lMirinq l Fluids 28 5

Chapteright

Mixing f luids
Levenspiel l consider.ed hen two fluids are nlixed rogelher, he
molecularbehavior of the dispefsed luid falls between wo extremes.
If molecules are completely tiee 1o movc about, the dispelsed luid
behaves s a microfluid and exhibits o flrid segregation. t the
opposile extreme, he dispersed luid remaiDsas clumps coitai ng a
large nu ber of lnolec ulesand is termeda n1acrclluid.Fufihermore.
as the macfofluid is transfbrmed o a nicrofluid by physical mixilg
processese.9., urbulelce or noleculat diffusion), he degreeaDdscale
of segregalion i.e., thc averageof lie seglegaled lumps) decrease.
An importantnlixiig opelatioll nvolvcsbringing djflerent noleculai.
species ogether o obtain a chemical eaction.Thc compoDents
be miscible iquids, mmiscibleiquids, olidparticles nd a liquid.a
gasanda liquid,a gnsand solidpadicles. r two gases.n some ases,
temperaturcditlerencesexisl between an equipmcntsurface and thc
bulk fluicl, o[ between he suspended artic]es nd the continuous
phasc luid. Thc samemcchanismshilt enhancemass ransi-er y
reducing he film thickness re used o promotc heat translerby
jnc.easingthe tempcrat lre gradient r the tlim. Thcse
mechanisms re
bulk flow, eddy diffusion, ard moleculardilTusion.The pedbrnance
of equipment n which heat tLansfeloccurs s expressed n terms of
tbrced conveclive heal tansfer coefficients.
This chapler revie\ls the various ypes of impellers, he flow pat-
terns gerleraledby these agitatols, corelation of the dimensionless
parametersi.e.,Reynoldsnumber,Froudenurnber, nd power number).
scale-up f lnixers, hea ransfercoef{icicltts f.iacketedagilated
vessels,and tl'ie time required or heating or cooling these vessels.

MIXING AND AGITATION OT FLUIDS

N4anyoperationsdepend o a great extent on eifective mixi[g of
fluids. Mixing ref-ers o any opelation uscd to charrgea norr-urlilbfm
system nto a ulliform onc (i.e., he ralldomd;stribution f two or
nTole rlitially sepalated hascs): girarionmpljes orcilg a lluid by
Dechanical mcens to llow in a circulatoly of other pattetn insidc a
vessel. Mi\ing is an integrai pallt of cheDical or physical processes
 

286 ChemicalEnglnee g Processes

such as blending, dissolving, suspension, nltlsification,

heat transfer.and cheJnical eactions.
Dispersion characteristics all be considerecl s the nixing of two
or more immiscible licluids, solids and liquids, or liquids and gases,
into a pseudo-honogeneotsmass.Snall drops a.e created o provide
oontactbctween mmiscible iquids. These iquids a.e lnixed fo
specific purposes,namely solvont extraction. removal or additior of
heat,and o affect mass tansfer atesh reactors.T he terlns dispeftion
and emulsion are often used nterchangeably. ispersion s a general
term that implies dislribution, whereasemulsion s a special case of
dispersio[. Dispersion is a two-phase mixnue in which drops may
coalcsce.The mate al present n a larger quaniity is referred to as
the continuous phaseand thc material prcsellt n a smaller quantity is
cajled he dispersed hase.An emulsion s a Lwo-phase ;xturc ol very
fine drops in which littlc or no coalescence ccll.s. The stability of
an emulsion clepends n surface on activity, which is a function of
particle size. Colnmon dispersionsare water ard hydtocatbons, and
acidicor alkaliDe olulions ombiledwilh oryanic iquids.Table8-1
summarizes he prircipal purposes or agitaling Iluids Coker[2].

AGITATION EQUIPMENT

Various ypes of vesselsand tanks of differing geometrical shapes

and $izes are used for mixing fluids. The top of the vessel may be
open or sealed. he vesselbottom s nornally not l'lal

Table 8-t

Characteristics or agitating luids

L B l e n d i n g f 1 w om i s c i b l c , f n i s c l b l e i q u i d s .
2 . Dissolvins olids n liquidr.
Dispersnrga gas in a lntrid ds fine bubbles oryscn f.on air in a suspen-
sion ol micfoorgaDisB1br fenneotationor lor aclilrled sludge reatmen0.
Agitation ol the lluid o increase ear tfaDsferbclwccn lhe llltid and a coil

i . Suspension f finc solid pr jcles in a lrquid, such as in lhe caralyric hydro-

gcnalion of a liquid wlrere solid catilysl and hydrogenbubblesarc dispcrscd
jn the liqrrid.
6. Dispcrsion f droplcls f one nmi$cible i.luid n anorher e.g.. sone
bcrerogeneouseaciion proccssof liquid huid exrfactio,r).
 

but rounded o eliminate hary o.ners t regions lrto which he luid

curents would not penetrate; ishedends ate most common.The
liquid depth s approximately qual o the dianeter of tle tank. An
impeller s molLnted n an overhung h,Lft,i.e.,a shaftsuppoted rom
above). he shaft s motordriven; his s solEtimesdirectlvconnected
lo lhe :harl. brrr . rrr,'re flenconnecled.lh,',ughspeed-.eciucing
gearbox. therattachmeDts nclude nletand ortlet ines,coils. ackels.
and wells or thermometers.iigure 8-l showsa typical standardank

I
II
Figure8-1. Siafdard ank contiguraiion.
 

