CHAPTER 9: THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

Cardiovascular System

Functions of the Cardiovascular System

● It is also known as the circulatory system

because it circulates the blood all throughout
the system of the human body,
● A closed system of the heart and blood
vessels
○ The heart pumps blood
○ Blood vessels allow blood to circulate
to all parts of the body
● The function of the cardiovascular system is
The Heart: Chambers
to deliver oxygen and nutrients and remove
carbon dioxide and other waste products
● Right and left side act as separate pumps
● Four chambers
There are two types of circulation:
○ Atria
■ Receiving chambers
which transports blood from the ■ Right atrium
Pulmonary right ventricle of the heart to the ■ Left atrium
Circulation pulmonary trunk through the lungs ○ Ventricles
and back to the left atrium ■ Discharging chambers
which transports blood from the ■ Right ventricle
left ventricle of the heart to the ■ Left ventricle
Systemic
aorta through all parts of the body
Circulation
carrying oxygenated blood and
back to the right atrium

The Heart

It is located at the thorax between the lungs, its

pointed apex is directed towards the left hip. About
the size of a fist which is less than 1 lbs.

● Pericardium - a double serous membrane

● Serous fluid - fills the space between the
layers of the pericardium

The Heart: Heart Wall

Three layers:
● Epicardium/Parietal Pericardium
○ Outside layer
○ This layer is the parietal pericardium
○ Connective tissue layer
● Myocardium/Myo=muscle
○ Middle layer
○ Mostly cardiac muscle
● Endocardium
○ Inner layer
○ Endothelium
The Heart: Valves The Heart: Associated Great Vessels

● Allow blood to flow in only one direction

Aorta Leaves left ventricle
● Four valves
○ Atrioventricular valves – between Pulmonary
Leave right ventricle
atria and ventricles arteries
■ Bicuspid valve (left)
Vena cava Enters right atrium
■ Tricuspid valve (right)
○ Semilunar valves between ventricle Pulmonary
and artery Enter left atrium
veins (four)
■ Pulmonary semilunar valve
■ Aortic semilunar valve
● Valves open as blood is pumped through
● Held in place by chordae tendineae (“heart
strings”)
● Close to prevent backflow

Coronary Circulation

● Blood in the heart chambers does not

nourish the myocardium
● The heart has its own nourishing circulatory
system
○ Coronary arteries
○ Cardiac veins
○ Blood empties into the right atrium
via the coronary sinus
The Heart: Conduction System
● Intrinsic conduction system (nodal system)
○ Heart muscle cells contract, without
nerve impulses, in a regular,
continuous way
● Special tissue sets the pace
○ Sinoatrial node (right atrium)
■ Pacemaker
○ Atrioventricular node (junction of r&l
atria and ventricles)
○ Atrioventricular bundle (Bundle of
His)
○ Bundle branches (right and left)
○ Purkinje fibers
Electrocardiograms (EKG/ECG)
● Three formations
○ P wave: impulse across atria
○ QRS complex: spread of impulse
down septum, around ventricles in
Purkinje fibers
○ T wave: end of electrical activity in
ventricles
The Heart: Cardiac Cycle
● Atria contract simultaneously
● Atria relax, then ventricles contract
● Systole = contraction
● Diastole = relaxation
Filling of Heart Chambers – the Cardiac Cycle
The Heart: Cardiac Output
● Cardiac output (CO)
○ Amount of blood pumped by each
side of the heart in one minute
○ CO = (heart rate [HR]) x (stroke
volume [SV])
● Stroke volume
○ Volume of blood pumped by each
ventricle in one contraction
● CO = HR x SV
● 5250 ml/min = 75 beats/min x 70 mls/beat
● Norm = 5000 ml/min
● Entire blood supply passes through body
once per minute.
● CO varies with the demands of the body.
Regulation of Heart Rate
● Increased heart rate
○ Sympathetic nervous system
■ Crisis
■ Low blood pressure
○ Hormones
■ Epinephrine
■ Thyroxine
○ Exercise
○ Decreased blood volume
Blood Vessels: The Vascular System Differences Between Blood Vessel Types

