RS-ANA212: CLINICAL ANATOMY, KINESIOLOGY AND BIOMECHANICS

FOUNDATIONS IN CLINICAL ANATOMY, KINESIOLOGY, AND BIOMECHANICS

Study Outline-Handout (B2025, SY2022-2023)
Prepared by: Natalizia Guieb-Pagtakhan, DPT, PTRP, MAE

PART 1. INTRODUCTION
Branches of Science Definition
Anatomy Is the science of the structure and function of the body (Snell, 2012, p.2).
Clinical Anatomy Is the study of the macroscopic structure and function of the body as it relates to the
practice of medicine and other health sciences (Snell, 2012, p.2).
Physiology Is the scientific investigation of the process or functions of living things (Seeley,
Stephens, & Tate, 2008, p.2).
Kinesiology Is the study of human motion (Houglum & Bertoti, 2012, p.3).
Clinical Kinesiology Is the application of kinesiology to environments of the health care professional
(Houglum & Bertoti, 2012, p.4).
Biomechanics Is the application of the principles of mechanics to the living human body (Houglum &
Bertoti, 2012, p.4)

PART 2. ANATOMICAL TERMS, BONES, AND JOINTS

Skeletal System and Bone Tissue

Functions and Components of the Skeletal System

Functions Components
* Support * Cartilage
* Protection * Bones
* Movement * Tendons
* Storage * Ligaments
* Blood cell production
References:
Topic Reference
Functions of the skeletal system Seeley, Stephens, & Tate (2008), page 174
Tortora & Derrickson (2009), page 176

Cartilage
Hyaline Cartilage Fibrocartilage Elastic Cartilage

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 References:
Topic Reference
Cartilage Seeley, Stephens, & Tate (2008), page 174-175
Standrins (2005), page 83-87

Bone Histology: Bone Matrix

Bone Matrix

Organic Materials Inorganic Materials

(35%) (65%)

Collagen Calcium Phosphate

Proteoglycans Crystals (Hydroxyapatite)

References:
Topic Reference
Bone Matrix Seeley, Stephens, & Tate (2008), page 175
Standrins (2005), page 88-90

Bone Cells

References:
Topic Reference
Bone Cells Seeley, Stephens, & Tate (2008), page 175-176
Standrins (2005), page 90-92
Tortora & Derrickson (2009), page 178

Cancellous and Compact Bone

Cancellous Bone

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 Compact Bone

References:
Topic Reference
Cancellous and Compact Bone Seeley, Stephens, & Tate (2008), page 178-180
Tortora & Derrickson (2009), page 179

Classification of Bones According to Shape

Bone Shapes Description
Long Bones Longer than they are wide
Most of the bones of the upper and
lower limbs are long bones
Short Bones Are about as broad as they are long
Nearly cube-shaped or round and are
exemplified by the bones of the wrist
and ankle
Flat Bones Have a relatively thin, flattened shape
and are usually curved.
Examples of flat bones are certain skull
bones, the ribs, the breastbone, & the
shoulder blades
Irregular Bones Have shapes that do not fit readily into
the other three categories
Examples are vertebrae and facial bones
References:
Topic Reference
Bone Anatomy Seeley, Stephens, & Tate (2008), page 180-182
Tortora & Derrickson (2009), pages 199-201

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 Structures and Functions of a Long Bone

References:
Topic Reference
Structure of a Long Bone Seeley, Stephens, & Tate (2008), page 180-182
Tortora & Derrickson (2009), pages 175-177

Bone Development: Intramembranous Ossification

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 References:
Topic Reference
Intramembranous Seeley, Stephens, & Tate (2008), page 183-185
Ossification Standrins (2005), pages 96-100
Tortora & Derrickson (2009), page 182-185

Endochondral Ossification

References:
Topic Reference
Endochondral Ossification Seeley, Stephens, & Tate (2008), page 183-185
Standrins (2005), page 96-100
Tortora & Derrickson (2009), page 182-185