288 Chemical ngineeingPfocesses

configuration. The geometric proporlions of the agitation system,

which are considered typical standard esign are given in Table 8-2.
These relative proporlions orm the basiso{ dle najor corelations of
agitation p(-Ifornlance rom various studres.
There are cases where WDa = 1/8 and J/D r = l/10 fol some
agitator correlatiols. Usually,4 baffles are us ed aod the clearance
between he baffles and the wall is about q.l-0.15 J. This ensures hat
the liquid does not form siagnant pocketsbetween he balfle and the
wali. The rumber of impellel blades varies rom 4 to 16, but
Senerally between 6 and 8.
Mixilg by agitation of iiquids normally involves the ffansfer of
momenlum fton ao impelle. lo the liqllid. In some cases,mixing is
achievedby gas injectioll or circulation via a pump loop. An jrnpeller,
which i s mounted or a shaft ddven by an elcctric ilotor, is divided
into two operation categories:

Where monlentltln s t.ansferredby shearing tresscs,D which the

transfcr is perpendicular o the direction of flow. This caiegory
i n c l u d e ' h e f o t s { i n g i c ca n dc o n e . r g i t r t o r s .
The momeltun is translerred by l1orma] stresses, n which the
transfer s parallel to thc direction of flow. This categoly ncludes
r h ep u d d l e . r o f ' e l l e r n
. d l r r r h o n i \ e ra g i l r t o r s .

Table 8-2
Geometric roportions or a standaad gilalionsystem
Do I J1
Dr3 Dr. DI 12
wl L1
D,r 5 De4

B = numbef of blxdcs on lmpeiler

R = number oi b:rftles
DA = agitator dianleter
H - liquid heicht
Dr = irnk diamcler
E = heigh of lhe agiiator frcm thc botton ol fte tank
J = baffle width
L = agitalor blade lenglh
W = agirator blde width
 

but roundedo eliminate h$p comersor tegions Dto which the luid
currents would not penetrate; ishedends are most common,The
liquid depth s approximately qual o the clianetelof the fank. Ar
irnpellers rnounted n an ove rungshaft, i.e.,a shaftsupportediom
abqve). he shai is motordriven; his s sometimes irectlvconnected
lo the hrft. bur s moreolreacunnected.lluough.peed educing
gearbox.O therattachmentsD cludeinlet andoutlet ines,coils. ackets.
a n dw e l l s o r h e r m o m e r Hi rg.u. r e - t s n o u . l ) p r c i r l t r n d u d r n k

-+lrfe"m"

Figure a-1. Standardank configuration_

 

Agjtation plays an essential oLe n the success f many chenical

prccesses nd herc s a wide range f cornmercially vailablempellers
that can provide he oplinun degree l agitalion br any process. he
problemarises n selecting he best l11peliefor the requitedpr.ocess.
Equipment mentfacturers often provide expert guidance.bul it is
benelicial or designers ndengineerso acquireund4mentalilowledge
of various ypes of impeller's. he process bjectiveof an impeller s
the primary factor that detennines ts selection. These objectives,
summalized n Table 8-1, togetherwith physical propertiessuch as
viscosib'p la),an mportant ole n the selection f jftpellers in lamimr,
transiiional. and turbulent operations. n genetal, mpellers can be
classilied nto two main groups.

Impellers wilh a small blade area,which rotale at high speeds.

These nclude u.bines and m4,ire propellers.
Impellers with a large blade arca, which rolate at low speeds.
These nclude anchors,paddles, nd helical sdews-

The lelter nrpelle.sare very effeclive or hi gh-viscosity iquids and

dependon a large bladearca o pruduce iquid rnovemenl hrougholrt
the vessel.Since they are low-shear mpellers, Jreyare useful for
nixing shear hickening iquids.Figure8 2 showsa typical gateanchof
agitator.ADchoragitatorsope.ate ely close o the vesselwall with a
radial clearaace qlLalo 0.0275DA- The shearing ctionof t he irnchof
bladespast he vesselwall produces coltinual interchange f liquid
lretweer he bulk liquid and lhe ljquid film between he bladesand
the wall. Fol heat traNfer appiications, nchorsare fitted with wall
scrape.so prevent he blLildupof a slagnanl ilm between he anchor
and the vesselwall. The anchor nrpeller s a good blendingand heat
transl'er evicewhen he fluid \, iscosity s between5.000 and -50,000
cP (5 and 50 Pas).Belo\,\'5,000 q there s rot enoughviscousdrag
at the ank wall to promoiepuolping. esulting n a swirling condition.
At viscosities reater han 50.000 P (50 Pits),blendingand heat
t.ansfei capabilitiesdecrease }spumping capacily declites and the
impeller "slips" in the fluid.
Helical scrcwsoperaten the aminar ar,ge t nor]nallyhigh mpelle.
to vessel dialneler ratio (DA/Dr) with a ladial clexrance equal to
0.0375DA. The impeller usually occupies ne-third1()one half of rtre
vesseldiameter. hey functiorrby punping liquid frorn he bot|oln of
a lank to the liquid sufnce. The liquid returns o the bottom ot the
 

290Chemic€lngineeringrocesses

Figure 8-2. Gale anchor agitator. (SourcerHo and, F. A. and Bragg, R.