Taking blood to the tissues and back ● Walls of arteries are the thickest
● Arteries ● Lumens of veins are larger
○ carry blood away from heart ● Skeletal muscle “milks” blood in veins
○ thick with a lot of elastic toward the heart
● Arterioles ● Walls of capillaries are only one cell layer
● Capillaries thick to allow for exchanges between blood
○ exchange occurs between blood and and tissue
tissue fluids
● Venules Movement of Blood Through Vessels
● Veins
○ carry blood toward heart ● Most arterial blood is pumped by the heart
○ think with less elastic ● Veins use the milking action of muscles to
help move blood
Blood Flow

- Blood flows from arteries into arterioles

- Arterioles into capillaries
- Capillaries into venules
- Venules to small veins
- Veins return to the heart

The Vascular System

Capillary Beds

● Capillary beds consist of two types of

vessels
○ Vascular shunt – directly connects
an arteriole to a venule
Blood Vessel Walls

● Tunica intima:
○ innermost layer
○ simple squamous
● Tunica media:
○ middle layer
○ smooth muscle with elastic and
collagen
● Tunica adventitia:
○ outermost layer
○ connective tissue

Blood Vessels: Anatomy

Three layers (tunics)

● Endothelium
● Smooth muscle
● Controlled by the sympathetic nervous
system
● Mostly fibrous connective tissue
 ● True capillaries – exchange vessels
○ Oxygen and nutrients cross to cells
○ Carbon dioxide and metabolic
waste products cross into blood
Diffusion at Capillary Beds
Blood Pressure
● Measurements by health professionals are
made on the pressure in large arteries
○ Systolic – pressure at the peak of
ventricular contraction
○ Diastolic – the pressure, when
ventricles relax
● Pressure in blood vessels, decreases as the
distance away from the heart increases

Measuring Arterial Blood Pressure

Vital Signs

● Arterial pulse
● Blood pressure Blood Pressure: Effects of Factors
● Respiratory Rate
● Body Temperature ● Neural factors
○ Autonomic nervous system
All indicate the efficiency of the system adjustments (sympathetic division)
● Renal factors
Pulse ○ Regulation by altering blood volume
○ Renin – hormonal control
● Pulse – pressure wave of blood ● Temperature
● Monitored at “pressure points” where the ○ Heat has a vasodilation effect
pulse is easily palpated ○ Cold has a vasoconstricting effect
● Chemicals
○ Various substances can cause
increases or decreases
● Diet

Variations in Blood Pressure

● Human normal range is variable

○ Normal
■ 140–110 mm Hg systolic
■ 80–75 mm Hg diastolic
○ Hypotension
■ Low systolic (below 110 mm
HG)
■ Often associated with illness
○ Hypertension
■ High systolic (above 140 mm
HG)
■ Can be dangerous if it is
chronic
 CHAPTER 9: BLOOD VESSELS AND Artery and Vein
CIRCULATION
Cardiovascular System

Blood Vessels

Blood vessels outside the heart are divided into two

classes:
● The pulmonary vessels, which transport
blood from the right ventricle of the heart
through the lungs and back to the left atrium
● The systemic vessels, which transport Types of Arteries
blood from the left ventricle of the heart
through all parts of the body and back to the ● Elastic arteries:
right atrium ○ largest in diameter
○ thickest walls
Blood Vessel Functions ○ Example - aorta and pulmonary trunk
● Muscular arteries:
● Carry blood ○ medium to small size
● Exchange nutrients, waste products, gases ○ thick in diameter
within tissues ○ contain smooth muscle cells
● Transport substances ○ can control blood flow to body
● Regulate blood pressure regions
● Direct blood flow to tissues
Arteries
Vessel Structures

● Arteries:
○ carry blood away from heart
○ thick with a lot of elastic
● Veins:
○ carry blood toward heart
○ think with less elastic
● Capillaries:
○ exchange occurs between blood and
tissue fluids

Blood Flow

● Blood flows from arteries into arterioles

● Arterioles into capillaries
● Capillaries into venules Capillaries
● Venules to small veins
● Veins return to the heart ● Blood flows from arterioles into capillaries
● Capillaries branch to form networks
Blood Vessel Walls ● Blood flow is regulated by smooth muscle
cells, precapillary sphincters
● Tunica intima:
○ innermost layer Capillary Network
○ simple squamous
● Tunica media:
○ middle layer
○ smooth muscle with elastic and
collagen
● Tunica adventitia:
○ outermost layer
○ connective tissue
Capillary Structure

Capillaries - walls consist of only a simple

endothelium surrounded by delicate loose
connective tissue.

