CHAPTER 5: THE SKELETAL SYSTEM Histology of Bones

Skeletal System contained by the periosteum and

The Skeletal System
Parts of the Skeletal System
- Bones
- Joints
- Cartilages
- Ligaments (an example of a dense connective
tissue that connect to a bone to bone)
- Tendon (bone to muscle)
Divided into two divisions
- Axial Skeleton (skeleton that is located in our
trunk, composed of: skull, vertebral column,
thoracic cage)
- Appendicular Skeleton (composed of our limbs
and girdles [upper and lower limb])
the endosteum; bone-forming cells;
Osteoblasts function in formation of bone as well
as in the repair and remodeling
processed of bone.
Periosteum outer covering of the bone
inner covering of our medullary
Endosteum
cavity
bone-eating cells; degrade bone to
initiate normal bone remodeling and
Osteoclasts mediate bone loss in pathologic
conditions by increasing their
resorptive activity.
Lamella thin sheets of extracellular matrix
spaces between channel in
Lacunae lamellae; contain osteocytes (bone
cells)
small channel in ossified bone,
Canaliculi particularly between the lacunae of
ossified bone
chief structural unit of compact
Osteon
bone; consists of lamella
Haversian a series of tubes around narrow
Canal channels formed by lamellae

Function of the Bones

- Support of the body

- Protection of soft organs
- Movement due to attached skeletal muscles
- Storage of minerals and fats
- Blood cell formation

Bones of the Human Body

The skeleton has 206 bones. It has two (2) basic

types of bone tissue:

Compact Bone Homogeneous

Small needle-like
Spongy bone pieces of bones and Classification of Bones
has many open spaces
 Long Bones
Typically, longer then
wide. It has a shaft with
heads at both ends.
Contain mostly
compact bone
Ex: Femur, humerus
Flat Bones
Thin and flattened and
usually curved. Thin
layers of compact bone
around a layer of
spongy bone
Ex: Skull, ribs, sternum
Short Bones Common Types of Fractures
Generally, cube-shape. COMMINUTED
It contains mostly on
spongy bones
Ex: Carpals, tarsals
Bone breaks into many fragments
Irregular Bones [Particularly common in the aged, whose bones
Irregular shape and are more brittle.]
they do not fit into other COMPRESSION
bone classification
categories
Ex: Vertebrae and hip

Bone Growth Bones is crushed. (i.e., osteoporotic bone)

[Common in porous bones]
- Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long bone
during childhood DEPRESSED

Two parts of the long bone

Diaphysis: the main or midsection of a long bone
Epiphysis: the end part of a long bone

New cartilage is continuously formed

Older cartilage becomes ossified Broken bone portion is pressed inward.
[Typical of skull fracture]
Cartilage is broken down
IIMPACTED
Bone replaces cartilage

- Bones are remodeled and lengthened until

growth stops

Bones changed shape somewhat

Bones grow in width (Appositional growth)
Broken bone ends are forced into each other.
[Commonly occurs when one attempts to break a
fall with outstretched arms.]
SPIRAL

Ragged break occurs when excessive twisting

forces are applied to a bone.
Bone Fracture [Common sports fracture.]
GREENSTICK
A break in a bone.

Types of bone fracture

Closed (Simple) fracture - break that does not penetrate the
skin
Open (Compound) fracture – broken bone penetrates
through the skin
Bone fractures are treated by reduction and
immobilization: realignment of the bone.
Bone breaks incompletely, because it can look
like a branch that has broken and splintered on
one side.
[Common in children, whose bones are more
flexible than those of adults.]
Repair of Bone Fractures
Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formed
Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a callus
Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony callus
Bony callus is remodeled to form a permanent
patch

Anterior View

The Axial Skeleton (80 bones)

Forms the longitudinal part of the body that is divided

into three (3) parts:
~ Skull
~ Vertebral Column
~ Bony Thorax

Superior View

Inferior View

The Skull
Paranasal Sinuses
Two sets of bones
Cranium and Facial bones
- Hollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal
cavity
~ Bones are joined by sutures
- Its function is to give resonance and
~ Only the mandible is attached by a freely movable
amplification to our voice and it lightens the
joint
weight of the skull

Lateral View
The Hyoid Bone The Bony Thorax

- The only bone that does not articulate with - Forms a cage to protect major organs and is
another bone made up of three parts: Sternum, Ribs, and
- Serves as a moveable base for the tongue Thoracic vertebrae

The Vertebral Column

- Vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs

- The spine has a normal curvature
- Each vertebrae is given a name according to its
location

The Appendicular Skeleton

- Limbs (appendages), Pectoral girdle, and Pelvic

girdle

The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle

Composed of two bones

Clavicle (collarbone) and Scapula (shoulder blade)
Structure of a Typical Vertebrae
- These bones allow the upper limb to have
exceptionally free movement

Bones of the Shoulder Girdle

 The hand has Carpals (wrist), Metacarpals (palm),
and Phalanges (fingers).