Fluid Flow or ChemicalE ngineers, nd ed., Edwad Arnotd, gg'.)

tank to fill the spacecreated I/hen resh liquid is punped to the

surface.F igurc 8-3 shows he flow pattern n a baffledheiical screw
tatrk.Baffles the anl(wall create urbulence nd, hus.
enhancehe eltrainmentof liquid io contactwith the tank wall. These
are not required if the helical screw s placed n an off-centered
positionbecausehe system ecomes elf-baffling. hese mpellers re
usetul n heat translerapplicationwhen t is essentialhat rhe fluid
closest o the wall rnovesat high velocities.
Turbulent npellcrs are classif'iecls axial or radial flow impellers.
Axial flow impellers cause he tank fluid to flow parailei to the
jmpeller's otation axis. Radial low impellerscause he tank fluid to
 

\_/

Figure 8-3. Flowpaftern n a bafited eiicalscrew yslem. Source:H oland,

E A. and Bragg, R. Fluid Ftow or ChenricalE ngjneers, rd ect.,eAwari

flow perpendicular o the irnpelier's totation axis. Small blade. hieh

s p e e r Jm p r l l e r . r e \ e d l n r n i \ l o w t u m e L L i r r mi . . , , , i t r l i q u i d s
f i g u r e . 4 n J 8 - 5 . e . l e c t e l ) . s h . r ud l e i \ , t h r b l r d e u r b i n ( , u d
manl1epiope]ler type agitzttols.Figure 8 6 shows flat blade turbines
used o produce radial flow patternspetpendicula. o the vesselwall.
In contasr, Figure 8-7 depicasma ne-type propellers with axial flow
 

292Chemical ngineeringrccesses

Figufe 8"4.Six tlat blade urbine. Source:H o and, F A. anclBrcgg,R. Ftuid

Flow or ChemicalEngineers, nd ed., Edwad Arnotd, 1995.)

Figure 8-5. Marine propeller (Source: Hoqand,F-A. and Bragg, R. Fluid Ftow
for ChemicalEngineers, rd ed., EdwardArnotd, 1gg'.)
 

Mixing fFluids 29 3

(--
( )'
\\ )
t)

r \\l// ,' \
-
 1^r
Figure 8-6. Radial flow patiern prodLrced y a flat blade iurbine. fsourcel
Halland, E A. and Bngg, R. Fluid Flow for ChernicalEngineers,2rd ed.,
Edwatu Anold. 1995.)

r-=\

II
. \l

?)l
4'
Figure 8-7, Axial llow pattern produced by a marine prcpetteL (Source:
Holand, E A- and Bragg, R. Fluid Flow ior Chemical Engineerc,2nd ed..
Edward Amoki, 1995.)
 

294 Chemical ngi.eeringProcesses

patterns.Both of these ypes of impellers are suitable to mix liquids

with dynamic viscositiesbetween 0 alld 50 Pas. Severalmetl.]ods
selectingan impelier available 3,4]. Figure 8 8 sl.rows ne method
based on liqlrid viscosity and tank volume, and Table 8-3 illustrates
another basedon liquicl viscosity alone.
Axial ilo$, devices such as l gh efiiciency (HE) impellers ancl
pitched blade tlrbines give better perfoinance than conventional
pitched blade turbines.They are best suited to provide the ess(]ntial
flow patterns n a tank that keep he solids suspended. igh-efiiciency
impellers cffectively convefi lnechanical energy to verticai flow

101 oo 101 102

E x l r u d e r ,o l lM i l l , e t c . 1
10" to"
A n c h o r ,He i c o lR b b n
10" l0z

x
104 1n ;

-
103 10u
-
P r o p e l l e\ e l P opelle

iY,'J:'.-tV\ { 42 0 p m } ,
J
102
Tu bin
-7
.l 10-
/<
rol loz io3 l0- 10"
V e s s e lV o ume V ) , 9 l l o n
Figure 8-8. lmpellerselecIlo.. (Saurce:penny, W. R. "cuide to touble free
mixets," Chem. E^9., 77(12), 171, 1970.)
 

lvliting f Fluids 295

taDte 6-J
Impellerselection guide
Range oI liquid, Viscosity,
Type of impeller CP kg/m - sec
t02 2 x tol r0r-2
l0u 104 lo 3 t0'
lou-3x lOa l0-r 3 x 10'
10'? 3 x loj loj-3xior
roj lo5   ioo l0l
3xior 3xld 3 3xl0'
i0"-2xi0" lor 2 x 101

S.urte: HalLa.l, F A., atu Chdprrr, t: 5: Liqlii lvlixingandPro.ossingI StifiedT.Dks.

Reinhold, .r' tut+, 1966

required to overcome fhe elTects of gravity on solids iD sus-

pension. They also plovide the same evels of solids suspensionat
rcduced capital and opelating costs.

FLOW PATTERJ\
In fluid .rgifation, the direction as well as the mngnitude of the
veloc;ty is c tical. The dilections of the veiocity veciors rhroughout
an agitatedvesselare.eferred o as the flov patteln.Since he velocity
disi bulion is constant n the viscousand turbulenl ranges, he flow
pattem in an agitated vessel s fixed.
During the mixing of fluids, it is essential to avoid solid body
rotation aDda latge cerrral su*ace voltex. When solid body roution
occlus, adequatemixing is not achieved because he fiuid rotates as
if it were a single ass as shown in Figure fl-ge. Centrifugal brce of
the fluid cnusesa cenfal surlace vortex fo be thrown outward by the
impeller. Entrainrrent of ai. rcsu1ls f the vortex reachesar irnpeller,
reslrlting jn rcduced mixing of the fluids. This 'ituation can be avefted
by insralling balfles or the vesselwalls, which impede rotaliotal flow
without interfering with radial or longitudinal flow. Effective baffling
is attainedby installjng vertical stdps peryendiculal o the wall of fhe
tank. Witi dre exception of large tanks, four baffles are adequate o
prevent swi.ling and vorLex ormation. For ptopellers, he width of the
baffle should be less ore eighteenth the diameter of the tanki fol
 

296ChemcalEngrneergProcesses

Figure 8-9.Agitalor low patterns. a)Axialor radial mpeilers ithoutbafiles

produce ortex. b) Ofi-centerocation educes he vortex. c) Axial mpeller
with baifles. d) Radial mpellerw ith baffles. Source;W alas,S . M., Chemical
ProcessEquiprnent-Selectionnd Design,Bulterworths eries n Chemical
Engineering, 1988.)