Bone Growth

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 Growth in Bone Length

Growth in Bone Width

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 References:
Topic Reference
Bone Seeley, Stephens, & Tate (2008), page 185-191
Growth Standrins (2005), page 100
Tortora & Derrickson (2009), page 185-186

Gross Anatomy of the Skeletal System

Bones of the Skeletal System

References:
Topic Reference
Bones of the skeletal system Seeley, Stephens & Tate (2008), page 203-206
Tortora & Derrickson (2009), page 198-202

General Anatomical Terms for Various Features of Bones

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 References:
Topic Reference
Bones of the skeletal system Seeley, Stephens & Tate (2008), page 203-206
Tortora & Derrickson (2009), page 198-202

Regional Terms

References:
Topic Reference
Terminology and the Body Plan Seeley, Stephens, & Tate (2008), page 12-15

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 Joint Anatomy

Structural and Functional Classification of Joints

JOINT CLASSIFICATION

STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONAL

Diarthrosis/
Fibrous Cartilaginous Synovial Synarthrosis Amphiarthrosis
Diarthrodial

Immovable Slightly movable Freely movable

No synovial cavity No synovial cavity (+) synovial cavity
Fibrous CT Cartilage Articular capsule
and accessory
ligaments

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 References:
Topic Reference
Classes of Joints Houglum & Bertoti (2012), page 11-13
Neumann (2010), pages 28-30
Seely, Stephens, & Tate (2008), page 253-259
Standrins (2005), page 103-110
Tortora & Derrickson (2009), page 265-267

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 Fibrous Joints

Sutures

Syndesmoses

Gomphoses

References:
Topic Reference
Fibrous Joints Seeley, Stephes, & Tate (2008), page 253-254

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 Cartilaginous Joints

Synchondroses

Symphyses

References:
Topic Reference
Cartilaginous Joints Seeley, Stephens, & Tate (2008), page 254-255

Synovial Joint

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 Parts of Synovial Joint
Articular Cartilage Thin layer of hyaline cartilage which
covers the articular surface of bones
Joint Capsule Surrounds the ends of bones
* Fibrous capsule: outer layer
continuous with the fibrous layer of
the periosteum
* Synovial membrane: lines the
joint cavity except over the articular
cartilage and disks. It produces
synovial fluid
Synovial fluid The lubricating film that covers the
surface of joints
Articular disk Flat plate of fibrocartilage located
between the articular cartilage of
bones. It absorbs and distribute
forces
Bursa Extension of synovial membrane. It
contains synovial fluid providing
cushion between structures.

Articular Movements and Mechanisms

Gliding Movements

Angular Movements

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 Circular Movements

Special Movements

General Classification of Synovial Joints

Degrees of Freedom
One degree of freedom: UNIAXIAL
Two degrees of freedom: BIAXIAL
Three degrees of freedom: TRIAXIAL OR MULTIAXIAL
References:
Topic Reference
Synovial Joints Houglum and Bertoti (2012), pages 12-13
Neumann (2010), pages 28-34

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 Seeley, Stephens, & Tate (2008), page 255-259
Types of Movement Houglum and Bertoti (2012), pages 6-9
Seeley, Stephens, & tate (2008) page 259-263

Factors Affeting ROM and Effects of Aging

References:
Topic Reference
Factors affecting ROM and effects of aging Seeley, Stephens & Tate (2008): page 272
Tortora & Derrickson (2009): page 277

PART 3. KINEMATICS
Definition: Kinematics

References:
Topic Reference
Human Movement: Kinetics & Kinematics Houglum & Bertoti (2012), page 5
Kinematics Neumann (2010), page 4

Osteokinematics
Definition:

Planes of Motion Axes of Rotation Movements

Degrees of Freedom

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 Kinematic Chains
Open Kinematic Chain Closed Kinematic Chain

