RT 204 Midterm Transes (Updated)

RT 204: RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
LECTURE 3: SKELETAL SYSTEM

INSTRUCTOR: LEANDRO DAYAO JR., RRT, MSRT(iP)
FIRST SEMESTER | A.Y. 2022 - 2023
FUNCTIONS OF THE BONES
• Support of the body

• Protection of soft organs
• Movement due to attached skeletal muscles
• Storage of minerals (calcium and phosphorus)
and fats
• Blood cell formation (red bone marrow for the
RBCs and yellow marrow for the fats)
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM BREAKDOWN OF THE 206 BONES
Parts of the Skeletal System • 8 Bones

22 bones in skull
• Bones • 14 Facial bones
• Joints • Malleous (2)
• Cartilages 6 in middle ears • Incus (2)
• Ligaments (an example of a fibrous connective • Stapes (2)
tissue that connect to a bone to bone) • Serves as the base of the
• Tendon (bone to muscle) 1 hyoid bone tongue and doesn’t
articulate with other bones
Divided into two divisions • C1 – C7 (C1: Atlas, C2: Axis
• Axial Skeleton (skeleton that is located in our trunk • T1 – T12
and also intersects the axis. It is composed of: skull, 26 vertebral column • L1 – L5
vertebral column, thoracic cage) • Sacrum
• Appendicular Skeleton (composed of our limbs • Coccyx
[upper and lower limbs] and girdles [pectoral and
• 24 Ribs (12 pairs)
pelvic]) 25 in thoracic cage
• Sternum
• Scapula (2)
4 pectoral girdle
• Clavicle (2)
• Humerus (2)
• Radius (2)
• Ulna (2)
60 in upper limbs
• Carpals (16)
• Metacarpals (10)
• Phalanges (28)
• Femur (2)
• Tibia (2)
• Fibulla (2)
• Tarsals (14)
60 in lower limbs
• Metatarsals (10)
• Phalanges (28)
• Sesamoids (Tibial and
Fibular)
BONES OF THE HUMAN BODY
• Ishium
An adult human skeleton has 206 bones. 84 for the axial 2 in pelvic girdle • Illium
skeleton and 126 for the appendicular skeleton. It has two • Pubis
(2) basic types of bone tissue: 206 BONES IN TOTAL
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
Compact
Homogeneous
Bone
Also known as the cancellous bone.
Spongy
It is small needle-like pieces of bones and
bone
has many open spaces
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
NAME DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES
Typically, longer then

wide. It has a shaft with • Femur
Long
heads at both ends. • Humerus
Bones
Contain mostly of • Clavicle
compact bone.
Generally, they are

Short cube-shape. It contains • Carpals
Bones mostly on spongy • Tarsals
bones.
• Parietal
• Frontal
• Occipital
Thin and flattened and
• Scapula
usually curved. Thin
• Lacrimal
Flat Bones layers of compact
• Nasal
bone around a layer of
• Vomer
spongy bone.
• Hip
• Ribs
• Sternum
• Ethmoid
• Palatine
• Sphenoid
• Zygomatic
• Inferior
Irregular shape and
Nasal
Irregular they do not fit into other
concha
bones bone classification
• Maxilla
categories.
Mandible
• Vertebrae
• Hip
• Sacrum
Coccyx
BONE GROWTH
Ossification is the process of bone formation by osteoblasts
The two (2) distinct mechanisms in ossification:
• Intramembraneous Ossification
o Intra – inside the membrane. This is the • Endochondral Ossification
process of bone development from o Endo mean inside while chondral means
fibrous membranes. It is invloved in the cartilage. This is the process of bone
formation of the flat bones of the skull, the development inside the hyaline cartilage.
mandible, and the clavicles. It occurs in a It occurs in all bones except flat bones.
12-week old fetus at ossification centers.
During the embryonic stage, the skeletal system is mostly
composed of hyaline cartilage. Mesenchymal stem cells
that will differentiate into osteoblasts. The osteobalsts will
continuouslly secrete bone matrix, it will then rugate
outwards. Because of those osteoblasts there will be a
bone matrix that will be an ossification center which is
located at the diaphysis.
After birth, there will be an occurrence where the

appearance of the secondary ossification center which is
located at the epiphysis. Osteoblasts will produce bone
matrixes until they will close the epiphyseal plate and will
turn into an epiphyseal line.
Epiphyseal plates allows growth for long bones. For

females their bone growth end at the age of 18, as for the
males it ends at 21.
MACROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF THE BONE
Diaphysis Shaft; composed of compact bone

