of reaction
up to 100 to 107 times.
•
Specific Nature -

urease catalyse the hydrolysis of Urea

Str .

of Glucose ④
and not methyl urea , so these are specific in nature .

•
Optimum Temperature -

It is active at 20 -30%
•

pH of medium -

it is about 7
,
for bebsiu 18-2-21
for trypsin 7.5-8.3
•
Concentration -
Dilute solutions are more effective
•
Amount of enzyme -

Very small amount can accelerate

the reaction
is known carbon
}
anomeric
{
as
•

Enzyme Inhibitors -
These compound inhibit the enzyme Str of fructose : The G
compounds called
.

and these are an omen

action , with the help such
of
compounds , the reaction can be controlled .

HARMONIES
These are the chemical substance which are
produced by endocrine C.ductless ) in the
glands body .

Harmonies acts as chemical messengers .

Some examples of ductless (endocrine ) glands are

thyroid , pitutary , adrenal, pancreas , testes and ovaries .

Hormones are divided into three types :

is steroids &; proteins Ciii, Amines six membered cyclic
ring
fire membered cyclic ring
ce. £

Reducing Sugar Non Reducing Sugar

free 'C Do not have any free
Aldehyde or
•
•

aldehyde or ketone group

ke tonic group
.

Do not reduce towns

fettling Solh
-

Reduce
Reagent and f- ehling Solh
or Totten 's Reagent

carbohydrates These active bowl hydro

.

e.
g
Maltose & Fructose e.
g sucrose
are
optically -

✗y aldehydes / Ketones or the substance which

Chemical Properties of Glucose
these hydrolysis are called carbohydrates
give on .

CHO
General formula ↳ (Hao
)y 7
4110
• ◦

( CHOM ),
Acetic ( {H O
-
E CH ]
Classification
-

the basis Hydrolysis

-

on
of Anhydride
>
I
,
&

Monosaccharides Glucose
,

CHI O
É CH]
not be hydrolysed further eg CHIH
-

can
• - . - -

fructose
•

Oligosaccharides give 2- Lo molecules Glucose Penta acetate

of monosaccharides
_

eJ Glucose ,
fructose CHO COOH
Polysaccharides monosaccharides 1
Bra
[ÉHOHL
•

give large of )
-
•

no
( CHOH )q [ 0]
.

+ 614 conic
¥
,
e.
g starch cellulose .

1
acid
,
'

CH OH
•
Preparation of Glucose : CHIH ,

fromSucrOI CHO COOH

" N°3
( { Hotel ( { HOH ) ,
6111206 ( 6111206 saccharic
421122011+110 +
•
) ,
>
acid
914 fructose 1
from starch
se
↳ OH
ago ,, OH

¥4
-

↳ H1206 glucose
( Co Hioos )n+nHaO n

{ GHO
"°
structure
aldehyde 900Mt
.
)
µ, GH] •
)
"A- OH
← one ( CHOH )q (( HOH )
CHO ( CHOHI, > ( CHA ) ,
I , 1
,
1
Alcohol
( ( HOH ) a ← four 2° IH { H2O
CHyoH ]
CHyOH
alycoxine
{ 11011 1° alcohol n Hexane
-

← one

"◦
SH ' ^'
Glyceraldehyde )
Glyceraldehyde 1-
4110 ICH
'
D-
µ,µ glucose
CHO CHO
( CHOH )q 7 ( CHOHI, cyanohydrin
* OH HO -1 H I
1

CH OH
CHIH CHIH
, CHIH
Mata rotation when either the two forms
D OH in RHS 2 means OH in 1- His of of glucose
means is dissolved in water there is . a spontaneous
change in specific rotation till the
equilibrium
value of +52.5° .
This is known as mutarotation .
✗ -
DC -11 Glucose Equilibrium B- Da Glucose The two monosaccharides are joined together by an
Mixture
+ 111.50 +19.5° oxide linkage formed by loss
of a water molecule
This is is called
actually an ether
group and

Importance of carbohydrate
carbohydrates are essential for life in both blank and
glycosidic linkage .

④
&
•

•
They are major portion of our food .
animals -

& ☒&- -
-
→ -

& -0 - -

+11,0
•

carbohydrates are used as storage molecule as starch

SUCROSE
in plants and in animals
glycogen .

cell wall
of bacteria and blunts is made up of cellulose
•

x-p Glucose
_

Honey has been used for a

long time as an instant +
source of energy . P D
- -

Glucose
Ebimers monosaccharides in configuration
◦

differing at

a carbon other than anomeric carbon are called ebimers

eg glucose and galactose differ in configuration at 14 ,
hence called epimers MALTOSE
.

B- D- Galactose
+

B- D Glucose

Non
sugars and -

Sugars LACTOSE
monosaccharides and oligosaccharides having sweet
•

taste , soluble in water are known as

sugars
water and B- D- Galactose
•

Polysaccharides which are insoluble in not

+
sweet in taste are known as non -

sugars B- D- Glucose

ˢ• *→É⇐:•¥¥¥¥i
:⇐•÷A•¥•Bg¥EBÉ¥DB¥G%F B.hharaattipaannehhaaksiirr
Panchal Chemistry Guruji 2.0
GBAGBO Bharat
-

INVERSION OF SUCROSE -

DISACCHARIDES AND POLYSACCHARIDES

Sucrose on dextro -

rotatory
hydrolysis either
-

but on with dilute acid or with

CARBOHYDRATES Hydrolysis Linkage Reducing enzyme invertase the solution is changed into
Probert
,
Product
laevo -

rotatory solution .

sucrose x-D Glucose & C- I @ Hose)& Mon -

As dextro rotatory sucrose is changed

Cpisaccharide ) B D fructose
-
C- 2 (fructose ) Reducing to laevis rotatory solution after hydrolysis
Maltose is called invert sugar
Reducing
"
✗ D- Glucose C- 1 Glucose & The sucrose
a

Cpi saccharide)
-

C- 4 Glucose
lactose
( Disaccharide)
B- D-
& B- D- Glucose
Galactose c- 1 ( Galactose) &
c- 4 ( Glucose ]
Reducing 921122011 1- H2O → Co Hiroto + ↳ H' 206
Dt) Glucose
-
DG ) fructose
-

+66.5°
cellulose C- 1 ( Glucose] & Non +52.5° -92.4°
B- D- Glucose
Polysaccharide)
-

C. c- 4 cameos e) Reducing since the laevo rotation of fructose C- 92.4° ) %

Glycogen ✗ D- Glume c-I cameos &
Non more than dextrorotation of glucose C -152.5° ) , the
-

(polysaccharide)
-

c-4 ccelulose] Reducing is laevis

mixture rotatory .

MUTA ROTATION
When
glucose
is dissolved in water Polysaccharides
its specific
.

then rotation changes into an equilibrium units and it consist

is
value This spontaneous change in specific rotation of
starch it a
polymer of ✗ -

glucose
Amylopectin
.

two components and

an
optically active substance to an equilibrium value -

Amylose
is called mutarotation
Amylose Amylopectin
The two
anomersq glucose i. e x-D glucose &

p D Glucose in specific
-
solution changes their rotation
to an equilibrium value which is the rotation of a

chain str
straight .

X-D Glucose 7-
Obenchain B- D- Glucose
Csp .
rotation Str .
Csbeaefic
= -1110 )
.
C. Sp rotation
. rotation

-152.5° ) -119.2 ]
.
= =

DISACCHARIDES
Disaccharides are the carbohydrates
which on hydrolysis with dilute acids or with
enzyme give two molecules of either same or

different monosaccharides