References:
Topic Reference
Human Movement: Kinetics & Kinematics Houglum & Bertoti (2012), page 5
Planes of Motion and Axes of Motion Houglum & Bertoti (2012), page 5-9
Osteokinematics Neumann (2010), page 5-6
Degrees of Freedom Houglum & Bertoti (2012), page 11
Neumann (2010), page 6
Kinematic Chains Houglum & Bertoti (2012), page 16-17
Osteokinematics: A matter of perspective Neumann (2010), page 6-7

Arthrokinematics
Definition:

Joint Morphology
Convex-Concave Relationship Purpose:
1. Improves congruency (fit)
2. Increases the surface area for dissipating contact forces
3. Helps guide the motion between the bones

Basic Arthrokinematic Joint Motions

Joint Motions Illustration Description
Rolling (or rocking)

Sliding (or gliding)

Spinning

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 Predicting an Arthrokinematic Pattern based on Joint Morphology
Convex-Concave Rule
Convex-on-Concave Movement Concave-on-Convex Movement
Description: Description:

Close-Packed and Loose-Packed Positions of a Joint

Close-Packed Position Open/Loose-Packed Position
Description: Description:

References:
Topic Reference
Arthrokinematics - Definition Houglum & Bertoti (2012), page 17
Neumann (2010), page 7
Joint morphology Neumann (2010), page 7
Basic Arthrokinematic Joint Motion Houghlum & Bertoto\i (2012), page 20-22
Fundamental Movements between Joint Surfaces Neumann (2010), page 7-9
Predicting the Arthrokinematic Pattern based on Joint Neumann (2010), page 9-10
Morphology Houglum & Bertoti (2012), page 22-23
Joint Shapes as they pertain to Arthrokinematic Motion
Close-Packed and Loose-Packed Positions Houglum & Bertoti (2012), page 24
Neumann (2010), page 10-11

PART 4. MUSCLE ACTIVITY

Nervous System Overview

Nervous System Classification

Anatomical Division
Division Parts
Central Nervous System (CNS) Brain
Spinal Cord

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 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Cranial Nerves
Afferent Sensory Nerves to the Spinal Cord
Efferent Motor Neurons from the SC to the
muscles
Physiological Division
Division Parts
Somatic Nervous System Receptors and nerves that innervate muscles and skin
Visceral Nervous System Divided into: sympathetic and parasympathetic systems
Functional Division
Division Parts
Afferent System * All nerves associated with the transmission of sensory information into
the CNS.
* Includes peripheral axons, often called primary or first order afferents,
originating from the receptors and entering into the dorsal horn of the
spinal cord. Once in the spinal cord afferent signals synapse and continue
transmission within the central nervous system via second and third order
afferents at various neural regions between the spinal cord and cortex.
Efferent System * Includes nerves that regulate movement and motor behaviour.
* Efferent Nerves:
Efferent Nerves Description
Upper Motor Neuron - located within the CNS
- its connections, cell bodies, and axons lie
within the brain and SC.
Interneurons - neurons within the ventral horn and
intermediate areas of the SC
- transmit efferently to alpha and gamma
lower motor neurons
- function as a neural bridge between the
upper and lower motor neurons
Lower Motor Neuron - Alpha lower motor neurons: innervate
extrafusal muscle fibers
- Gamma lower motor neurons: innervate
intrafusal muscle fibers

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 References:
Topic Reference
Nervous System Overview Houglum & Bertoti (2012), page 86-87
Functions of the Nervous System Seeley, Stephens, & Tate (2008), page 375-377
Divisions of the Nervous System

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 Nerve Fibers

References:
Topic Reference
Nerve Fibers Houglum & Bertoti (2012), page 87-90

Muscular System

Functions and General Functional Characteristics

Major Functions of Muscles Description
1. Body Movement

2. Maintenance of Posture

3. Production of Body Heat

4. Communication

5. Constriction of organs and

vessels
6. Constriction of organs and
vessels
7. Heart beat

General Functional Characteristics of Muscle

Properties of Muscle Description
1. Contractility

2. Excitability

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 3. Extensibility

4. Elasticity

References:
Topic Reference
Functions of the muscular system Seely, Stephens, & Tate (2008), page 279
General functional characteristics Totora & Derrickson (2009), page 302-303