turbines, ess one-twelfth he tank diatneter.F igure 8-9 shows he

various low pattertrs f radial and axial impellers.
Reducingvortex lbrmation ll1ayalso be aohieved y placing an
impeller n an oif-centerposition.This createsan unbalancedlow
pattern, educingor eliminatilg the swirl and thereby ncreasing r
naximizing the power consumption. he exactposition is critical,
since oo far or too little off-centern olredirectionor the otherwill
causegreaterswirling, erraticvortexing,and dangerously igh shaft
stesses.C hangesn viscosityand ank sizealsoaffect he flow paftem
in suchvesseis.Off-cenlermountingol radial or axial flow impellers
is readily employedas a substituteor baffled ank ostallations.t is
coilmon practicewith propelie.s, .lt lesswith turbiie agitators.O ff-
certer nlounting can also be useful for a turbine operated n the
rnedirnn iscosity angeand with non-Newtonianluids wherebaffles
causestagnatioowith little swirl of the fluid. Off ceniern:lountir1gs
havebeenquiteeffectiven the suspetrsionf paperpulp-Figure8-10
illu$trates n angularotT-centerosition br ptopellers,w l'iich s
eflectivewithoui usingballles.
 

Fig re 8n0. Flow paltern ot prcpe erc in an eccenlricaig e and off-ceniered

 

296ChemicalE ngineering rocesses

Once swirling stops, he spccil'jc flow pattcrn in the tank depends

or the type of impeller. Paddlc agitalors and tlat-blade tLrrbines
pronote good radial los'in the planc of t he in1peller iih the flow
dividillg the wa11o fblm two separare irculiitionparterns Figure 8 6).
One portion tlows down along the wall and back ro thc center of the
impellcl' fron below, and the other flows up toward the surface and
back to the inrpeller fiom above. Propclle. agitators drjve the liqlrid
down to lhe bottom of tlte tank. whcrc the stream spreads adiall1, n
all dircctions owatd tlie wall, flows upwa along l.tewall, and retums
to ihc suction of the propellet lion the rop. The earlier Figure 3-7
shows he flow patte.n ol a propeller agitator.Propellersa.e etnployed
when beavy solid particles re suspcnded.
Table 8 4 shows flow patternszlndapplicationsol sone corn-
mercially available lnpellers- Generally, he axial 1'lowpatlern is mosl
suitable lor llow sensjtive operation such as blending. heat transfer,
alrd solids suspension while the radial llow patrern s ideiLl or
dispe$ion opcrations hat require highet shear evels thao areprovided
by axial flow impcllers.Myers el al. [5] hale described selection
of ilnpellcrs wi h applications. llftlrer dettils on sclcctionare provided
by Uhl and Gray f6l, cates et a1. 7l, Hicks et al. l8l and Dickey [9].

POWER REQUIREMENT FOR AGITATION

The flow mechanisnr n a ni,\ing tank is very conplex. Va.ious

techniques,ncludirg computarioil4l luid dynamics CFD) and compu-
tationirl luid miring (CFM) tools, are enployed togetherwith cxperi-
menlal date to eslablish ntpfovelnei]ts n mixing \.vith ncreesed ield.
Estimating tl'ie power consumptiotl for any agitator is essential ot
clesign.Cenerally, he desired equirements br-thesystem o be ixed
will categorize he type of i1npeller o be used. Laboratory tests on
the system can estabiish le ilppropriate speeclbf the maintenanco t'
isotropic urbulencen the nixing vessel. herefore. stimaring he
power consumplioll for a large-scaiemixing operation must inclLrde
scale-upconside.ations.These requirementsmay bc detemlined ftom
the Narier-Stokes quation l analyzecly a dimensiolalanalysis f
the mixing opeiadon.
The powerconsuned y an agitalor epends n ils dinensions nd
the physicalproperties l lhe fluids being mixed (i.e., density and
viscosity). Since there is a possillility of a gasliquid sur-facebeing
 

Table 8-4
lmpellersand flow patterns

 4 q j n F f u ' b 9 5 d i p l d i '

Dffi;I
l;da'e6o

d 4 ;@'brtrbkhe fd=3 o

'{'dN"q,hD4*&d

ffi
t"-l

ffi
rlijl

4
4,
S. rce: Mrers, K., .t .1., Asrd,t,n Jdr ,' ..esi lhe Chemical rlsineer. Oct. 10, 1996.
Rrpn.luced with pernisi.n' of tch.rtE
 

300ChemicalEngineegProcesses

distorted,as in the fomation of a vorlex, g.avity forces must also

be considered.
Consider stired tank vessel avitrga Newtonianiquid of density
p and viscosityp is agitaaed y an impellerof diameterDA, rotatitrg
at a rctational speedN. Irt the tank diarneterbe Dr, the impeller width
W, and the liquid depthH. The power P required or agitationof a
single-phase
iquidcanbe expr-essed
s:
P = f(p', pb,N', go,Di, Df, wc, Hf ' (s )
Therc are nine variablesand threeprimary dimensions,and herefore
by Buckinghan's heorem,Equation8,1 can be expressed y (8-3)
dimensionlessroups.E mployingdimensiotalanalysis;E quation8-l
in termsof the thlee basic dimensionsmassM, length L, atrd ime
T) yields: Power = ML2T 3.
Substitution t the dimensionsnto Equation8-1 gives,

ML2r-3 = f{O4L 3)",(Ml--r1r;t, r, (LT*"f, L., Lr, Lc, Lhl (8-2)

Equating he exponents f M, L, and T or both sidesof Equatioo

8-2 gives

M: 1=a+b (8-3)
L: 2= -3a -b+d+e+f+g+h (8 4)
T: -3 =-b c-2d (8-5)
From Equation7-3

