CHAPTER 7: THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Respiratory System

Functions of the Respiratory System

• Oversees gas exchange between the blood

and external environment.

[Particularly the oxygen (this is what our tissues need

in order for them to function, we inhale oxygen in order
to supply and for it to maintain the normal function of
our tissues) and the carbon dioxide (the waste
materials of our tissues that should be excreted by
• Olfactory receptors (these are
means of respiration or breathing)].
the ones that detect odors of
specific materials or substances;
• Exchange of gasses takes place within the
they provide information [smell]
lungs in the alveoli.
to the brain) are located in the
mucosa on the superior surface.
• Passageway to the lungs purify, warm and
• The rest of the cavity is lined with
humidify the incoming air.
respiratory mucosa which
Anatomy moistens air and traps incoming
Pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles
purify and humidify the incoming air that we inhale so of the foreign particles so it won’t flow
that the air will not be dry and be easily transported Nasal down in our lungs.
throughout our body. Its lining contains pseudostratified Cavity • Lateral walls have projections
ciliated columnar epithelium, it contains goblet cells called conchae. Its purpose is to
that produces mucus. increase surface area and
increase aur turbulence within
• Protects us from unwanted particles that the nasal cavity.
could be inhaled from the environment that • The nasal cavity is separated
can be trapped in the mucous that can be from the oral cavity by the
secreted by the goblet cells and be moved anterior hard palate (bone) and
out of the body by the cilia which is situated the posterior soft palate (muscle).
in the lining of the respiratory tract. • Cavities within bones
surrounding the nasal cavity.
Organs of the Respiratory System • Four types of nasal sinuses:
~ Frontal bone
~ Sphenoid bone
Paranasal ~ Ethmoid bone
Sinuses ~ Maxillary bone
• Its functions is to (1) lighten the
skull, (2) Act as resonance
chambers for speech, and (3)
produce mucus that drains into
the nasal cavity

• The only externally visible part of the

respiratory system.
• Air enters nose through external
Nose nares (nostrils).
• The inferior of the nose consists of a
nasal cavity divided by a nasal
septum.
 • A muscular passage from the nasal Structures of the Larynx
cavity to larynx and it contains three
regions: Thyroid Cartilage – is the largest hyaline cartilage
~ Nasopharynx – superior region and protrudes anteriorly (Adam’s apple)
behind the nasal cavity
Pharynx ~ Oropharynx – middle region Epiglottis – superior opening of the larynx and routes
(Throat) behind mouth food to the larynx and air toward the trachea
~ Laryngopharynx – inferior
region attached to larynx
• The oropharynx and the
laryngopharynx are common
passageways for air and food.

Vocal cords (vocal folds) – Vibrate with expelled air

to create sound (speech)
Structures of the Pharynx
Glottis – opening between vocal cords
Auditory tubes enter the nasopharynx and the tonsils
are structures that are composed of lymphatic
tissues and also helps in protection in
microorganisms.

- Pharyngeal tonsils adenoids in the

nasopharynx (they protect against from
bacteria invasion in our body that is
introduced in our body)
- Palatine tonsils in the oropharynx
- Lingual tonsils at the base of the tongue
• Connects larynx with the primary
• Routes air and food into proper bronchi
channels • Lined with ciliated mucosa
Larynx
• Plays a role (gives volume) in speech Trachea ~ Beat continuously in the
(Voice (Windpipe
• Made of eight rigid hyaline cartilages opposite direction of incoming air
Box) T4 or T5) ~ Expel mucus loaded with dust
and spoon-shaped flap of elastic
cartilage (epiglottis) and other debris away from lungs
• Walls are reinforced with 20 C-
shaped hyaline cartilage
 • Formed by division of the trachea
• It enters the lungs at the hilus
(medial depression of the lungs)
Primary
• Right bronchus is wider, shorter and
Bronchi
straighter than the left bronchus
• Bronchi are subdivided into smaller
and smaller branches
The right lung is wider and shorter than the left lung,
which is narrower and more prolonged. The right lung
has three lobes (superior, medial, and the inferior)
whereas the left lung has two lobes (superior and
inferior). The fundamental distinction between the right
and left lungs is that the left lung has a deep cardiac
notch on its anterior border, whereas the right lung is
straight.
Fissures are what divides the lungs into lobes. The
right lung has two fissures: horizontal and oblique.
The left lung has one fissure: oblique fissure.
• Occupy most of the thoracic cavity
The Apex is near the clavicle (superior
portion) and the base rests on the
diaphragm (inferior portion)
Lungs
• Each lung is divided into lobes by
fissures
Left lung – two lobes
Right lung – three lobes
Coverings of the lungs
• Pleura – is a double – layered serous fluid
membrane which allows full expansion of the
lungs during inspiration
• Parietal pleura – is the outer layer is attached
to the thoracic walls and the diaphragm
• Parietal fluid – it fills the area between layers
of pleura to allow gliding
• Pulmonary (visceral) pleura – is the inner
layer covering the lung tissue and covers the
lung surface or the organ itself
• Hilum – this is at the medial portion where we
can locate the heart
Respiratory Tree Divisions
Primary Bronchi >Secondary Bronchi > Tertiary
Bronchi > Bronchioles > Terminal Bronchioles >
Respiratory Bronchioles > Alveoli
• Smallest branches of the
bronchi
• All but the smallest branches
have reinforcing cartilage (we
Bronchioles have cartilage in bronchioles to
help in maintaining the
structure of the bronchioles)
• Terminal bronchioles end in
alveoli
Respiratory Zone
• Structures: Respiratory Bronchiole, Alveolar duct,
and alveoli and it is where the site of gas
exchange
•
The respiratory system has 2 zones:
Passageway for air (Nasal
cavity, pharynx, larynx,
CONDUCTING trachea, respiratory tree,
ZONE bronchi (primary, secondary,
and the tertiary), and the
terminal bronchioles
Respiratory bronchioles are
coined as it is because it also
RESPIRATORY
aids in respiration (Respiratory
ZONE
bronchioles, alveolar ducts and
alveolar sacs)
 • Main site of gas exchange
• Structure of Alveoli:
Alveolar duct Gas Exchange
Alveolar sac (capillaries are
surrounded in this are to help in
transportation between gases
Alveoli
(particularly oxygen and carbon
dioxide))
Alveolus
• Gas exchanges takes place within
the alveoli in the respiratory
membrane