Types of Veins

Blood flows from capillaries into venules. Blood

flows from venules into small veins. All 3 tunics are
present in small veins

Medium-sized veins:
● collect blood from small veins and deliver it
to large veins
Large veins:
● contain valves
Valves
Blood Vessel Structures

Pulmonary Circulation Vessels

Pulmonary circulation
● blood vessels that carry blood from the right
ventricle to the lungs and back from the left
atrium of heart
Pulmonary trunk
● blood pump from right ventricle towards lung
Pulmonary veins
● exit lungs and carry O2 rich blood to the left
atrium

Systemic Circulation Vessels

● The systemic circulation carries blood from

the left ventricle to the tissues of the body
and back to the right atrium.
● Oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins
passes from the left atrium into the left
ventricle and from the left ventricle into the
aorta.
● Arteries distribute blood from the aorta to all
portions of the body
Blood Flow through the Circulation Branches of the Aorta

Parts of the Aorta

passes superiorly from the left

Ascending
ventricle

3 major arteries which carry blood

Aortic arch
to the head and upper limbs

extends through the thorax and

Descending
abdomen to the pelvis

part of descending aorta that

Thoracic extends through the thorax to
diaphragm

descending aorta that extends from

Abdominal diaphragm where it divides at the
common iliac arteries

Major Arteries

Arteries of the Head and Neck

Branches of the aortic arch

● brachiocephalic artery
● left common carotid artery
● left subclavian
Brachiocephalic artery
● first branch off aortic arch
● supplies blood to the right side of head and
neck
Left common carotid artery
● 2nd branch off aortic arch
● supplies blood to the left side of head and
neck
Left subclavian artery
● 3rd branch off aortic arch
● supplies blood to left upper limbs
Right common carotid artery
● branches off brachiocephalic artery
 ● supplies blood to the right side of the head Ulnar arteries
and neck ● branch of the brachial artery
Right subclavian artery ● near elbow
● branches off the brachiocephalic artery Radial arteries
● supplies blood to the right upper limbs ● branch of brachial artery
● supply blood to forearm and hand
● pulse taken here

Cerebral Arterial Circle

Abdominal Aorta Branches

Celiac supply blood to stomach, pancreas,

trunk
spleen, liver, upper duodenum
arteries

Superior
supply blood to small intestines and
Major Arteries of the Head and Thorax mesenteric
upper portion of colon
arteries

Inferior
mesenteric supply blood to colon
arteries

Renal
supply blood to kidneys
arteries

Hepatic
supply blood to liver
arteries

Testicular
supply blood to testes
arteries

Ovarian
supply blood to ovaries
arteries

Inferior
phrenic supply blood to diaphragm
arteries

Lumbar supply blood to lumbar vertebra and

Arteries of the Upper Limbs arteries back muscles

Axillary arteries
● continuation of subclavian
● supply blood deep in clavicle
Brachial arteries
● continuation of axillary
● where blood pressure measurements are
taken
Major Arteries of the Abdomen and Pelvis Veins

Veins return blood to the heart. In the systemic

circulation, the blood returning to the heart is
deoxygenated. In the pulmonary circulation, the
blood returning to the heart in the pulmonary veins
is oxygenated.

Superior vena cava

● returns blood from the head, neck, thorax,
and right upper limbs
● empties into the right atrium of the heart
Inferior vena cava
● returns blood from the abdomen, pelvis,
lower limbs
● empties into the right atrium of the heart

Arteries of the Lower Limbs

Femoral
supply to thigh
arteries

Popliteal
supply blood to knee
arteries

Anterior and
posterior supply blood to leg and foot
arteries

supply blood to lateral leg and

Fibular arteries
foot

Arteries of the Lower Limbs

Veins of the Head and Neck

drain blood from head

External jugular vein and neck and empty
into subclavian veins

drain blood from the

brain, face, neck and
Internal jugular vein
empties into subclavian
veins

forms brachiocephalic
Subclavian veins
veins

join to form superior

Brachiocephalic veins
vena cava
 Veins of the Thorax

Veins of the Upper Limbs

empty into the axillary

Brachial veins
vein
Veins of the Abdomen and Pelvis
empty into the axillary
Cephalic veins
vein and basilic vein
formed from external and internal
Common
connects to cephalic iliacs and empty into inferior vena
Median cubital veins iliac vein
vein and near elbow cava