Muscle Types

References:
Topic Reference
Muscle Types Seeley, Stephens, & Tate (2008), page 280
Standrings (2005), page 112
Tortora & Derrickson (2009), page 302

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 Skeletal Muscle Structure
Parts of the Skeletal Muscle’s Gross Anatomy
Parts Description
Origin * Also called the head
* The end of the muscle attached to the more stationary of
the two bones
Insertion * End of the muscle
* Attached to the bone undergoing the greatest movement
Belly * The largest portion of the muscle, between the origin and
the insertion
Tendon * Point of attachment of muscles to bones
* Tendons - long, cablelike structures
* Aponeurosis – broad, sheetlike structures
Fascia * Connective tissue sheets within the body
* Muscular fascia separates individual muscles (biceps
brachii and brachialis) or compartmentalizes groups of
muscles (anterior compartment of the arm vs posterior
compartment)

Motor Point Single motor neuron and all the muscle fiber its
branches innervate

Connective Tissue Covering

Covering Description
Epimysium Surrounds individual muscles
Perimysium Surrounds muscle fasciculi
Endomysium Surrounds each muscle fiber

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 Structure of a Skeletal Muscle

Organization from largest to smallest: Skeletal muscle (i.e., biceps brachii) → Muscle fasciculi (bundles of
muscle fibers) →Muscle fiber (skeletal muscle cells) → Myofibril → Myofilaments
Microscopic Anatomy of a Skeletal Muscle
Muscle Fiber

Parts Description
Sarcolemma Plasma membrane
Sarcoplasm Cytoplasm
Myofibrils Fills the muscle fibers; comprised of myofilaments
Myofilaments Protein filaments (actin and myosin)
Transverse tubules Structures through which sarcolemma extends to the interior of a muscle fiber
Sarcoplasmic reticulum Highly specialized SER
Sarcomere Basic functional and structural unit of a skeletal muscle formed by the myofilaments

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 Myofilaments

Myofilaments Description
Actin * Thin myofilaments
* Composition of Actin Myofilaments:
1. Fibrous actin (F actin) – Strand
2. Globular actin (G actin) - Has an active site to which myosin can bind during muscle contraction
3. Troponin
- Attached to actin
- Has Ca++ binding sites
- Attached also to tropomyosin
4. Tropomyosin
- Covers and exposes the active sites on G actin
Myosin * Thick myofilaments
* Head has a cleft where myosin can bind to the active site of G actin
Sarcomere

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 Sliding Filament Model

“The sliding filament model of muscle contraction includes all the events that result in actin myofilaments sliding
over myosin myofilaments to shorten the sarcomeres of muscle fibers. Actin and myosin myofilaments do not
change length during contraction of skeletal muscle. Instead, the actin and myosin myofilaments slide past one
another in a way that causes the sarcomeres to shorten. The shortening of sarcomeres is responsible for the
contraction of skeletal muscles” (Seeley, Stephens, & Tate, 2008).

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 References:
Topic Reference
General Principles Seeley, Stephens, & Tate (2008), page 321
Connective Tissue Coverings Seeley, Stephens, & Tate (2008), page 280-281
Standrings (2005), page 116
Tortora & Derrickson (2009), page 303
Muscle Fiber Neumann (2010), page 48-58
Seeley, Stephens, & Tate (2008), page 281-285
Standrings (1005), page 114
Tortora & Derrickson (2009), page 305-311
Sliding Filament Model Houglum & Bertoti (2012), page 95
Seeley, Stephens, & tate (2008), page 285
Standrings (2005), page 115
Tortora & Derrickson (2009), page 311-312

Muscle Fiber Types

References:
Topic Reference
Muscle fiber types Houglum & Bertoti (2012), page 96-98

Motor Unit

As the term “motor unit” implies, all muscle fibers act as one unit, contracting or relaxing nearly simultaneously.
Muscle fibers of one motor unit are not adjacent to one another; they are distributed throughout the muscle’s
length. In addition, if the motor unit’s nerve activates its muscle fibers to contract, those fibers will contract
maximally. This principle is the all-or-none law.