The carbon dioxide from the blood vessel or capillary

will diffuse in the alveolus and it will be expelled. The
oxygen is introduced in the capillary or blood vessel.

Respiratory Membrane (Air-Blood Barrier)

It is composed of thin squamous epithelial layer

lining alveolar walls. The pulmonary capillaries cover
external surfaces of alveoli

Alveolar contains type I and type II pneumocyte

• Squamous and extremely thin
TYPE I tissue lining
PNEUMOCYTE • Cover 95% of alveolar surface
• Involved in gas exchange
• Granular and roughly cuboidal
• Cover 5% of alveolar surface Macrophage – aka alveolar macrophages
• Secrete pulmonary surfactant (phagocytic cell, its purpose is to digest unwanted
(composed of lipoproteins microorganisms that are being introduced in the
with its purpose to decrease alveoli
surface tension between air
TYPE II
PNEUMOCYTE molecules and water • Alveolar epithelium – lining of the alveoli
molecules that are located in • Capillary endothelium – lining of the capillary
the alveolar lining so that • Fused basement membrane – allows fusion
atelectasis (is a complete or between the alveolar epithelium and the
partial collapse of the entire capillary endothelium
lung or area (lobe) of the lung)
will not occur)
Gas Exchange
Gas crosses the respiratory membrane by diffusion.
The oxygen enters the blood and the carbon dioxide
enter the alveoli.
Macrophages add protection while surfactants coats
gas-exchanges alveolar surfaces.
Events of Respiration
Pulmonary ventilation (breathing) is the moving of air
in and out of the lungs.
External respiration, is the gas exchange between
pulmonary blood and alveoli.
Respiratory gas transport, transport of oxygen and
carbon dioxide via the blood stream.
Internal respiration, the gas exchange between
blood and tissue cells in systemic capillaries.
Mechanics of Breathing (Pulmonary Ventilation)
• Completely mechanical process (can control
it on our own and it involves different
structures from our body for us to breathe [
specifically the diaphragm, muscle for
respiration, the intercostal muscles and the
ribs]).
• Depends on volume changes in the thoracic
cavity
• Volume changes lead to pressure changes,
which lead to the flow of gases to equalize
pressure
• Two phases of breathing:
Inspiration (Inhalation) – flow of air into the
lungs
Expiration (Exhalation) – the air leaving the
lungs
Inspiration
• The diaphragm and the intercostal muscles
contract
The diaphragm moves inferiorly during contraction to
allow the lungs to expand. The ribs are elevated as
external intercostals muscles contract.
• The size of the thoracic cavity increases
during inspiration since the lungs expand
because the air enters the lungs.
• External air is pulled into the lungs due to an
increase in intrapulmonary volume.
Expiration
• Largely a passive process which depends on
natural lung elasticity.
• As muscles relax, air is pushed out of the
lungs.
• Forced expiration can occur mostly by
contracting internal intercostal muscle
depress the rib cage.
Nonrespiratory Air Movements
• Can be caused by reflexes or voluntary
actions
Examples: Cough/sneeze (clears lungs of
debris), laughing, crying, yawning (regulating
the temperature of the brain), and hiccup
(abnormal contractions of our diaphragm).
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
• Many factors that affect respiratory capacity:
a person’s size, sex, age, and physical
condition.
Tidal volume • Normal breathing about 500
(TV) ml of air with each breath
• Amount of air that can be
Inspiratory taken in forcibly over the tidal
reserve volume
volume (IRV) • Usually between 2100 and
3200 ml
Expiratory • Amount of air that can
reserve forcibly exhaled
volume (ERV) • Approximately 1200 ml
Residual • The amount of air remaining
Volume (RV) in the lungs after expiration
 • After exhalation, about 1200 CHAPTER 8: THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
ml of air remains in the Reproductive System
lungs.
• This is the total amount of Functions of the Reproductive System
exchangeable air
Vital Capacity
• TV + IRV = ERV = Vital Wherein our body reproduces another organism. It
capacity involves a lot of processes (fertilization of egg cell,
• This is the air that is in the production of sperm cells (spermatogenesis) and
Dead space conducting zone and never egg cells (oogenesis).
volume reaches the alveoli
• Is it usually about 150 ml. The Reproductive System
• Air that actually reaches the
Functional Involves:
respiratory zone that is
volume • Gonads – primary sex organs
usually about 350 ml.
Testes (males)
Ovaries (females)
Respiratory capacities are measures with a
spirometer.
• Gonads produce gametes (sex cells) and
secrete hormones
Sperm (male gametes)
Ova (egg, female gametes)