External drains blood from lower limbs

iliac vein empty into common iliac vein

Internal iliac drains blood from pelvic region

vein empties into common iliac vein

Renal vein drains blood from kidneys

Veins of the Thorax

Right and left

drain blood from thorax into
brachiocephalic
superior vena cava
veins

drain blood from thorax into

Azygos veins
superior vena cava

Internal thoracic empty into brachiocephalic

veins veins

Posterior drain blood from posterior

intercostal thoracic wall and drains into
veins azygos vein on right side

Hemiazygos receives blood from azygos

vein vein of the left side
Hepatic Portal System
Blood Pressure
Liver is a major processing center for substances
absorbed by intestinal tract. Blood pressure is the measure of force blood
exerts against blood vessel walls.
Portal system:
● vascular system that begins with capillaries Systolic pressure: contraction of heart
in the viscera and ends with capillaries in Diastolic pressure: relaxation of heart
liver
● uses splenic vein and superior mesenteric Average Blood Pressure: 120/80
vein

Veins of the Hepatic Portal System

Pulse Pressure

Pulse pressure is the difference between systolic

and diastolic blood pressures.
● Example - 120 for systolic / 80 for diastolic;
Veins of the Lower Limbs pulse pressure is 40 mm Hg
● pulse pressure points can be felt near large
arteries
Femoral drain blood from the thigh and
veins empty into external iliac vein
Body Locations to Evaluate Pulses
Great
drain from foot and empty into
saphenous
femoral vein
veins

Popliteal drain blood from knee and empty

veins into the femoral vein
Capillary Exchange

Most exchange across the capillary wall’s occurred

by diffusion

Blood pressure, capillary permeability, and osmosis

affect movement of fluids across capillary walls.

The net movement of fluid from the blood into

tissues

Fluid gained in tissues is removed by the lymphatic

system

Nervous Control of Blood Flow

Vasomotor center
● sympathetic division
● controls blood vessel diameter
Vasomotor tone
● state of partial constriction of blood vessels
● increase causes blood vessels to constrict
and blood pressure to go up

Hormonal Control of Blood Flow

The sympathetic division also regulates hormonal

control of blood flow through the release of
epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal
medulla.

In most blood vessels, these hormones cause

constriction, which reduces blood flow.

In some tissues, such as skeletal muscle and

cardiac muscle, these hormones cause the blood
Local Control of Blood Flow vessels to dilate, increasing blood flow.

Local control is achieved by relaxation and Nervous Regulation of Blood Vessels

contraction of precapillary sphincters

Sphincters relax blood flow increases

Precapillary sphincters controlled by metabolic

needs of tissues

Concentration of nutrients also control blood flow

Blood flow increases when oxygen levels decrease

Mean Arterial Pressure Baroreceptor Effects on Blood Pressure

An adequate blood pressure is required to maintain

blood flow through the blood vessels of the body.
Several regulatory mechanisms ensure that blood
pressure remains adequate for this task. Mean
arterial pressure (MAP) is a calculated value that
reflects an average arterial pressure in various
vessels of the body. The body’s MAP is equal to the
cardiac output (CO) times the peripheral resistance
(PR).

Cardiac output is equal to the heart rate (HR)

times the stroke volume (SV).

Peripheral resistance is the resistance to blood

flow in all the blood vessels.

MAP = CO × PR

The MAP changes in response to changes in HR,

SV, or PR. The mean arterial pressure changes
over our lifetime.

MAP is about 70 mm Hg at birth.