Scaphoid Navicular
Lunate Semilunar
Triquetral Triquetrum
Pisiform N/A
Trapezium Greater multangular
Trapezoid Lesser multangular
Capitate Os magnum
Bones of the Upper Limb Hamate Unciform

The arm is formed by a single bone (Humerus)

Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

- Hip bones
- Composed of three pair of fused bones: Ilium,
Ischium, and Pubic Bone
- The total weight of the upper body resets on
the pelvis
- Protects several organs: Reproductive organs,
Urinary Bladder, and parts of the Large
The forearms have two bones: Ulna and Radius Intestine (distal portion of the sigmoid colon,
the rectum and anus).

The Pelvis

Gender Differences of the Pelvis

Bones of the Lower Limbs Talus or Astragalus
Calcaneus or Os calcis
The thigh has one bone (Femur – largest and
strongest bone of our body) Joints

Its other term is articulation and a place where two

bones come together.

Three Functional Classifications

Synarthrosis: non-movable joint
Amphiarthrosis: slightly movable
Diarthrosis: freely movable join

Three Structural Classifications

Fibrous Joints
Cartilaginous Joints
Synovial Joints

Fibrous Joints

Consist of two bones that are united by fibrous tissue

and that exhibit little or no movement.
The leg has two bones: Tibia at medial portion and
Fibula at lateral portion
Subdivided into:
Sutures: fibrous joints between the bones of the
skull (fontanels for newborn)
Syndesmoses: fibrous joints in which the bones
are separated by some distance and held together
by ligaments (ex: distal parts of the radius and
ulna)
Gomophoses: consists of pegs fitted into sockets
and held in place by ligaments. (ex: joint between
tooth and its socket)

Cartilaginous Joints

Unite two bones by means of cartilage and only

slight movement can occur at these joints.

Ex: Cartilage in epiphyseal plates, cartilages

between ribs and sternum, and fibrocartilages that
The foot has: Tarsus (ankle), Metatarsals (sole), and forms the intervertebral disks
Phalanges (toes)
Synovial Joints

Freely movable joints the contain fluid in a cavity

surrounding the ends of articulating bones. Most
joints

Features:
• Contains articular cartilage (which provides a
smooth surface where the bones meet)
• Contains a joint cavity (filles with synovial
fluid) which is enclosed by a joint capsule
(which helps hold the bones together and
allows for more movement)
 • Contains a synovial membrane (which lines
the joint cavity everywhere except over the
articular cartilage) which produces synovial
fluid (a complex mixture of polysaccharides,
proteins, lipids, and cells)

In certain synovial joints, synovial membrane may

extent as a pocket or sac, called a bursa.

Surface Landmarks

External landmarks related to body strictures at the

same level
BODY EXTERNAL
STRUCTURES LANDMARKS
Cervical Area
C1 Mastoid Tip
C2, C3 Gonion (angle of mandible
C3, C4 Hyoid Bone
C5 Thyroid Cartilage
C7, C11 Vertebra Prominens
Thoracic Area
Approximately 2in (5cm) above
T1
level of jugular notch
Inflammatory Conditions Associated with Joints
T2, T3 Level of jugular notch
T4, T5 Level of sternal angle -itis (Inflammation)
T7
Level of inferior angles of • Bursitis – inflammation of a bursa usually
scapulae caused by a blow or friction
T9, T10 Level of xiphoid process • Tendonitis – inflammation of tendon
Lumbar Area sheaths
L2, L3 Inferior canal margin • Arthritis – inflammatory or degenerative
Level of superiormost aspect of diseases of joints, with over 100 different
L4, L5 types and the most widespread crippling
iliac crests
Sacrum and Pelvic Area disease into United States.
Level of anterior superior iliac
S1, S2
spine (ASIS)
Level of pubic symphysis and
Coccyx
greater trochanters
Clinical Forms of Arthritis
• Osteoarthritis – the most common chronic
arthritis and probably related to normal aging
processes
• Rheumatoid arthritis – an autoimmune
disease (the immune system attacks the
joints). Its symptoms begin with bilateral
inflammation of certain joint. Often lead of
deformities
CHAPTER 6: THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Digestive System
Main Functions of the Digestive System
Ingestion – how we intake food via mouth and it
involves swallowing
Digestion – this is how our organs break down food
into smaller components to be easily absorbed
Absorption - the nutrients from it (the food) will be
absorb
Defecation – when waste products are being
eliminated from our body