• Hormones
Testosterone (males)
Progesterone and Estrogen (females)

Male Reproductive System

- Testes
- Duct system: Epididymis, Ductus deferens,
and Urethra

Accessory organs:
- Seminal vesicle
- Prostate gland
- Bulbourethral gland

External genitalia:
- Penis
- Scrotum
 Epididymis

• Are comma-shaped, tightly coiled tube

• Found on the superior part of the testis and
along the posterior lateral side
• Functions to mature and store sperm cells (at
least 20 days)
• Expels sperm with the contraction of muscles
in the epididymis walls to the vas deferens

Testes

Coverings of the testes

Tunica This is the capsule that surrounds
Albuginea each testis.
Extensions of the capsule that
Septa extend into the testis and divide it
into lobules.

Ductus Deferens (Vas Deferens)

• It carries sperm from the epididymis to the

ejaculatory duct
• Passes through the inguinal canal and over
the bladder
• Moves sperm by peristalsis
• Spermatic cord – contains the ductus
Each lobule contains one to four seminiferous deferens, blood vessels, and the nerves in a
tubules which are tightly coiled structures, and connective tissue sheath
function as sperm-forming factories and empty
sperms into the rete testis.

Sperm travels through the rete testis to the

epididymis. Interstitial cells [Leydig cells] produce
androgens such as testosterone.

• It ends with the ejaculatory duct which unites

with the urethra.
• Vasectomy – the cutting of the ductus
deferens at the level of the testes to prevent
transportation of sperm.
Urethra Prostate Gland

• A passageway that extends from the base of • This encircles the upper part of the urethra
the urinary bladder to the tip of the penis and secretes milky (alkaline – helps
• It carries both urine and sperm neutralize the acidity of the environment in
• Then, sperm enter the ejaculatory duct the vagina) fluid
• It helps to activate sperm and it enters the
Regions of the Urethra urethra through several small ducts
Prostatic
Surrounded by the prostate
Urethra
Membranous From the prostatic urethra to the
Urethra penis
Spongy
(penile) It runs the length of the penis
Urethra

Bulbourethral Gland

• Also known as the Cowper’s Gland

• It produces a pre-ejaculate that cleanses and
lubricates the urethra prior to the arrival of
the semen.

Semen

• A mixture of sperm and accessory gland

secretions
Accessory Organs of the Male Reproductive • Advantages of accessory gland secretions:
System - Fructose provides energy for sperm cells
- Alkalinity of semen helps neutralize
Seminal Vesicle acidic environment of vagina
- Semen inhibits bacterial multiplication
• Located at the base of the bladder - Elements of semen enhance sperm
• It produces a thick, yellowish secretion (60% motility
of semen), which is composed of fructose
(sugar, Vitamin C, Prostaglandins and other
substances that nourish and activate sperm.
• Since it contains fructose (a form of sugar) it
allows to activate the sperm and helps the
sperm survive during its travel in the female
reproductive system.
External Genitalia Spermatogenesis

Scrotum • This is the formation or production of sperm

cells
• Divided sac of skin outside the abdomen • Begins at puberty (age of 12) and continues
which maintains testes at 3°C lower that throughout life
normal body temperature to protect sperm • Occurs in the seminiferous tubules
viability.
Process of Spermatogenesis