It is maintained at about 95 mm Hg from

adolescence to middle age and may reach 110 mm
Hg in a healthy older person.
Baroreceptor Reflexes
Baroreceptor reflexes activate responses to blood
pressure in the normal range. Baroreceptors
respond to stretch in arteries due to increased
pressure. Located in carotid sinuses and aortic
arch. Change peripheral resistance, heart rate,
stroke volume in response to blood pressure
Chemoreceptor Reflex
Chemoreceptors are sensitive to changes in blood
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH. Chemoreceptors
are located in carotid bodies and aortic bodies
which lie near carotid sinuses and aortic arch. They
send action potentials along the sensory nerve to
the medulla oblongata.
Chemoreceptor Reflex Mechanisms

Baroreceptor Reflex Mechanisms

Adrenal Medullary Mechanism

1. Stimuli increase sympathetic stimulation to

the adrenal medulla
2. The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine
and norepinephrine into blood
3. This causes increased heart rate and stroke
volume and vasoconstriction
4. Vasodilation of blood vessels in skeletal and
cardiac muscle

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone Mechanism
Antidiuretic Hormone Mechanism
1. Reduced blood flow causes kidneys to
release renin 1. Nerve cells in the hypothalamus release
2. Renin acts on angiotensinogen to produce antidiuretic hormone (ADH) when the
angiotensin I concentration of solutes in plasma increases
3. Angiotensin-converting enzyme converts or blood pressure decrease
angiotensin I to angiotensin II 2. ADH acts on kidneys and they absorb more
4. Angiotensin II causes vasoconstriction water (decrease urine volume)
5. Angiotensin II acts on the adrenal cortex to 3. The result is maintain blood volume and
release aldosterone blood pressure
6. Aldosterone acts on kidneys causing them to
conserve sodium and water
7. Result in less water lost in urine and blood
pressure maintained
Long-Term Control of Blood Pressure CHAPTER 10: THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Nervous System

Functions of the Nervous System

1. Sensory input – gathering information and to

monitor changes occuring inside and outside
the body (changes = stimuli), our sensory
organs have sensory receptors that gather
information
2. Intergration – to process and interpret
sensory input and decide if action is needed
3. Motor output – a response to integrated
stimuli and the response activates muscles
or glands

Structural Classification of the Nervous System

● Central Nervous System (CNS)

○ Brain
○ Spinal Cord

● Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

○ Nerves outside the brain and spinal
cord

Functional Classification of the Peripheral

Nervous System
Aging and Blood Vessels
● Sensory (afferent) division
○ Nerve Fibers that carry information to
Arteriosclerosis makes arteries less elastic the central nervous system
type of arteriosclerosis
Atherosclerosis from the deposit of materials in
artery walls (plaque)

are lack of exercise, smoking,

Factors that
obesity, a diet high in
contribute to
cholesterol and trans fats,
atherosclerosis
some genetics

Atherosclerotic Plaque

● Motor (efferent) division

○ Nerve fibers that carry impulses
away from the central nervous
system
○ Two subdivisions:
■ Somatic Nervous System =
Voluntary/ Dependent
● Skeletal Muscles
■ Autonomic Nervous System =
Involuntary/Independent
● Parasympathetic
● Sympathetic
Organization of the Nervous System
Ependymal cells (CNS)
● Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord
● Circulate cerebrospinal fluid (odorless and
colorless fluid that protects the brain from
external damage and acts as a cushion)

Oligodendrocytes (CNS)
● Produce myelin sheath (allows conduction
of electrilca impulses faster in axons of our
neurons) around nerve fibers in the central
nervous system

Nervous Tissue: Support Cells (Neuroglia or Neuroglia

Glia)

Astrocytes
● Are abundant, star-shaped cells that brace
neurons
● Forms barriers between capillaries and
neurons
● Control the Chemical environment of the
brain (CNS)

Neuroglia vs. Neurons

Nervous Tissue: Support Cells
● Neuroglia divide.
● Neurons do not.
● Most brain tumors are “gliomas.”
● Most brain tumors involve the neuroglia
cells, not the neurons.
● Consider the role of cell division in cancer!

Microglia (CNS) Support Cells of the PNS

● Spider-like phagocytes snd prevent the CNS
from infections Satellite cells
● Dispose of debris ● Protect neuron cell bodies