The Digestive System and Body Metabolism

Metabolism
- It is the process that converts nutrients into
cellular energy (ATP)
- Constructive and degradative cellular
activities
A Healthy Joint
In a healthy joint, the ends of bones are encased
Organs of the Digestive System
in smooth cartilage. Together, they are protected
by a joint capsule lined with a synovial membrane
Two main groups:
that produces synovial fluid. The capsule and fluid
Alimentary canal – continuous coiled hollow tube
protect the cartilage, muscles, and connective
(about 30ft long)
tissues.
Accessory Digestive organs – Liver, gallbladder,
pancreas, and salivary glands

A Joint with Osteoarthritis

With osteoarthritis, the cartilage becomes worn
away. Spurs grow out from the edge of the bone,
and synovial fluid increases. Altogether, the joint
feels stiff and sore.

• Gouty Arthritis – is the inflammation of joints

that is caused by the deposition of urate
crystals from the blood. It can be usually
controlled with diet.
Organs of the Alimentary Canal

Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy

Lips
protect the anterior opening
(Labia)
Cheeks forms the lateral walls
Hard
forms the anterior roof
palate
Soft
forms the posterior roof
palate
Uvula fleshy projection of the soft palate
 Pharynx Anatomy

Not part of the digestive system

Nasopharynx
and is behind the nasal cavity
Posterior to the oral cavity and
Oropharynx extends from the soft palate to
the epiglottis
Below the oropharynx and
connected to the esophagus
Laryngopharynx
and extends to the base of the
larynx

Space between lips externally and

Vestibule
teeth and gums internally
Oral
Area contains by the teeth
cavity
Attached at hyoid and styloid
Tongue processed of the skull, and by the
lingual frenulum
Contains lymphatic tissues that could
be: palatine tonsils or lingual tonsil, its
Tonsils
main function is to fight against
microorganisms

Epiglottis is a flap like structure of cartilage located in

the throat behind the tongue and in front of the larynx

Pharynx Functions

• Serves as a passageway for air and food

• Food is propelled to the esophagus by two
muscle layers (Longitudinal Inner Layer and
Circular Outer Layer)
Processes of the Mouth • Food movement is by altering contractions of
the muscle layers (Peristalsis)
• Mastication (chewing) of food
• Mixing masticated food with saliva Esophagus
• Initiation of swallowing by tongue
• Allowing for the sense of taste It runs from pharynx to stomach through a
diaphragm. It conducts food by peristalsis (slow
Salivary glands – produces saliva rhythmic squeezing). Passageway for food only
(respiratory system branches off after the pharynx).
Three types of salivary glands: About 18-25 cm long, and about 1.5 – 2 cm in width.
Parotid glands – large glands located anterior to
the ear and ducting via the parotid duct into the
mouth over the second upper molar
Submandibular glands – located along the medial
aspect of the mandible in the floor of the mouth
and ducting under the tongue close to the
frenulum
Sublingual glands – small glands located most
anteriorly in the floor of the mouth and emptying
under the tongue via several small ducts
Bolus – the masticated food with saliva
Chyme – bolus with gastric juices
Layers of the Alimentary Canal Stomach Anatomy

It is located on the left side of the abdominal cavity.

Food enters at the cardioesophageal sphincter.