• Spermatogonia (stem cells) undergo rapid

mitosis to produce more stem cells before
puberty

• Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) modifies

spermatogonia division

- One cell produced is a stem cell

- The other cell produced becomes a
primary spermatocyte

• Spermiogenesis – when the late spermatids

are produced with distinct regions
Head – contains the DNA, acrosome
– to break the membrane of the egg
cell
Midpiece
Tail – flagella – which allows
movement of the sperm

Penis • Sperm cells result after maturing of

spermatids
• Delivers the sperm into the reproductive tract • Spermatogenesis takes 64 to 72 days
• Regions of the penis:
- Shaft
- Glans penis (enlarged tip)
- Prepuce (foreskin) – the folded cuff of
skin around proximal end which is often
removed by circumcision
 Anatomy of a Mature Sperm Cell

• This is the only human flagellated cell

• DNA is found in the head of the sperm cell

Testosterone Production

• The most important hormone of the testes

• It is produced in interstitial cells (Leydig
Cells)

Functions of testosterone
• Stimulates reproductive organ development
• Underlies sex drive
• Causes secondary sex characteristics:
Deepening of voice, increased hair growth
enlargement of skeletal muscles and
thickening of bones.

Regulation of Male Androgens (Sex Hormones)

The major hormones that are responsible in

testosterone production and sperm production are
the Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and the
Luteinizing hormone (LH) that is being produced by
the Anterior pituitary glands.

LH produces Testosterone
FSH produces Sperm

The process of spermatogenesis starts at the

basement membrane then ends at the lumen. At the
basement membrane at the basal layer, we have the
spermatogonium (stem cells) of the males. The
spermatogonium (composed of 46 chromosomes
and 46 chromatids) will undergo a rapid mitosis, then
the produced daughter cell will move toward to the
lumen. After that it will undergo growth, then will
undergo prophase (here will occur the DNA
replication. The 46 chromatids will be duplicated into
the primary spermatocyte (with 92 chromatids). It will
then undergo meiosis (a type of cell process that
reduces chromatids to produce sex cells). It will be
reduced into Secondary spermatocytes with 46
chromatids after meiosis 1. After meiosis 2, the early
spermatids will only have 23 chromatids, then will
undergo spermiogenesis or the maturation and
development of the sperm. It will be developed into
late spermatids, after that it will mature into sperm
cells that will be located at the lumen of the
seminiferous tubule.
Female Reproductive System Uterus

• Ovaries • It is located between the urinary bladder and

• Duct system the rectum and a hollow organ.
~ Uterine tubes (Fallopian tubes) • Functions of the uterus:
~ Uterus ~ Receives a fertilized egg
~ Vagina ~ Retains the fertilized egg
• External Genitalia ~ Nourishes the fertilized egg

Support for the Uterus

Broad
attached to the pelvis
ligaments
Uterosacral
anchored posteriorly
ligaments

Support for Ovaries

Suspensory secure ovary to lateral walls of

ligaments pelvis
Ovarian Regions of the Uterus
attach to uterus
ligaments
• Body – main portion
Broad a fold of the peritoneum, encloses • Fundus – area where uterine tube enters
ligament suspensory ligament • Cervix – narrow outlet that protrudes into the
vagina

Walls of the Uterus

Endometrium
• Inner layer
• Allows for implantation of a fertilized egg
• Sloughs off if no pregnancy occurs (menses)
Myometrium – middle layer of smooth muscle
Serous layer – outer visceral peritoneum

Uterine (Fallopian) Tubes Vagina

• Receive the ovulated oocyte • Extends from cervix to exterior of body

• Provide a site for fertilization
• Attaches to the uterus
• Does not physically attach to the ovary
• Supported by the broad ligament
Uterine Tube Function
External Genitalia (Vulva)
• Fimbriae – finger-like projections at the distal
end that receive the oocyte
• Cilia inside the uterine tube slowly move the
oocyte towards the uterus (Takes 3–4 days)
• Fertilization occurs inside the uterine tube
• Behind bladder and in front of rectum
• Serves as the birth canal
• Receives the penis during sexual intercourse
• Hymen – partially closes the vagina until it is
ruptured
Fatty area overlying the pubic symphysis
Mons
and is covered with pubic hair after
pubis
puberty
Labia Labia major and Labia minora
 It is enclosed by labia majora and
contains opening of the urethra and
Vestibule
the greater vestibular glands (produce
mucus) Menstrual (Uterine) Cycle
It contains erectile tissue and
Clitoris
corresponds to the male penis • Cyclic changes of the endometrium
• Regulated by cyclic production of estrogens
Oogenesis and progesterone