Ends of the bone; composed of mostly
Epiphysis
spongy bone
2 TYPES OF BONE GROWTH Metaphysis Area containing the epiphyseal plate
Covers the external surfaces of the

• Interstitial Bone Growth Articular
epiphyses and reduces friction at joint
o This a bone growth which results in the Cartilage
surfaces
lengthening of the bone.
o Since epiphyseal plates allow growth of Epiphyseal
Growth plate
the long bone during childhood. Plate
Cartilages are continuously formed, older Epiphyseal When the epiphyseal plate is completely
cartilages become ossified (because of Lines closed
ossification). Cartilages are being broken Medullary Cavity of the shaft; contains the red and
down and being replaced by the bones. Cavity yellow bone marrow
o Hyaline cartilage has chondrocytes, Periosteum Outer covering of the diaphysis
which are cartilaginous cells. Sharpey’s Connective tissue fibers that secures the
Chondroblasts will continuously secrete Fibers periosteum to the underlying bones
chondrocytes.
Endosteum Inner covering of the diaphysis
• Appositional Bone Growth

o Growth in width or diameter.
o This bone growth happens beneath the
periosteum. Bone matrix will cotinue to
rugate outwards which causes the
increase of bone thickness.
o Osteoclasts will continue to destroy bones
in the medullary cavity to increase the
diameter of the bone.
Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long bone during

childhood.
Two parts of the long bone

• Diaphysis: the main or midsection of a long bone
• Epiphysis: the end part of a long bone
o New cartilage is continuously formed

o Older cartilage becomes ossified
o Cartilage is broken down

o Bone replaces cartilage
Bones are remodeled and lengthened until growth stops
o Bones changed shape somewhat

o Bones grow in width (Appositional growth)
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF THE BONE

Comminuted Fracture
Osteon
A unit of bone Bone breaks into many fragments.
(Harversian System)
Central
Carries blood vessels and nerves to [Particularly common in the aged, whose
(Haversian)
supply nutirents to the bones bones are more brittle]
Canal
Cavities containing bone cells
Lacunae Compression Fracture
(osteocytes)
Concentric rings around the central
Lamellae Bones is crushed. (i.e., osteoporotic
canal
bone).
Tiny canals that forms a transport
Canaliculi
system
[Common in porous bones]
Depressed Fracture
Broken bone portion is pressed inward.
[Typical of skull fracture]
Impacted Fracture
Broken bone ends are forced into each

other.
[Commonly occurs when one attempts to

BONE FRACTURE break a fall with outstretched arms]
A fracture is a partial or complete break in the bone. Bone Spiral Fracture

fractures are treated by reduction and immobilization (this
is the process of stabilizing the fracture) : realignment of Ragged break occurs when excessive
the bone. twisting forces are applied to a bone.
Bone fractures are often caused by falls, injury, or because [Common sports fracture]
of a direct hit or kick to the body. Other causes are low
Greenstick Fracture
bone density and osteoporosis, which cause weakening of
the bones.
Bone breaks incompletely, because it
can look like a branch that has broken
COMMON TYPES OF BONE FRACTURE
and splintered on one side.
NAME DESCRIPTION
[Common in children, whose bones are
Open (Compund) Fracture
more flexible than those of adults]
Accompanied by breaks in the skin,

causing the broken ends of bone to come
into contact with the outside
environment.
Closed (Simple) Fracture

Compression fracture
A fracture that does not break or

penetrate the skin and DOES NOT
DAMAGE to the connective tissue around
it.
Closed (Complicated) Fracture
A fracture that does not break or

penetrate the skin and DOES DAMAGE to
the connective tissue around it.
THE AXIAL SKELETON (80 BONES)
It forms the longitudinal part of the body that is divided into

three (3) parts:
• Skull
• Vertebral Column
• Bony Thorax
Comminuted
Depressed fracture
fracture
Greenstick Spiral
Impacted fracture THE SKULL
fracture fracture
It has two sets of bones:

• Cranium bones
REPAIR OF BONE FRACATURES • Facial bones
• Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formed The skull is a bone structure that forms the head in
• Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a callus vertebrates. It supports the structures of the face and
• Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony callus provides a protective cavity for the brain. Bones are joined
• Bony callus is remodeled to form a permanent by sutures and only the mandible is attached by a freely
patch movable joint.
THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs. The spine has

a normal curvature. Each vertebra is given a name
according to its location.
PARANASAL SINUSES
These are hollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal

cavity. Its function is to give resonance and amplification STRUCTURE OF A TYPICAL VERTEBRAE
to our voice.
THE BONY THORAX
THE HYOID BONE It forms a

cage to
The only bone that does not articulate with another bone protect major
and serves as a moveable base for the tongue. organs and is
made up of
three parts:
Sternum, Ribs,
and Thoracic
vertebrae .
THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON
Limbs (appendages), Pectoral girdle, and Pelvic girdle
BONES OF THE UPPER LIMB
The arm is formed by a single bone which is the humerus.
THE PECTORAL (SHOULDER) GIRDLE
It is composed of two bone, the clavicle (collarbone) and

scapula (shoulder blade). These bones allow the upper
limb to have exceptionally free movement.
BONES OF THE SHOULDER GIRDLE
The forearm
has two
bones, the
ulna and the
radius
The hand has Carpals (wrist), Metacarpals (palm), and GENDER DIFFERENCES OF THE PELVIS
Phalanges (fingers).
Scaphoid Navicular
Lunate Semilunar
Triquetral Triquetrum
Pisiform N/A
Trapezium Greater multangular
Trapezoid Lesser multangular

Capitate Os magnum
Hamate Unciform
BONES OF THE LOWER LIMBS
The thigh has one bone which is the femur that is largest
BONES OF THE PELVIC GIRDLE
and strongest bone of our body.
• Hip bones
• Composed of three pair of fused bones: Ilium,
Ischium, and Pubic Bone
• The total weight of the upper body resets on the
pelvis
• Protects several organs: Reproductive organs,
Urinary Bladder, and parts of the Large Intestine
(distal portion of the sigmoid colon, the rectum
and anus).
PELVIS
The leg has two bones: Tibia (at the medial portion) and
Fibula (at the lateral portion) JOINTS
Its other term is articulation and a place where two bones

come together.
Three Functional Classifications

Synarthrosis: non-movable joint
Amphiarthrosis: slightly movable
Diarthrosis: freely movable join
Three Structural Classifications

Fibrous Joints
Cartilaginous Joints
Synovial Joints
FIBROUS JOINTS
Consist of two bones that are united by fibrous tissue and

that exhibit little or no movement.
Subdivided into:
Sutures: fibrous joints between the bones of the skull

(fontanels for newborn)
Syndesmoses: fibrous joints in which the bones are
separated by some distance and held together by
ligaments (ex: distal parts of the radius and ulna)
Gomophoses: consists of pegs fitted into sockets and
held in place by ligaments. (ex: joint between tooth and
its socket)
The foot has: Tarsus (ankle), Metatarsals (sole), and
Phalanges (toes) CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS
Unite two bones by means of cartilage and only slight

movement can occur at these joints.
Ex: Cartilage in epiphyseal plates, cartilages between ribs

and sternum, and fibrocartilages that forms the
intervertebral disks
SYNOVIAL JOINTS
Freely movable joints the contain fluid in a cavity

surrounding the ends of articulating bones. Most joints
Features:
• Contains articular cartilage (which provides a
smooth surface where the bones meet)
• Contains a joint cavity (filles with synovial fluid)
which is enclosed by a joint capsule (which helps
hold the bones together and allows for more
movement)
• Contains a synovial membrane (which lines the
joint cavity everywhere except over the articular
cartilage) which produces synovial fluid (a
complex mixture of polysaccharides, proteins,
lipids, and cells)
Talus or Astragalus In certain synovial joints, synovial membrane may

Calcaneus or Os calcis extent as a pocket or sac, called a bursa.
SURFACE LANDMARKS
External landmarks related to body strictures at the same

level
BODY EXTERNAL
STRUCTURES LANDMARKS
Cervical Area
C1 Mastoid Tip
C2, C3 Gonion (angle of mandible
C3, C4 Hyoid Bone
C5 Thyroid Cartilage
C7, C11 Vertebra Prominens
Thoracic Area
Approximately 2in (5cm) above level of