Is the innermost layer and a moist

membrane. It is lined with surface Regions of the Stomach
Mucosa epithelium, a small amount of Cardiac region (near
Fundus
connective tissue (lamina propria), the heart)
and a small smooth muscle layer Pylorus (funnel-shaped
Body
Beneath the mucosa and is terminal end
composed with soft connective
Submucosa
tissue with blood vessels, nerve
endings, and lymphatics.
A smooth muscle composed with
Muscularis
inner circular layer and outer
externa
longitudinal layer
Is the outermost layer (visceral
Serosa peritoneum) and a layer of serous
fluid-producing cells

Food empties into the small intestine at the pyloric

sphincter. Rugae is the internal folds of the mucosa
and it allows stretching or expansion of the stomach
when food enters the stomach. It has external
regions which are composed of lesser curvature and
the greater curvature.
Oblique layer is ONLY in the stomach

Stomach Functions

• It acts as a storage tank for food

• Where the site of food breakdown
• Chemical breakdown of protein begins
• Delivers chyme (processed food) to the
small intestine

Specialized Mucosa of the Stomach

Simple Columnar Epithelium

Gastric
Secrete gastric juice
glands
Mucous neck
Produce a sticky alkaline mucus
cells
Produce protein-digesting
Chief cells
enzymes (pepsinogens)
Parietal cells Produce hydrochloric acid
Produce gastrin (hormone that
G cells stimulates the release of gastric
juice)

The stomach can only digest caffein, alcohol and aspirin.
Small Intestine Anatomy
The body’s major digetsive organ. It is the site of
nutrient absorption into the blood. This is a muscular
tube extending from the pyloric sphincter to the
ileocecal valve. It is about 6 meters (20 feet) long.
Ileocecal valve – this is the junction between the
large intestine and the terminal portion of the samll
intestine
Ileo [ileum] cecal [cecum (first part of the large
intestine)]
Subdivisions of the Small Intestine
Attached to the stomach and
curves around the head of the
Duodenum
pancreas. It is the shortest but
(25-30 cm long)
widest in diameter subdivision of
the short intestine.
Jejunum Attaches anteriorly to the
(2.5 m long) duodenum
Ileum Extends from jejunum to large
(3.5 m long) intestine
Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine
• Source of enzymes that are mixed with
chyme (intestinal cells and pancreas)
• The pancreas secretes insulin and glucagon
• Bile enters from the gallbladder
Hepatobiliary Tree
The liver produces 400-820 milliliters bile a day
The bile from the liver will flow down > right land left
hepatic ducts > common bile duct > cystic duct and
will be stored at the gallbladder.
When there is chyme that is present in the
duodenum the mucosa in the small intestine will
stimulate the release of the cholecystokinin (CCK - a
hormone that stimulates the release gallbladder
towards the duodenum)
CCK will be delivered through the bloodstream then
it will go to the gallbladder to allow contraction of the
gallbladder to release the bile towards the
duodenum
Hepatopancreatic ampulla or Ampulla of Vater and the
Spincter of Oddi
The hepatopancreatic ampulla is a canal and the
spnhicter is an opening.
Villi of the Small Intestine
Fingerlike structures fromed by the mucose and it
give the small intestine more surface area for
absorption of nutrients.
 Folds of the Small Intestine

The folds of the small intestine are called circular

folds or plicae circulares which are the deep folds of
the mucosa and submucosa. It does not dissappear
when filled with food. The submucosa has Peyer’s
patches (which are collections of lymphatic tissues).

Microvilli of the Small Intestine

Small projections of the plasma membrane. It is

found on absorptive cells (absorptive cells are
located at the organs that absorbnutrients like small
intestine).
Large Intestine

It is large in diameter but shorter than the small

intestine. It frames the internal abdomen.

Structures Involved in Absorption of Nutrients

• Absorptive cells
• Blood capillaries
• Lacteals (specialized lymphatic capillaries
which also helps in fighting organisms)
Right colic flexure or the hepatic flexure – it is where
the liver is located

Structure of the Large Intestine

• Cecum – sac-like first part of the large

intestine
• Appendix
Accumulation of lymphatic tissue that
sometime becomes inflamed (appendicitis)
Hangs from the cecum
• Colon (Ascending, Transverse, Descending,
S-Shaped sigmoidal)
• Rectum
• Anus – external body opening