• The total supply of eggs is present at birth Stages of the menstrual cycle
• Ability to release eggs begins at puberty functional layer of the endometrium
• Reproductive ability ends at menopause Menses
is sloughed
• Oocytes are matured in developing ovarian
follicles Proliferative
regeneration of functional layer
• Oogonia – female stem cells found in a stage
developing fetus Secretory endometrium increases in size and
• Oogonia undergo mitosis to produce primary stage readies for implantation
oocytes
• Primary oocytes are surrounded by cells that Hormone Production by the Ovaries
form primary follicles in the ovary
• Oogonia no longer exist by the time of birth • Estrogens
• Produced by follicle cells
• Cause secondary sex characteristics
• Enlargement of accessory organs
• Development of breasts
• Appearance of pubic hair
• Increase in fat beneath the skin
• Widening and lightening of the
pelvis
• Onset of menses

• Progesterone
• Produced by the corpus luteum
• Production continues until LH diminishes
in the blood
• Helps maintain pregnancy

Mammary Glands
• Present in both sexes, but only function in
females
• Function is to produce milk
• Stimulated by sex hormones (mostly
estrogens) to increase in size
Anatomy of Mammary Glands The Zygote

Areola central pigmented area • First cell of a new individual

Nipple protruding central area of areola • The result of the fusion of DNA from sperm
internal structures that radiate and egg
Lobes
around nipple • The zygote begins rapid mitotic cell divisions
Alveolar clusters of milk producing glands • The zygote stage is in the uterine tube,
glands within lobules moving toward the uterus
Lactiferous
connect alveolar glands to nipple
ducts The Embryo

• Developmental stage from the start of

cleavage until the ninth week
• The embryo first undergoes division without
growth
• The embryo enters the uterus at the 16-cell
state
• The embryo floats free in the uterus
temporarily
• Uterine secretions are used for nourishment

The Blastocyst

• Ball-like circle of cells

• Begins at about the 100-cell stage
Stages of Pregnancy and Development
• Secretes human chorionic gonadotropin
(hCG) to produce the corpus luteum to
• Fertilization continue producing hormones
• Fetal development • Functional areas of the blastocyst
• Childbirth • Trophoblast – large fluid-filled sphere
• Inner cell mass
Fertilization
• Primary germ layers are eventually formed
• Ectoderm – outside layer
• The oocyte is viable for 12 to 24 hours after
• Mesoderm – middle layer
ovulation
• Endoderm – inside layer
• Sperm are viable for 12 to 48 hours after
• The late blastocyst implants in the wall of the
ejaculation
uterus (by day 14)
• Sperm cells must make their way to the
uterine tube for fertilization to be possible Development from Ovulation to Implantation

Mechanisms of Fertilization

• Membrane receptors on an oocyte pulls in

the head of the first sperm cell to make
contact
• The membrane of the oocyte does not permit
a second sperm head to enter
• The oocyte then undergoes its second
meiotic division
• Fertilization occurs when the genetic material
of a sperm combines with that of an oocyte
to form a zygote
Development After Implantation Initiation of Labor

Functions of the Placenta

• Forms a barrier between mother and embryo

(blood is not exchanged)
• Delivers nutrients and oxygen
• Removes waste from embryonic blood
• Becomes an endocrine organ (produces
hormones) and takes over for the corpus
luteum
• Estrogen
• Progesterone
• Other hormones that maintain
pregnancy

The Fetus (Beginning of the Ninth Week)

• All organ systems are formed by the end of

the eighth week
• Activities of the fetus are growth and organ
Stages of Labor
specialization
• A stage of tremendous growth and change in
appearance

Childbirth (Partition)

• Labor – the series of events that expel the

infant from the uterus
• Initiation of labor
• Estrogen levels rise
• Uterine contractions begin
• The placenta releases
prostaglandins
• Oxytocin is released by the pituitary
• Combination of these hormones
produces contractions
Developmental Aspects of the Reproductive
System
• Reproductive system organs do not function
until puberty
• Puberty usually begins between ages 10 and
15
• First menstruation period: Menarche
• The first menses usually occurs about two
years after the start of puberty
• Most women reach peak reproductive ability
in their late 20s
• Menopause occurs when ovulation and
menses cease entirely
• Ovaries stop functioning as
endocrine organs
• There is a no equivalent of menopause in
males, but there is a steady decline in
testosterone
CHAPTER 9: THE URINARY SYSTEM
Urinary System
Excretion of metabolic wastes, toxins, and excessive
ions. Its functions are excretion, regulation of blood,
regulation of the solutes in the blood, regulation of
extracellular fluids, and regulation of red blood cell
synthesis.
It is also known as the renal system. It refers to the
structures that produce and conduct urine to the
point (where our urine excretes) of excretion.
Urine is produced in the kidney by means of filtration,
after filtration, the filtrate will produce urine and will
pass on the kidneys, flow in the ureter, then the
bladder, then the urethra.
Kidney Major Functions
Filter 200 liters of blood daily, allowing:
- toxins (creatinine, urea and uric acids,
which are chemical waste products that
are from the metabolic processes inside
the body)
- metabolic wastes (nitrogen compounds,
water, carbon dioxide, etc.)
- excess ions (sodium, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, etc.) to leave the body in urine
(specifically 180 liters, only 1% is
transform into urine because most of the
filtrate were being reabsorbed in the body)
Maintain the proper
Regulate volume and
balance between water
chemical makeup of the
and salts, and acids
blood
and bases
Kidneys are located retro-peritoneally (refers to the
back of the peritoneal cavity).
Other Urinary System Organs