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 Gradation of Strength of Muscle Contraction
Principle Description
Size Principle The smallest motor units are activated first.
Recruitment Principle Increasing the number of motor units activated simultaneously increases
the overall muscle tension.
Excitatory Input/Rate Coding Increasing the frequency of stimulation of individual motor units increases
Principle the percentage of time that each active muscle fiber develops maximum
tension.

References:
Topic Reference
Motor Unit Houglum & Bertoti (2012), page 98-99
Recruitment Neumann (2010), page 62-63

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 Muscle Fiber Architecture

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 References:
Topic Reference
Muscle fiber architecture Houglum & Bertoti (2012), page
Seeley, Stephens & Tate (2008): page 321-322
Standrings (2005): page113
Tortora & Derrickson (2009): page 339-341

Actions of Muscles

References:
Topic Reference
Classification of Muscles Tortora & Derrickson (2009), page 343

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 Joint, Tendon, and Muscle Receptors

Joint Receptors
JOINT RECEPTORS:
* Joint receptors emit several action potentials
per second as a “resting” output, so the body
always has a sense of position in space.
* Is stimulated when it is deformed

References:
Topic Reference
Joint Receptors Houglum & Bertoti (2012), page 99

Golgi Tendon Organs

* GTOs lie within muscle tendons near the pint of their attachment to the muscle.
* An average of 10-15 muscle fibers usually connected in direct line with each GTO.
* GTO is suited to detect force or tension in either muscle or tendinous collagen fibers but not changes in muscle
length.
* GTO is stimulated by tension produced within the muscle fibers or the collaginous tendon to which it is
attached
* Nerve impulses discharged by the GTO are transmitted over large, rapidly conducting afferent axons (group Ib
fibers) to the spinal cord and cerebellum.
* The GTOs mediate nonreciprocal inhibition, or autogenic inhibition, referring to this inhibitory input to an
agonist muscle (prime mover) and am excitatory message to the antagonist (opposing) muscle.
References:
Topic Reference
Golgi Tendon Organs Houglum & Bertoti (2012), page 100

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 Muscle Spindles
MUSCLE SPINDLES
* Unique proprioceptors that lie parallel to the extrafusal
fubers
* Intrafusal muscle fibers (IFMF)
- very specialized muscle fibers that lie within muscle
spindle
- each muscle spindle contains 3 to 10 of these fibers
- 2 Types of intrafusal fiber nuclei: nuclear bag and
nuclear chain

Nuclear Bag Nuclear Chain

- has its nuclei grouped in
the middle (looks like a
bag) of the fiber
- surrounded by branches
of an Ia (Aka primary
sensory ending) afferent
neuron in a spiral fashion
- Innervated by dynamic
gamma motor nerve axon
- has its nuclei spread
along its length, in a chain-
like arrangement
- surrounded by branches
of an Ia (Aka primary
sensory ending) afferent
neuron in a spiral fashion
- Has a secondary neuron
ending formed by group II
afferent fibers
- Innervated by static
gamma motor nerve axon