Posterior abdominal wall that are tissues that
attaches the small and large intestine so that the
structure will be fixed which is called the mesentery.
Functions of the Large Intestine
• Absorption of water
• Eliminates indigestible food from the body as
feces
• Does not participate in digestio of food
• Goblet cells produce mucus to act as a
lubricant
Modifications to the Muscularis Externa in the
Large intestine
• Smooth Muscle is reduced to three bands
(teniae coli) three bands of longitudinal
muscle to maintain the segments between
the colon
• Muscle bands have some degree of tone
• Walls are formed into pocketlike sacs called
haustra water from the undigested material
will be easily absorbed effectively since it
flows segmentedly.
Accessory Digestive Organs
Salivary glands Pancreas
Teeth Liver
Gallbladder
Salivary Glands
• These are saliva-producing glands
- Parotid Glands – located anterior ears
- Submandibular glands – located
beneath the mandible
- Sublingual glands -
Saliva
• Mixture of mucus and serous fluids
• Hekps to form food blous
• It contains salivary amylase to begin starch
digestion
• Dissolves chemicals so they can be tasted
Teeth
• The role is to masticate (chew) food
• Humans have two sets of teeths
Decidous (baby or milk) teeth
20 teeth are fully formed by the age of two
• Permanent teeth
Replace decidous teeth beginning between
the ages 6 to 12
A full set is 32 teeth, but some people do not
have wisdom teeth
Classification of Teeth
• Incisors – Classification of teeth to bite an
apple
• Canines
• Premolars
• Molar
 Liver

Is the largest galnd of the body and located at the

right side of the body under the diaphragm. It
consists of four lobes (right, left, caudate, and
quadrate) from the diaphragm and abdominal wall by
the falciform ligament. It is connected to the gall
bladder via the common hepatic duct.

Regions of the Tooth

Exposed part (outer enamel, dentin,

Crown
and pulp cavity)
Region in contact with the gum and
Neck connect the crown to the root to
provide nutrients Bile
Periodontal membrane is attached to
the bone It is produced by the cells in the liver. About 400-800
Root
Root canal carrying blood vessels and mL is produced per day.
nerves
Its composition are bile salts, bile pigment (mostly
bilirubin from the breakdown of hemoglobin),
cholesterol, phospholipids and electrolytes (minerals
from our body that carries electrical charges)

Gall Bladder

Sac found in hollow fossa of liver and stores bile from

the liver by the way of the cystic duct. Bile is
introduced into the duodenum in the presence of
fatty food. Gallstones can cause blockages.

Processes of the Digestive System

• Ingestion – getting food into the mouth

• Propulsion – moving foods from one region
Pancreas of the digestive system
• Peristalsis – alternating waves of contraction
Produces a wide spectrum of digestive enzymes that
break down all categories of food. Enzymes are
secreted into the duodenum and endocrine products
of pancreas.

• Insulin (released by the 'beta cells' in the

islets of Langerhans in response to food. Its
role is to lower glucose levels in the • Segmentation – moving materials back and
bloodstream and promote the storage of forth to aid in mixing
glucose in fat, muscle, liver and other body
tissues)