• Urinary bladder – provides a temporary

storage reservoir for urine (400-600ml). The
produced urine from the kidneys will flow
down through the ureters then to the urinary
bladder. Urine will be excreted by the
contraction of the detrusor muscle.
• Paired ureters – transport urine from the
kidneys to the bladder. The distal part of the
ureter is located at the pelvic cavity.
• Urethra – transports urine from the bladder
out of the body. The length of the urethra
varies by sex. Internal Anatomy (Frontal Section)

• Cortex – the light colored, granular

superficial region, filters out our blood, and
responsible of reabsorption of substances
and secretions of unwanted substances
• Medulla – exhibits cone-shaped medullary
(renal) pyramids separated by columns
o The medullary pyramid and its
surrounding capsule constitute a lobe
• Renal pelvis – flat funnel shaped tube lateral
to the hilus within the renal sinus

• Nephrons – which are the structural and

functional units of the kidney.
Cortical nephrons located at the cortex and
the juxtamedullary nephron that are located
in the junction of the cortex and medulla
• Renal Pelvis – large flat funnel shape, which
is the common passageway of urine before
the ureter.
• Hilum – it serves at the entrance and exit of
blood vessels
• Renal sinus – Cavity inside the kidney, where • Renal Artery – supplies blood for the kidney
the blood vessels that supply the kidney and carries oxygenated blood
• Renal papilla – it has papillary ducts that Branches of the renal artery: Segmental,
serves as where the urine drains from the interlobar, arcuate, cortical radiate arteries
medullary pyramids • Renal Vein – drains the blood from the
kidney and carries deoxygenated blood
Difference of Major and Minor Calyx: Major Calyces
are large branches and Minor Calyces are smaller Internal Anatomy
branches
• Major calyces – large branches of the renal
Layers of Tissue Supporting the Kidney pelvis
• Minor calyces – smaller branches of the renal
• Renal capsule – layer of collagen fibers that pelvis
encloses the kidney prevents kidney • Collect urine draining from papillae (the
infection distal portion of the medulla which
• Adipose capsule – fatty mass that drains the urine from the medulla)
cushions/holds the kidney and helps attach it • Empty urine into the pelvis
to the abdominal wall • Urine flows through the pelvis and ureters to
• Renal fascia – outer layer of dense fibrous the bladder
connective tissue that binds the kidney to
abdominal wall
Afferent arteriole – drains the blood from

Renal Vascular Pathway

• Renal corpuscle – the glomerulus and its

From the aorta which is the largest artery, Bowman’s capsule
specifically in the abdominal aorta branches of into • Glomerular endothelium – fenestrated
renal artery > segmental artery > interlobar artery epithelium (with pores) that allows solute-
> arcuate artery > cortical radiate artery > rich, virtually protein-free filtrate to pass from
afferent arteriole > glomerulus (a bed of capillaries the blood into the glomerular capsule
and where filtration of blood occurs) > the blood that
will be filtered out will be drained to the efferent
arteriole > then to the peritubular capillaries and
vasa recta (located in the nephron are a series of
capillary beds that are on the glomerulus and on the
renal tubules [capillaries that surrounds the renal
tubules are the peritubular capillary], the vasa recta
a capillary specifically located at the loop oh Henle
of the nephron) > after draining the blood on the
capillaries it will proceed to the cortical radiate vein
> arcuate vein > interlobar vein > renal vein >
inferior vena cava > to the heart.

The Nephron

Nephrons are the structural and functional units in Glomerular Endothelium

the kidney that form urine, contains 1.3 million in
each kidney and consisting of:

• Glomerulus – a number of capillaries

associated with a renal tubule
• Glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule – blind, cup-
shaped end of a renal tubule (proximal
convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal
convoluted tubule and the collecting ducts)
that completely surrounds the glomerulus
 • Podocytes – are specialized structures that
are found in the internal part of the
glomerular capsule which maintains the
structure and function of the glomerular
capsule
Blood from the capillary endothelium will
pass through the fenestrated pores or the
“fenestra”.
• Basement membrane – the one that attaches
the capillary endothelium and the glomerular
capsule.
• Filtrate – the filtered blood of the body.