Reference:
Topic Reference
Muscle Spindle Houglum & Bertoti (2012), page 100-105

Kinesthesia and Proprioception

Descriptors Kinesthesia and Position Sense Proprioception
Definition - Awareness of the position of the - More inclusive term than kinesthesia
various parts of his/her body relative to - Refers to the use of sensory input from
all other parts and whether a particular receptors in muscle spindles, tendons, and
part is moving or still. joints to discriminate joint position and
- Kinesthesia: awareness of dynamic joint movement, including direction,
joint motion amplitude, and speed, as well as relative
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 - Position Sense: awareness of static tension within tendons
position
Nerve Fibers - Kinesthetic signals are generated in - Impulses are transmitted predominantly
various sensory receptors residing in over group I afferent fibers and are
muscles, tendons, and joints and integrated in various sensorimotor centers
respond to body movements and to automatically regulate postural muscle
tension within tendons. adjustments and maintain postural
- The impulses produced in the equilibrium.
receptors are transmitted
predominantly over group II afferent
fibers to the SC, cerebellum, & sensory
nuclei.
Reference:
Topic Reference
Kinesthesia and Houglum & Bertoti (2012), page 105-107
Proprioception

Motor Control

Motor Control
* Motor control refers to the dynamic regulation of posture and movement.
* Motor control requires the individual to maintain and change posture, and his or her movement response is
based on an interaction between the individual, task, and environment.
* The interaction utilizes the contributions of many systems to orchestrate coordinated movements. These
systems are a functioning heterarchy, in which the contributing systems work parallel to each other.
Areas of Motor Control Description
Motor control at the spinal - Contribute to the automatic control of movement
region - Site for reflex motions, muscle synergy activations, and central pattern
generators
Motor control within the - Contains numerous ascending and descending tracts as well as nuclei
brainstem - These brainstem elements function as an extremely complex prespinal
integrating system
- Brainstem efferent tracts are largely responsible for automatic postural
control. Most supraspinal postural and proximal movement are regulated
from brainstem centers.
Cerebral motor centers - The primary motor cortex is responsible for contralateral voluntary
control of the UE and facial movements.
- The premotor cortex controls the muscles of the trunk and muscles used
in anticipatory postural adjustments, such as required in establishing the
correct “postural set” in preparation for standing up from a chair.
- The supplemental motor cortex controls the initiation of movement,
orientation of the head and eyes, and bilateral movements. The
supplemental area also controls the sequencing of movement and plays a
role in the pre-programming of movement sequences that are familiar
and part of an individual’s memory repertoire.
Intermediate control centers Cerebellum
- Is interconnected with all levels of the CNS and functions as an overall
“coordinator” of motor activities.
- Is responsible primarily for programming rapid movements, correcting

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 the course of rapid movements, and correlating posture and movement
- Regulates balance and coordination
- Regulates and adjusts the accuracy, intensity, and timing of movement
as required by the specific movement task
- Sequences the order of muscle firing when a group of muscles work
together to perform a complex task such as stepping or reaching
- Cerebellar pathways control balance, coordination, and movement
accuracy on the ipsilateral side of the body.
- Often called the “great comparator”, because it constantly monitors and
compares the movement requested to the actual output, making the
adjustments as necessary.
- Has the ability to receive sensory feedback from receptors about a
movement as the movement is occurring, a property called reafference.

Basal Ganglia
- Play a vital role in the regulation of posture and muscle tone.
- Have an important role in the control of both automatic and voluntary
movement, exerting effects on the motor planning areas of the motor
cortex
- Can either inhibit or facilitate cortex output to alter conscious motion.
- Nuclei of the basal ganglia are particularly significant with respect to the
initiation and execution of slow movements.
Reference:
Topic Reference
Movement of Motor Control Houglum & Bertoti (2012), page 107-113

Muscle Activity

Types of Muscle Contractions

Muscle Activation Description
Isometric Contraction

Concentric Contraction

Eccentric Contraction

Isotonic Contraction

Isokinetic Contraction

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 References:
Topic Reference
Muscle Activation Houglum & Bertoti (2012), page 127-128
Neumann (2010), page 18-19

Muscle Functional Activity

Functional Classification Description
Agonist

Antagonist

Synergist/Fixator

References:
Topic Reference
Functional Classification of Houglum & Bertoti (2012), page 129-130
Muscles Seeley, Stephens, & Tate (2008): page 321
Standrings (2005): page 127