(8-6)

SubstitutingEquation8-6 irto Equarior 8-4 gives

2=-3(l-b) b+d+e+f+g+h

5=2b+d+e+f+g+h (8-7)

From Equation8-5

b=3 c-2d, or
 

c=3-b-2d (8-8)

From Equation 9-7

e=5-2b -d f g-h (8-9)

Substitutirg a, c, and e on the right side.of Equatipn 8-1 yields

f = f(Ot o, pb, N3-b 2d, gd, D5 2b-d-r-c-h,D+, Wc, H n) {r-ro)

Rearrangingand grouping the exponents ields,

p = xlorjol -u-l't g-l'[ ,)'( * )-t'-" Il (8-1r)

I

-P ==-ll u )"f r ffq,)'r*ff "t'l c')

,ot "j tpNl6tri,^ tD^ %J o^ J
The dimensionlessarametersre:

The Power u.b.r. N = .lg:. gL - drmen.ronal

g r a v i t a t i o n xoln s l r n t

.fT. ,
:z.,rotDr sec-

I kg ' rn41 ' '""2

The Revnolds no-b".- No" = PMi

tl

.- N,D,
The Froude number. Nr, =
c
 

302Chemical ngineeringro@sses

Substitutinghesedimensionlessumbersnto Equation8 12 yields,

oo,{^..:
* +l(#)'(r+)'} (8- 3)

SIMILARITY
Equality i i l groups n Equation -13assuresimilarity etween
systensof dilferent sizes.The types of similarity are geometdc,
kineinatic, nddynamic. he ast hrce ermsof Equation ,13 represent
the conditions tor geometic simil(rrity, whrch require that all cor-
respondingdimensionstr systemsof djfferent sizes have the same
ratio to eachother.For geometficsimilarity, Equation8 13 becomes

Np = KNR: NFrd (8-14)

The constant K and lhe exponellls Ll and d must be determined for

the llarticular type ol agitator, its size aDd locatiol in lhe tank. the
dirrensionsof tlle tank. and the depft of thc liquid.
Kinc Ntit- li//rilddal,cxists bot$ccl1 wo srsteJlsul dilfereal sizcs
*be]] the_\ fe gcontctfically inrilararid lhen the rlitios ]1 elocities
between or]lsfondi[g ]toir1l n one systenr rc cquitl o those n the other.
D|nLonic sinlilLlitj, exists betweel two systems when, in addition
to being geometdcally and kinematically similar, the mtios of forces
between con€sponding points in one system are equal to fhose n the othel.
The value of NR" determineswhether he flow is lrr;ti:ll| r:r lrtrbLrlrnt
and is a significant group alfecting the power.consumption. The
Frordc number N",, representing he ralio ol-iI1ertial to gravitalional
lorccs, is only significant when the liquid in the tank swhls to such
an extent that a deep vortex is formed and the wave or surface effects
become impoflant. In an unbaffled vessel, a balance between the
inertial and gravitational forces detemtines the shape of any vortex.
The Po$c| nurnbe| N,, may be consideledas a,i|:i rr,il-ljri1]li 1r'
i l r ' .1 - : : , i : , . : : r r - ,
Experimeutal ata on powet consumption re generallyplotted as
a l'u[ction of the Power numberNp versusReynoldsnumberNR., hat
is by rearangirgEquation -14.
 

o=$4=r<u;3 (8- s)

For a fully baffled tank, b = {l and O = l.ir,.A generalized lot of

Equation9-15 s shown n Figure8 11.The power corelation ndicates
three rangesof liquid motion: laninar (viscous), ransition,and tua-
bulent.The lamiiar or viscous angeoccursbelow a Reynoldsnumber
of 10. The expected esult of the Powernumber being nversely
proportionalo the Reynolds umber s alsoconfirmedby experimental
data.The Froudeeffectsare unimportant nd a logarithmicplot of the
.ela6on betweenPower nunber and Reynoldsnunber gives a slope
of -1 in this range.FLdly urbulenLgilatiori occursabove Reynolds
number of 10,00i).The rangebetween hese imits can be descrj bed
as the tralsition flow because low patter[s change dependingon
the Reynolds number.Figure 8-12 shows lte Power number versus
Reynoldsnumberplot for the unbaffled ystem.B oth Figures8-11and
8 12 are identical to point C where Np. = 300. As the Reynolds

rurl,tent I

AeM -
Figure 8-1i. Powercurve or the standardtank confguration. Source.'
Holland,F A. and Bragg, F- Fluid Flow for Chemical ngineers, nd ed,
EdwardAmold, 1995.)
 

304Chemical ngineeringrocesses

l._vi,.ou. rurbur€ni-.l
I rong. 'onq. I

t o2

II
+ 1 Or

too o o2 05 1o'l
6e" *
Figure8-12.Power urve or the standardank conflgurationithout affles.
(Source: Holland, F A. and Bragg, R. Fluid Flow for Chemical Engineers,
2nd ed., Edward Amold, 1995.)

number or mixing increases eyondpoint C in the unbaffled ystem,

vortexing ncreases nd the Powernumber alls sharply.F ier|r 8,13
 hon' th. |.,,r.'r) lur:tbei L liirrtio11 )i tiic Re\jnolCs1LrrlbeI-or
shexr'tiliiuli|r: llLriii,,.The ful1 ine gives the Newtonian Power number
obtained l10l turbine system,while
the dashed ine shows Metzner and Otto's L11l plot for shear hinning
liquids. Figure 8 13 illustrates that at no point is the shear thinning
power curve higher than the Newtonian powgr curve. Therefote, the
use of the Newtonian power curye to determine he power will give
a colseNative value when used or shear hinning liquids. Figule 8-]rt
showsPower nLlmber orrelatiorls br various ],pesof agitators. n the
fully turbulent low, the curve becomeshorizontai ancl he Power
numberN" js indepcldsntof the Reynolcls u]nber.
Rushtonet al. uOl performed extensive neasLlrementsf the power
requirements for geometrically similar systems and found that for
baffled tanks, the Froude number plays no part in deternining the
power reqliremelts, as vortices do not form in such systems. For
unbaffled systems, he Froude numberplays a part above NReof about
 

l ixing fFluids30 5

- Linr ot Rurhto, cortidr dd Ey.r.tt

----- Linc of lldu|llr d|d Otlo

.  = - -

t
d14

BeN-.....-

Figure 8-13.Deviationrom Newlonian owercurve or shear hinning iquids.