Schwann cells
● Form myelin sheath in the peripheral
nervous system
Nervous Tissue: Neurons
● Neurons = nerve cells/braincells
○ Cells specialized to transmit
messages
○ Major regions of neurons
■ Cell body – nucleus and
metabolic center of the cell
■ Processes – fibers that
extend from the cell body
(dendrites and axons)
Neuron Anatomy
Cell body
● Nucleus
● Large nucleolus
Extensions outside the cell body
● Dendrites – conduct impulses toward the
cell body (receiving signals)
● Axons – conduct impulses away from the
cell body (only 1!) (delivering signals)
Axons and Nerve Impulses
● Axons end in axonal terminals
● Axonal terminals contain vesicles with
neurotransmitters
● Axonal terminals are separated from the
next neuron by a gap
○ Synaptic cleft – the gap between
adjacent neurons
○ Synapse – the junction between
nerves
Nerve Fiber Coverings
● Schwann cells – produce myelin sheaths in
jelly-roll like fashion
● Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in myelin sheath
along the axon
Neuron Cell Body Location
● Most are found in the central nervous
system
○ Gray matter – cell bodies and
unmylenated fibers
○ Nuclei – clusters of cell bodies within
the white matter of the central
nervous system
● Ganglia – collections of cell bodies outside
the central nervous system
Functional Classification of Neurons
Sensory (afferent) neurons
● Carry impulses from the sensory receptors
● Cutaneous sense organs
● Proprioceptors
Motor (efferent) neurons
● Carry impulses from the central nervous
system
Interneurons (association neurons)
● Found in neural pathways in the central
nervous system
● Connect sensory and motor neurons
Neuron Classification How Neurons Communicate at Synapses

Structural Classification of Neurons

Synapse - junction in between two neurons

Multipolar many extensions from the cell
neurons body
The Reflex Arc

Reflex – rapid, predictable, and involuntary

responses to stimuli

Reflex arc – direct route from a sensory neuron, to

an interneuron, to an effector

Bipolar
one axon and one dendrite
neurons Types of Reflexes and Regulation

Autonomic reflexes
● Smooth muscle regulation, with heart and
blood pressure regulation,
● Regulation of glands
● Digestive system regulation

Somatic reflexes
● Activation of skeletal muscles

Unipolar have a short single process

Central Nervous System (CNS)
neurons leaving the cell body

CNS develops from the embryonic neural tube

● The neural tube becomes the brain and
spinal cord
● The opening of the neural tube becomes
the ventricles
○ Four chambers within the brain
○ Filled with cerebrospinal fluid

Regions of the Brain

How Neurons Function (Physiology)

Irritability ability to respond to stimuli

Conductivity ability to transmit an impulse

Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum) Sensory and Motor Areas of the Cerebral
Cortex
Paired (left and right) superior parts of the brain
and include more than half of the brain mass

Specialized Area of the Cerebrum

Cerebral areas involved in special senses:

● Gustatory area (taste)
● Visual area
● Auditory area
● Olfactory area

Interpretation areas of the cerebrum

The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and grooves ● Speech/language region
(sulci) ● Language comprehension region
● General interpretation area
Lobes of the Cerebrum

● Fissures (deep grooves) divide the

cerebrum into lobes
● Surface lobes of the cerebrum
○ Frontal lobe
○ Parietal lobe
○ Occipital lobe
○ Temporal lobe
Layers of the Cerebrum

Gray matter
● Outer layer
● Composed mostly of neuron cell bodies

White matter
● Fiber tracts inside the gray matter
● Example: corpus callosum connects
hemispheres

Basal nuclei
● internal islands of gray matter
Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum
Regulates voluntary motor activities by modifying
info sent to the motor cortex
Somatic receives impulses from the
sensory area body’s sensory receptors Problems = ie unable to control muscles, spastic,
jerky
Primary sends impulses to skeletal
motor area muscles Involved in Huntington’s (degenerative of neurons
Broca’s area involved in our ability to speak in the nervous system) and Parkinson’s Disease
(body is unable to control its movement)

Diancephalon
● Sits on top of the brain stem
● Enclosed by the cerebral heispheres
● Made of three parts
○ Thalamus
○ Hypothalamus
○ Epithalamus
 Pons
● The bulging center part of the brain stem
● Mostly composed of fiber tracts
Thalamus ● Includes nuclei involved in the control of
● Surrounds the third ventricle breathing
● The relay station for sensory impulses
● Transfers impulses to the correct part of the Medulla Oblongata
cortex for localization and interpretation ● The lowest part of the brain stem
● Merges into the spinal cord
Hypothalamus ● Includes important fiber tracts
● Under the thalamus ● Contains important control centers
● Important autonomic nervous system center ○ Heart rate control
○ Helps regulate body temperature ○ Blood pressure regulation
○ Controls water balance ○ Breathing
○ Regulates metabolism ○ Swallowing
● An important part of the limbic system ○ Vomiting
(emotions)
● The pituitary gland is attached to the Cerebellum
hypothalamus ● Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
● Provides involuntary coordination of body
Hippocampus movements
● It responsible for storing long term memories
Protection of the Central Nervous System
Amygdala
● Regulations of our emotions ● Scalp and skin
● Skull and vertebral column
● Meninges
● Cerebrospinal fluid
● Blood brain barrier