Factors Affecting Muscle Strength

Muscle Strength
Factors Discussion
Muscle Size

Fiber Architecture

Age and Gender

Length-Tension
Relatiionship

Moment Arm

Force-Velocity
Relationship

Speed of Contraction

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 References:
Topic Reference
Muscle Strength Houglum & Bertoti (2012), page 134-141
Neumann (2010) pages 48-60

PART 5. KINETICS AND BIOMECHANICAL PRINCIPLES

Definition: Kinetics

References:
Topic Reference
Introduction Houglum & Bertoti (2012), page 29
Kinetics Neumann (2010), page 11

Determinants of Motion
Determinants Description
Type of Motion

Location of Motion

Magnitude of Motion

Direction of Motion

Rate of Motion & Change of

Motion

References:
Topic Reference
Determinants of Motion Houglum & Bertoti (2012), page 29-31

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 Types of Forces
Types of Forces Description
Gravity

Muscles

Externally applied resistance

Friction

Reference:
Topic Reference
Types of Forces Houglum & Bertoti (2012), page 31-33

Internal & External Forces

Internal Forces External Forces

Reference:
Topic Reference
Internal and External Forces Neumann (2010), page 13-14

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 Outcomes of Application of Forces

Forces Description
Linear Forces

Parallel Forces

Resultant Forces

References:
Topic Reference
Force Houglum and Bertoti (2012), page 36
Lippert (2006), page 73-75

Composition of Forces

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 References:
Topic Reference
Free body diagram Houglum & Bertoti (2012), pages 35-37
Neumann (2010), pages 84-87

Newton’s Laws of Motion

Newton’s Laws of Motion Description
First Law of Motion: Inertia

Second Law of Motion: Mass &

Acceleration

Third Law of Motion: Action-

Reaction

References:
Topic Reference
Newton’s Laws of Motion Houglum & Bertoti (2012), page 33-35
Neumann (2010), page 77-83

Levers
Definition:

Types of Levers
Types of Levers Illustration Description Examples
First Class Lever

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 Second Class Lever

Third Class Lever

Mechanical Advantage:

References:
Topic Reference
Levers Houglum & Bertoti (2012), page 37-40
Neumann (2010), page 20-23

Torque
Definition of Terms:
Terms Definition
Moment

Lever Arm

Moment Arm

Torque

Internal Torque vs. External Torque

Internal Torque External Torque

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 References:
Topic Reference
Types of Forces Houglum & Bertoti (2012), page 32
Musculoskeletal Torques Neumann (2010), page 15-16

REFERENCES
Houglum, P., & Bertoti, D. (2012). Brunnstrom’s clinical kinesiology. (6th Ed.). Philadepphia, PA. F.A. Davis
Company.
Neumann, D. (2010). Kinesiology of the musculoskeletal system: Foundations for rehabilitation. (2nd Ed.). St.
Louis, Missouri. Mosby Elsevier.
Neumann, D. (2017). Kinesiology of the musculoskeletal system: Foundations for rehabilitation. (3rd Ed.). St.
Louis, Missouri. Mosby Elsevier.
Seeley, R., Stephens, T., & tate, P. (2008). Anatomy & physiology. (8th Ed.). USA. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Snell, R. (2012). Clinical anatomy by regions. (9thEd.). USA. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Standring, S. (Ed.). (2005). Gray’s anatomy. The anatomical basis of clinical practice. (9th Ed.). Spain. Elsevier, Inc.
Tortora, G. & Derrickson, B. (2009). Principles of anatomy & physiology. (12th Ed.). USA. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Disclaimer: This supplementary material contains information directly lifted from books specified in the reference section of this document. Given the nature
of this document, this material cannot be used as reference for future scholarly works and output; instead, the use of the listed primary references is highly
recommended. Lastly, reproduction, sharing, and distribution of this material are prohibited without the permission of the owner.