Renal Tubule
• Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) –
composed of cuboidal cells with numerous
microvilli and mitochondria
Reabsorbs water and solutes from filtrate
and secretes substances into it
Descending limb is more on reabsorption of water
Ascending limb is more on reabsorption of sodium or
ions.
Nephrons
• Cortical nephrons – 85% of nephrons;
located in the cortex
• Juxtamedullary nephrons:
o Are located at the cortex-medulla
junction
o Have loops of Henle that deeply
invade the medulla
o Have extensive thin segments
o Are involved in the production of
concentrated urine

o Peritubular capillaries – are also

secreting substances in the PCT that
are unnecessary like the unfiltered
blood that drains in the efferent
arteriole, excessive metabolic wastes
and ions will be secreted in the PCT. Capillary Beds of the Nephron

• Loop of Henle – a hairpin-shaped loop of the • Every nephron has two capillary beds
renal tubule o Glomerulus
o Proximal part is similar to the o Peritubular capillaries
proximal convoluted tubule • Each glomerulus is:
o Proximal part is followed by the thin o Fed by an afferent arteriole
segment (simple squamous cells) o Drained by an efferent arteriole
and the thick segment (cuboidal to
columnar cells)
• Distal convoluted tubule (DCT) – cuboidal
cells without microvilli that function more in
secretion of unwanted materials than
reabsorption
Filtration Membrane

• Filter that lies between the glomerulus and
the interior of the glomerular capsule
• It is composed of three layers
o Fenestrated endothelium of the
glomerular capillaries
o Visceral membrane of the glomerular
capsule (podocytes)
o Basement membrane composed of
fused basal laminae of the other
layers
Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)
▪ The total amount of filtrate formed per minute
by the kidneys (Normal >60 mL/min)
▪ Factors governing filtration rate at the
capillary bed are:
o Total surface area available for
filtration
o Filtration membrane permeability
o Net filtration pressure

Blood will pass through the fenestrated endothelium

and will be filtered then will be called as filtrate.

Mechanisms of Urine Formation

• The kidneys filter the body’s entire plasma

volume 60 times each day
• The filtrate: 180 or 200 liter per day
o Contains all plasma components
except protein
o Loses water, nutrients, and essential
ions to become urine
• The urine contains metabolic wastes and Glomerular capillary pressure – Colloid osmotic
unneeded substances (toxin) pressure – Capsular pressure = GFR
• Urine formation and adjustment of blood
composition involves three major processes
o Glomerular filtration
o Tubular reabsorption
o Secretion
Regulation of Glomerular Filtration
▪ If the GFR is too high:
o Needed substances cannot be
reabsorbed quickly enough and are lost in
the urine
▪ If the GFR is too low:
o Everything is reabsorbed, including
wastes that are normally disposed of
Tubular Reabsorption
• All organic nutrients are reabsorbed
• Water and ion reabsorption is hormonally
controlled
• Reabsorption may be an active (requiring
ATP) or passive process
Sodium Reabsorption: Primary Active Transport
• Sodium reabsorption is almost always by
active transport
o Na+ enters the tubule cells at the
luminal membrane
o Is actively transported out of the
tubules by a Na+-K+ ATPase
pump
Reabsorption by PCT Cells
• Active pumping of Na+ drives reabsorption of:
o Water by osmosis, aided by water-filled
pores called aquaporins
o Cations and fat-soluble substances by
diffusion
o Organic nutrients and selected cations by
secondary active transport
Non-reabsorbed Substances
• Substances are not reabsorbed if they:
o Lack carriers
o Are not lipid soluble
o Are too large to pass through membrane
pores
• Urea, creatinine, and uric acid are the most
important non-reabsorbed substances
It is a waste product made by your
Creatinine muscles as part of regular,
everyday activity.
Absorptive Capabilities of Renal Tubules and
Collecting Ducts
• Substances reabsorbed in PCT include:
o Sodium, all nutrients, cations, anions,
and water
o Urea and lipid-soluble solutes
o Small proteins
• Loop of Henle reabsorbs:
o H2O, Na+, Cl-, K+ in the descending limb
o Ca2+, Mg2+, and Na+ in the ascending
limb
Absorptive Capabilities of Renal Tubules and
Collecting Ducts
• DCT absorbs:
o Ca2+, Na+, H+, K+, and water
o HCO3- and Cl-
• Collecting duct absorbs:
o Water and urea
 Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone Mechanism