(Source:Holland,F A. and Brcgg, R. Fluid Flow or ChemicalEngineers,
2nd ed., EdwardAhold, 1995.)

300. They reportedNp = 6.3 in the lurbulent range 01 10,000.After

extensive uNe fitting of their experinentaldata, a single curve was
obtained or any particularunbaffledconliguration. f @ s plotted as
a futrctionof NRewhereO is definedas

(D=N- lbr NRe< 300

P
for N.. > 300 (8-16)
,rr[1" t.strn. /uJ

where a and b are constants or any configuration (Figure

Dickey alrdFenic F2l observedhat the impeller characteiistics ave
significatrt nfluenceon the Power number cofielation.
 

306Chemic€l ngineeinq roesses

d=Np it F.o.NFe33oO
,Np
o'ii;#Giniah rrR=o Fa'roo

ReynordsN mb.r (NRe)

1 .P r o p e l l e F ,= D i R=0 7. CuNed lsde isc urblne,

aj2.1, b- 18, B=3 R= 4 ; =0 . 1 1 " B - 6
2 ,P r o p e l l e r s , = D i R=4 8 AtrN-head isc urbine,
J=0,1 t B=3 R:4iJ:o1T B=6
3 .P r o p e l e r s , = 2 0 R=0 9. Pllched ladelrbine
a=1.7i b=18; B=3 R=4; =0.1r; B:8
4 .P r o p e l l e B=, 2 D ; R=4
J=0.17t B=3 R=4 J:0.1r' B:2
5. Flatblade sclurbine,
R;0;a:110i b:40.00 R=4i J-0.17 8=6
6 Flatblade iscrurbine, 12.Diffuserng shroudedu rbinos
R:4'J=017i B=6 slEtor nShaving 0 blades,
B=6.
Figure8-14.Powe.number ersusReynolds umber o elationor common
impellers. Sour.ceiR uchtonet al.,Chem. Eng. Ptog., 46, No. 8, 495, 1950.
Repinted with permission of AlChE. Copyright @ 1950. A tights resetved.)

Two chafacteristics f Figure 8-14 are:

1. At low NRe< 1.0, Np * l/Nr", independentof the presence

of baffles.
2. At high Reynolds, at which most mixing operationsarc per-
formed, the Power Dumber s constant, hat is, Np - P/pN3D5
= constant,

Rushton et al. uol investigated the effect of varying the tanL

geometdcal ratios and the corrolatiol of the Power number with
Reynoldsnumber.At high Reynoldsnurnber, t was inferred that,
 

Mixing fFluids 307

. iD s relatively unchanged henDr/DA is varied rom 2 to 7 for

turbine- al1dpropel]er-agitaLedaflled systems.
. O is unchangedwhen tDa is varied lom 2 to 4.
. O is unalteredwhenE/DA s charged iom 0.7 to 1.6.
. O changes o O * (J/DA)0'3when J/Dr is changed rom 0.05
to 0.17.
. iD depends n the numbe. of blades n the turbine mpeller as:
6-18/6)08ttU.6un,1 O-(Bi6)0i if B > 6 (where = number
of impel l bla.lc.r.
. If off centeredand inclined propellerswithout baffles or side-
entedrg propellerswithout bafflesare used,no vortex orms and
the O versusNo" curve for the coffespordingbaflled tank can
be used o estimate he power requircmetrls.

Theseconclusionsare speculative rd experimental urves must

be generated f more than one geometrical atio differs from the
standard alue.
The power consurned y an agitakrrat vadous otational peeds nd
physical roperliese.g., 'i$.orlr: dlld ,jeitil ) for a system's eo-
metry can be determined iom the Power number correlati on.The
procedurenvolves:

. CaicLr]ntin:l re rle:rolds unrher ,a. or rnixing-

. Rcading hi Pore. nunbcf :\lp1io 1hc xpplrpilat.ccurli. and
ciLlculnljng hc po\ c P :li\.n h

p=Nr,.pN.iDi (8-r7)
cNR")/b]
or p=opN3D5\.N[1." (8-18)

Equaliors 8-17 artl 8-18 al.e he power consuned by the agitator.

Additional power is required o overcomeelectricalaDdmechanical
losses.A contingency f notor loadingas a percentagee.g.,85olc)s
addedwhen selecting he motor Equation8 17 can alsobe rearranged
to detemrine mpeller diameterwhen t is desired o load an agitator
impellei to a given power evel. The torquedelivered o the fluid by
an impeller fuom ts speedand power drarl, s deler mined y:

D \r ^Nr2rr5
(8-19)
2rN 2n
 

308Chemlcal nsineenns@cesses

The primary pumping capacityof an impeller is determinedby the

impeller diameter, he Pumpinguumber,and he rotatioral speed.The
Prmping nLrrnber o is dcfired by [13]

n, Q"
"Q NDi (8-20)

The lumping number s used o determine he pumping rate Qp of

rn impeller.