• Glucagons (is a peptide hormone secreted

from the alpha cells of the pancreatic islets of
Langerhans)
 • Mechanical Digestion – is the mixing of food
in the mouth by the tongue, curning of food
in the stomach, and segmentation in the
small intestine
• Chemical Digestion – enzymes break down
food molecules into their building blocks and
each major food group uses different
enzymes:
Carbohydrates > broken into simple
sugers
Proteins > broken into amino acids
Fats > broken to fatty acids and
alcohols
• Absorption – end products of digestion are
absorbed in the blood or lymph and food
must enter muscosal cells and then into
blood or lymph capillaries
• Defecation – elimination of indigestible
substances as feces
Digestive Activities of the Mouth
• Mechanical breakdown – food is physically
broken down by chewing
• Chemical digestion – food is mixed with
saliva and the breaking or starch into maltose
by salivary amylase
Activities of the Pharynx and Esophagus
These organs have no digestive function and serve
as passageways to the stomach.
Deglutition (Swallowing)
• Buccal phase – it is voluntary and occurs in
the mouth. Food is formed into a bolus and it
is forced into the pharynx by the tongue.
• Pharyngeal-esophangeal phase – it is an
involuntary transport of the bolus and all
passageways except to the stomach are
blocked. Tongue blocks off the mouth, soft
palate (uvula) blocks the nasopharynx and
the epiglottis blocks the larynx. Peristalsis
moves the bolus toward the stomach and the
cardioesophangeal spincter is opened when
food presses against it.
Food Breakdown in the Stomach
• Gastric juice is regulated by neutral and
hormonal factors
• Presence of food or falling pH causes to the
release of gastrin
• Gastrin causes stomach glands to produce
protein-digesting enzymes
• Hydrochloric acid makes the stomach
content very acidic
Necessity of an Extremely Acid Environment in
the Stomach
It activates pepsinogen to pepsin for protein
digestion. Provides a hostile environment for
microorganisms.
Digestion and Absorption in the Stomach
Protein digestion enzymes:
Pepsin – an active protein enzyme
Rennin – works on digesting milk protein
The only absorption that occurs in the stomach is of
alcohol, caffeine, and aspirin.
Propulsion in the Stomach
• Food must first be weill mixed
• Rippling peristalsis occurs in the lower
stomach
• The pylorus meters out chyme into the small
intestine (30 ml at a time)
• The stomach empties in four to six hours
Digestion in the Small Intestine
• Enzymes from the brush border
Break double sugars into simple sugars
Complete some protein digestion
• Pancreatic enzymes play the major digestive
function
Help complete digestion of strach
(pancreatic amylase)
Carry out about half of all protein
digestion (trypsin, etc.)
Responsible for fat digestion (lipase)
Digest nucleic acids (nucleases)
Alkaline content neutralizes acidic
chyme
Stimulation of the Release of Pancreatic Juice
• Local hormones: Scretin and Cholecystikinin
Absorption in the Small Intestine
• Water is absorbed along the length of the
small intestine
• End products of digestion
Most substances are absorbes by
active transport through cell
membranes
Lipids are absorbed by diffusion
• Substances are transported to the liver by
the hepatic portal vein or lymph
Propulsion in the Small Intestine
• Peristalsis is the major means of moving food
• Segmental movements
Mix chyme with digestive juices
Aid in propelling food
Food Breakdown and Absorption in the Large
Intestine
No digestive enzymes are produced and resident
bacteria digest remaining nutrients (producing some
vitamin K and B and releases gases). Water and
vitamins K and B are absorbed then the remaining
materials are eliminated via feces.
Proplsion in the Large Intestine
• Sluggish peristalsis
• Mass movements
Slow, powerful movements
Occur three to four times a per day
• Presences of feces in the rectum causes a
defacation reflex
Internal anal sphincter is relaxed and
defacation occurs with relaxation of
the voluntary (external) anal
sphincter
Nutrition
Nutrient – a substance used by the body for growth,
maintenance, and repair
Categories of Dietary Sources of Major
Nutrients Nutrients
They are most derived from
plants
Carbohydrates Exceptions: lactose from milk
and small amounts of glycogens
from meats
Saturated fats from animal
products
Unsaturated fats from nuts,
Lipids
seeds, and vegetable oils
Cholesterol from egg yolk,
meats, and milk product
 Complete proteins – contain all • Middle age digestive problems (ulcers and
essential amoni acids (most from gall bladder problems)
Proteins animal products) • Activity of digestive tract in old age
Legumes and beans also have Fewer digestive juices
proteins, but are incomplete Peristalsis slows
Most vitamins are used as Diverticulosis and cancer are more
Vitamins cofactors and act with enzymes common
Found in all major food groups
Plays many roles in the body
Most mineral-rich food are
Mineral
vegetables, legumes, milk, and
some meats
Water

Metabolism

Chemical reactions necessary to maintain life

Substances are broken to simpler
Catabolism
subtances (ex: glycolysis)
Larger molecules are built from
Anabolism
smaller one (ex: protein synthesis

Carbohydrate Metabolism

The body’s preferred source to produce cellular

energy (ATP). Glucose (blood sugar) is the major
breakdown product and fuel to make ATP.

Fat Metabolism

• Handled mostly by the liver

Uses some fats to make ATP
Synthesize lipoproteins.
Thromboplastin, and cholesterol
Release breakdown products to the
blood
• Body cells remove fat and cholesterol to build
membranes and steroid hormones

Protein Metabolism

• Proteins are concerved by body cells

because they are used for most cellular
structures
• Ingested proteins are broken down to amino
acids
• Cells remove amoni acids to build proteins
(transported across cell membranes)
• Amino acids are used to make ATP only
when proteins are overabundant or there is a
shortage of other sources

Developmental Aspects of the Digestive System

• Teething begins around the age of six

months
• Metabolism decreases with old age