T1
jugular notch
T2, T3 Level of jugular notch
T4, T5 Level of sternal angle
T7 Level of inferior angles of scapulae
T9, T10 Level of xiphoid process
Lumbar Area
L2, L3 Inferior canal margin
Level of superiormost aspect of iliac

L4, L5
crests
Sacrum and Pelvic Area
S1, S2 Level of anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS)
Level of pubic symphysis and greater

Coccyx
trochanters
INFLAMMATORY CONDITIONS ASSOCIATED WITH JOINTS
-itis (Inflammation)
• Bursitis – inflammation of a bursa usually caused by
a blow or friction
• Tendonitis – inflammation of tendon sheaths
• Arthritis – inflammatory or degenerative diseases
of joints, with over 100 different types and the most
widespread crippling disease into United States.
Clinical Forms of Arthritis A Healthy Joint

In a healthy joint, the ends of bones are encased in
• Osteoarthritis – the most common chronic arthritis smooth cartilage. Together, they are protected by a
and probably related to normal aging processes joint capsule lined with a synovial membrane that
produces synovial fluid. The capsule and fluid protect
the cartilage, muscles, and connective tissues.
A Joint with Osteoarthritis

With osteoarthritis, the cartilage becomes worn away.
Spurs grow out from the edge of the bone, and synovial
fluid increases. Altogether, the joint feels stiff and sore.
• Gouty Arthritis – is the inflammation of joints that is

caused by the deposition of urate crystals from
the blood. It can be usually controlled with diet.
• Rheumatoid arthritis – an autoimmune disease

(the immune system attacks the joints). Its
symptoms begin with bilateral inflammation of
certain joint. Often lead of deformities

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RT 204: RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

LECTURE 3: SKELETAL SYSTEM

FUNCTIONS OF THE BONES

• Support of the body

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM BREAKDOWN OF THE 206 BONES

Parts of the Skeletal System • 8 Bones

NAME DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES

Typically, longer then

Generally, they are

Ossification is the process of bone formation by osteoblasts

The two (2) distinct mechanisms in ossification:

After birth, there will be an occurrence where the

Epiphyseal plates allows growth for long bones. For

MACROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF THE BONE

Diaphysis Shaft; composed of compact bone

2 TYPES OF BONE GROWTH Metaphysis Area containing the epiphyseal plate

Covers the external surfaces of the

• Appositional Bone Growth

Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long bone during

Two parts of the long bone

o New cartilage is continuously formed

o Cartilage is broken down

Bones are remodeled and lengthened until growth stops

o Bones changed shape somewhat

MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF THE BONE

Broken bone portion is pressed inward.

[Typical of skull fracture]

Broken bone ends are forced into each

[Commonly occurs when one attempts to

A fracture is a partial or complete break in the bone. Bone Spiral Fracture

Accompanied by breaks in the skin,

Closed (Simple) Fracture

A fracture that does not break or

Closed (Complicated) Fracture

A fracture that does not break or

THE AXIAL SKELETON (80 BONES)

It forms the longitudinal part of the body that is divided into

It has two sets of bones:

THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN

Vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs. The spine has

These are hollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal

THE BONY THORAX

THE HYOID BONE It forms a

THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON

Limbs (appendages), Pectoral girdle, and Pelvic girdle

BONES OF THE UPPER LIMB

The arm is formed by a single bone which is the humerus.

THE PECTORAL (SHOULDER) GIRDLE

It is composed of two bone, the clavicle (collarbone) and

BONES OF THE SHOULDER GIRDLE

Trapezium Greater multangular

Trapezoid Lesser multangular

BONES OF THE LOWER LIMBS

Its other term is articulation and a place where two bones

Three Functional Classifications

Three Structural Classifications

Consist of two bones that are united by fibrous tissue and

Sutures: fibrous joints between the bones of the skull

Unite two bones by means of cartilage and only slight

Ex: Cartilage in epiphyseal plates, cartilages between ribs

Freely movable joints the contain fluid in a cavity

Talus or Astragalus In certain synovial joints, synovial membrane may

External landmarks related to body strictures at the same