• When blood pressure suddenly decrease, or

Tubular Secretion
• Essentially reabsorption in reverse, where
substances move from peritubular capillaries
or tubule cells into filtrate
• Tubular secretion is important for:
o Disposing of substances not already
in the filtrate
o Eliminating undesirable substances
such as urea and uric acid
o Controlling blood pH
Na+ concentration in the filtrate is low, the
kidneys will secrete renin.
• Renin – an enzyme secreted by the
juxtaglomerular apparatuses in the kidneys.
This acts on angiotensin, a plasma protein
produced by the liver, and converts it to
angiotensin I.
• Angiotensin 1 will be converted into
Angiotensin II by the angiotensin-converting
enzyme.
• Angiotensin II will act on the adrenal cortex,
causing to secrete aldosterone.
• Aldosterone- increases the rate of active
transport (reabsorption) of Na+ in the distal
convoluted tubules and collecting ducts.
o Increased reabsorption of Na+ =
increased blood volume
Homeostasis Figure

Hormonal Mechanisms

• Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH)

o Helps regulate the amount of water in
the body
o Released by the posterior pituitary
gland when there is a decreased in
blood volume or low blood pressure
(occurs during dehydration or
hemorrhage), which is detected by
the baroreceptors (sensors of the
heart and large blood vessels).

Aldosterone and the Regulation of Na+ and Water in

Extracellular Fluid
 Summary of Nephron Function

Physical Characteristics of Urine

• Color and transparency

o Clear, pale to deep yellow
o Concentrated urine has a deeper
yellow color
o Drugs, vitamin supplements, and diet
can change the color of urine
o Cloudy urine may indicate infection of
the urinary tract

• Odor
o Fresh urine is slightly aromatic
o Standing urine develops an ammonia
odor
o Some drugs and vegetables
(asparagus) alter the usual odor
• pH
o Slightly acidic (pH 6) with a range of
4.5 to 8.0
o Diet can alter pH
Diuretics

• Chemicals that enhance the urinary output

include:
o Any substance not reabsorbed
o Substances that exceed the ability of
the renal tubules to reabsorb it
o Substances that inhibit Na+
reabsorption
• Osmotic diuretics include: Chemical Composition of Urine
o Alcohol – inhibits the release of ADH
o Caffeine and most diuretic drugs – • Urine is 95% water and 5% solutes
inhibit sodium ion reabsorption • Nitrogenous wastes: urea, uric acid, and
o Lasix and Diuril – inhibit Na+- creatinine
associated symporters • Other normal solutes include:
o Sodium, potassium, phosphate, and
sulfate ions
o Calcium, magnesium, and
bicarbonate ions
 • Abnormally high concentrations of any
urinary constituents may indicate pathology

Ureters

• Slender tubes that convey urine from the

kidneys to the bladder
• Ureters enter the base of the bladder
through the posterior wall
o This closes their distal ends as
bladder pressure increases and
prevents backflow of urine into the
ureters

• Ureters have a tri-layered wall

o Transitional epithelial mucosa
o Smooth muscle muscularis
o Fibrous connective tissue adventitia
• Ureters actively propel urine to the bladder
via response to smooth muscle stretch

Urinary Bladder

• Smooth, collapsible, muscular sac that

stores urine
• It lies retroperitoneally on the pelvic floor
posterior to the pubic symphysis
o Males – prostate gland surrounds the
neck inferiorly
o Females – anterior to the vagina and
uterus
• Trigone – triangular area outlined by the
openings for the ureters and the urethra
o Clinically important because
infections tend to persist in this region
 • The bladder wall has three layers
o Transitional epithelial mucosa
o A thick muscular layer
o A fibrous adventitia
• The bladder is distensible and collapses
when empty
• As urine accumulates, the bladder expands
without significant rise in internal pressure
o Membranous urethra – runs through
the urogenital diaphragm
o Spongy (penile) urethra – passes
through the penis and opens via the
external urethral orifice
Micturition (Voiding or Urination)
• The act of emptying the bladder
• Distension of bladder walls initiates spinal
reflexes that:
o Stimulate contraction of the external
urethral sphincter
o Inhibit the detrusor muscle and
internal sphincter (temporarily)
• Voiding reflexes:
o Stimulate the detrusor muscle to
contract
o Inhibit the internal and external
sphincters

Urethra

• Muscular tube that:

o Drains urine from the bladder
o Conveys it out of the body
• Sphincters keep the urethra closed when
urine is not being passed
o Internal urethral sphincter –
involuntary sphincter at the bladder-
urethra junction
o External urethral sphincter –
voluntary sphincter surrounding the
urethra as it passes through the
urogenital diaphragm
o Levator ani muscle – voluntary
urethral sphincter

• The female urethra is tightly bound to the

anterior vaginal wall
• Its external opening lies anterior to the
vaginal opening and posterior to the clitoris
• The male urethra has three named regions
o Prostatic urethra – runs within the
prostate gland