Brain Stem
● Attaches to the spinal cord
● Parts of the brain stem Meninges
○ Midbrain ● Dura mater
○ Pons ● Double-layered external covering
○ Medulla oblongata ○ Periosteum – attached to surface of
the skull
Midbrain ○ Meningeal layer – outer covering of
● Mostly composed of tracts of nerve fibers the brain
○ Reflex centers for vision and ● Folds inward in several areas
hearing ● Arachnoid layer
○ Cerebral aquaduct – 3rd-4th ○ Middle layer
ventricles ○ Web-like
● Pia mater
○ Internal layer
○ Clings to the surface of the brain
Cerebrospinal Fluid
● Similar to blood plasma composition
● Formed by the choroid plexus
● Forms a watery cushion to protect the brain
● Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles,
and central canal of the spinal cord
Ventricles and Location of the Cerebrospinal
Fluid
Traumatic Brain Injuries (TBI)
● Slight or mild brain injury
● Bleeding & tearing of nerve
Concussion fibers happened
● Recovery likely with some
memory loss
● A more severe TBI
● Nervous tissue destruction
Contusion occurs
● Nervous tissue does not
regenerate
● Also known as brain swelling.
Cerebral It's a life-threatening
Edema condition that causes fluid to
develop in the brain
● Commonly called a stroke
● The result of a ruptured blood
vessel supplying a region of
Cerebrovasc the brain
ular Accident ● Brain tissue supplied with
(CVA) oxygen from that blood
source dies
● Loss of some functions or
death may result
Spinal Cord
● Extends from the medulla oblongata to the
region of T12
● Below T12 is the cauda equina (a collection
of spinal nerves)
● Enlargements occur in the cervical and
lumbar regions
Spinal Cord Anatomy
● Exterior white mater – conduction tracts
● Internal gray matter - mostly cell bodies
○ Dorsal (posterior) horns
○ Anterior (ventral) horns
● Central canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid
● Meninges cover the spinal cord
● Nerves leave at the level of each vertebrae
○ Dorsal root
■ Associated with the dorsal
root ganglia – collections of
cell bodies outside the central
nervous system
● Ventral root
Peripheral Nervous System
● Nerves and ganglia outside the central
nervous system
● Nerve composed of bundle of neuron fibers
● Neuron fibers are bundled by connective
tissue
Structure of a Nerve Autonomic Nervous System
● Endoneurium surrounds each fiber ● The involuntary branch of the nervous
● Groups of fibers are bound into fascicles by system
perineurium ● Consists of only motor nerves
● Fascicles are bound together by ● Divided into two divisions
epineurium ○ Sympathetic division
○ Parasympathetic division

Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Nervous

Systems

Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous System

Classification of Nerves

Mixed
both sensory and motor fibers
nerves

Afferent
(sensory) carry impulses toward the CNS
nerves

Efferent
(motor) carry impulses away from the CNS
nerves

Spinal Nerves

There is a pair of spinal nerves at the level of each

vertebrae.
Autonomic Functioning

● Sympathetic – “fight-or-flight”
○ Response to unusual stimulus
○ Takes over to increase activities
○ Remember as the “E” division =
exercise, excitement, emergency,
and embarrassment
● Parasympathetic – housekeeping activites
○ Conserves energy
○ Maintains daily necessary body
functions
○ Remember as the “D” division -
digestion, defecation, and diuresis

Development Aspects of the Nervous System

● The nervous system is formed during the

first month of embryonic development
● Any maternal infection can have extremely
harmful effects
● The hypothalamus is one of the last areas
of the brain to develop
● No more neurons are formed after birth, but
growth and maturation continues for several
years (new evidence!)
● The brain reaches maximum weight as a
young adult
● However, we can always grow dendrites!