where Qe = eflective purnpirg capacity, nr/sec

N = impeller rotational jpeed,sec I
De = impeller diamcter.nl

Hicks et al. [8] developed a correlation involvin g the Pumping

number and impeller Reynolds number for several atios of impeller
diemeter to tank diameter (Do/Dr) for pitched-blade urbines. From
this correlation,Q" can be detemined, and hus the bulk fluid velocity
from the cross-sectional rea of the tank. The procedure or deter-
mining the pammeters s iterative because he impeller diameter DA
and rotational speedN appear n bot h dimensionles s alameters i.e.,
N^" and Nq).
Figure8- 15 shows loTs l'Pumping urnbe|N , andPowetnuulber
Np as lunctions of Reynol.l\ numbcr r{*" for a pitched-blade urbine
and high-efficiency impeller. Hicks et al. [8] further introduced the
scaleof agitation,So, as a measure or determiningagitation ntensity
in pitahed-blade mpellers. The scale of agitation s basedon a char-
acteristicvelocity, n defined by

-r= Q" (8-21)

wherc v = charactedsticvelocity, m/sec

Av = cross-sectional rea of the tank, m2

The charactedsticvelocity can be expressed s:

"-''...,^i+] (8-22)
 

Figure8-15.Power umber nd Pumping urnber s tunctions f Reynolds

number or a pitched-bladeurbine and high-efficiencympellet. Soutce:
Bakker,A-, and Gates L. E., "ProperlyChooseMechanicalA gitatorc or
Viscous iquids,"Chem.Eng. Prog.,pp. 25 34, 1995.)

In geometrically imilarsystems,h e characteristicelocitybecomes

v - N^ND^ (8-23)

Thus, during geometricscale-up, he characteristic elocity is held

constart by holditrg NaNDA constant.Qp is determined rom the
Pumping number and Figure 8-15. SA s a linear function of the
characteristic elocity and s determined y

S^=128''' (8 24)

Accordingly,a value of Sa equal o I represents low level and

l0 showsa high level of agitation ntensity. he 1 10 rangeof
agiaationntedsity accounts or about 9570 or more of all turbine,
agitationapplications, nabling t to be suited or a wide range of
process perations.Gateset al. [l4] gaveguidelines n how to relate
So to specific roues\rpplicaLions
 

310chemical ngineeringrocesses

NIIXING Tih{E CORRELATION

A distinctionwas madeearlierbetweenmixing ard agitation. he

third term in liquid mixing is blending.This lefers to the jntermingling
of miscible fluids lo produce some degrceof uniformity A criteion
fol good mixing may only be visual. For example, t could be a
particular olor liom two different olor liquids,or the color charge
of an acid-base ndicator tiat determines he Iiquid blerding times.
Charactedzation f blendirg i. agitatedvessels s usually in terms of
mixing time. This is the timc requifed o achieve some specified
degree of unilormity at'ter ntroduction of a tracer' Table 8-5 gives
various techniques br determining blending tinie.
Each echnicluemeasLlres differelt degreeof unjformity, therelbre'
the time required for blending may dilfer from one method to the
other. The correlatioD of blending tlne as delived ftom dimensional
analysis s applicable o all techniques.U hl and Gray [6] summarized
mally of the experime.rtsand correlations on blending and mixing
times.For a given ank and mpelleror geometrically imilar systems,
the mixing time js predicted o vary ilvelsely with the stirrer speed,
as confiuled n various tudies 15,16,17,181.igurc8-16shows lots
of mixing time (tN) against th|r Reynolds number N"" for several
systems. s an example, tu.binc with DA/Dr - l/3 and Dt/H 1,
the value of Nt is 36, for N*. > 103,comparedwith a predictedvalue
of 38.

Table 8-5
Methods or determining time
Technique Tracer Blend time reached when
Grab sample An,v malerinl that can Samplesdo not vary more than
1X9. from frnalconcenfiatioD.

Dye inlroduction Dyed iuid. Uniform color is atiained.

Conductivitycell Concentradorof srlt Measurcd onductivity hdt reprc

sents oncertrations within
1XE of frral concentmlion.

Acid-basc ndicator Acid G,r base). Neuiralization s complele as

determinedby color change

'Dnncnsk\ol rnol,-sit.ftt
Sow?: Dickq, D.5., lluid |gitoti.rt l\t" Chem Eng,
 

E
=
=

, vF. ,Dlpl
fiEYNoLDSUrvlBE

Figuie 8-16, IVixing imes n agitaled essels.Dashed ifes represent

unbaffled anks; solid lines represents balfled auk. (Source: Mccabe,
W. L., et al., Unit Operalions f ChemicalE ngineering, th ed., Mccraw-Hi
Book Company,New Yotk, 19a5.)

Prochazka ndLandau 19] developed mixing ime corelation or

a single Ruslrton urbine mpeller n a baffled tank in the standard
configuration or N^. > 104:

x, ,'.,ri,:i .1'',,,,i:..l
'1 .. {8.-tj)
\D.j 1

For a propeller , he mixing t ime is given by:

. . . t0 i
NL=.r+slLl l"*[L'l (8-26)
\D",1 1X.J

For a pitched-bladeurbine, he nixing time is:

xr=-t,-'il|l
iij -l i
r,,.i rq 17\
i \ I
 

312Chemical ngineeing rocesses

where 4 = initial value of the degreeof inhomogeneity , hic h vades

between 1 and 3: a valLre f 2 is rec ommended
X" = final integral mean value of the local degreeof inhomo-
geneity and is defined as:

cttr c^
 _f c"-c' l (8-28)
"- L l
where C(t) = instantaneous oncentration
Ct = initial concenfation
C^ = final concentation

X" = 0.05 or most configurations.Moo Younget al. [20] corelated

their mixing results from

Nt =KNi" (8-29)

where K = 36 and a = 0 for turbines n baffled tanks or 1,000< NRe

< l0'. Sanoand Usui 2ll developed n expre\sionor mi\ing limes
bv tracer niection for turbinesas:

.-t.\0, . {.51
Nr=:.ell ifLl nJrT (8-30)
{Dr / \Dri

where np is the number of blades.Gray [22] found the mixing times

of helical ribbon impellers o be of the form

Nt=30 (8-31)

where N is tlle rotational speedof the helical dbbon impeller, and t is

the batch mixing time. Fasanoet al. [23] expressed he blend time for
turbulence conditions in a standardbaffled tank (i.e., NR" > 10,000) as:

4.065 (8-32)

"..[3;)'(?l'
 

Mxingof Fluids 313

where a and b are the t11ixillg ate constants.Table 8 6 shows values

of a and b for different il]rpetler types. The constantsare lor suface
addition, however,blend times for similar fluids are relatively insensi-
tive to addition location. Equation 8-32 is limited to the following:

. Newtonian fluids of nearly the sameviscosity and density as the

bulk fluid.
. Additions of 5oloor less, of the fluid volume.
. Additions made to a vessel already undergoing agitaaion blend
times of sfatified fluids can be considerably onger).

The estimatedblend time for 9570 uliformity (tb.95ez)sing a standard

double light helical ribbon impeller with (PilDA = l, W/DA = 0 1, and
DA/Dr = 0.96) is given bY

15
For N,." ( 100: tb,951i, (8-33)
i:

For anchor mpelleru of standardgeometry (w/DA = 0.1, De/Dr =

0.98, and Mr = 1.0), the estimated b fbr 100 < Nq" < 10,000 s
given by

tb,es% exp(12.9Nil;135) (8-34)

\rhere DA = impeller diametel m

Dr = lank diameter,m
H = impeller oI helix height, m
N = impeller rolational speed,sec I

Table 8-6
Mixing ate constants or full y turbulent
flow regimes NF.> 10,000)
lmpeller ype
Six-biadeddlsc 1.06 2.1'1
I.[J 2.31)
Four-bladed45" pitched 0.641 2.19
Three-bladedhigh eff ciencl 4.2'12 1.61
sautcc: FosolL et ol. []31, ,1Lfiane.l t peltet Geaheh uoastsLiquid )sitdtion, Chan.Eh&,

142 6), Atgtst 199'1.

 

314Chemical ngneering rocesses

P' = pitch of a helical ibbon impeller, m

W = blade width, m

Bakkel and Gates 23] compared oth Equations8-33 and 8-34 and
inferl'ed that at a Reynolds number of 100, it will take an anchor
impeller more than 13 times as long to acbieve95o/o niformity as a
helical ribbon impeller operating at the samespeed.These mpellers
require cooling to remove the excassheat due to their high power
input. The mixing time that was considered elates o tanks operatilg
in closedsystems e.g.,batch reactors). n a continuous eed taDk, he
mixing time is generally shorter han in a closed tank.

Example 8-1
Calculate he power for agitation of a liquid of density 950 kg/m3
and viscosity 250 cP given the following configuration: number of
blades B = 6, agitator diameter 0.61 m, and speed at 90 rym. Othef
geometricalatios tue shown n Figure 7-1. A disc-mountedlat turbine
is used,

Solution

The Reynolds umber or mixing s

^, - pNDi

N = the numbel of revolutions per sec s (90/60) = 1.5 rev/sec.

(e oxr.5)(o t
. 6 1, ) l k s 1 m-l
I
250x 10
1--'-' Kgl
t-*- -."* |

Nt" = 2,121

Using curve in Figure8-14, he Powernumber s N p = 5 0 . T h e

theoretical ower or urixing s
 

MixingfFluids31 5

f r-^ -^,,1 I
p = N p p N r D i 5 . 0 9 5 0 | 5 x 0 . 65 " E . r F ' i . m 5 }
{
Lm' sec' J
= 1,353.99

= 1.35 W (1.82 p)

(NB: kW- 1.341 p)

Example8-2
Calculate he theoreticalpower for a six-blade, lat-blade turbine ,'
without balfles, but with the standard ank c onJiguration hown in
Table 8-2. Use the samedata as in Example8-1.

Solution

Since the tank is unbaffled, he Froudenumber and ts

effect s calculatedrom

, N2Do (1 )(061) tt
lrev m I
g 9.81 lsec2 m I
t ;Pl
-- 0.

Nn" =2,121

The constants and b for an unbaffled ant R = 0, ar.e = 1.0 and

b = 40. Using curve 5 in Figure 8,14, the Powernumber s Np = 2.0

a - logloNRe
N'P- , w b e r em -
b
 

316Chemi@l ngineeirqProcesses

1.0 - lo9to2,1zl = -
0.0582
40

Nfl,= 0.14{ 05821.1212

Therefore, ower P = N" pN3D5oNfl,

- 2.0 950r .5J 0.u,' ,.,212 t{.r')
]m"
e . sec-
\ )
= 601 24 w

= 0.6t kw (0.81 p)
Studies on various turbine agitatols have shown that geometric
rutios that vary from the standarddesign can causedifferent effects
on the Power number N" in dle turbulert regions [24]

. Fof the flat, six-bladeopen turbire, Np - (wiDA)ru

. For the flat, six-bladeopen tulbine, vnr-yingDA/Dr from 0.25 to
0.5 has no eflect on Np.
. When two six bladeopen ulbinesare nstalledol1 he sameshaft
and the spacing between the two inpellers (vedical distance
between he bottom edgesof the two turbines) s at least equal
to DA, the total power is 1.9 times a single 1lat-blade mpellei
For two six-bladepitched-blade 45') turbines, he power s about
1.9 times that of a single pitched-bladempeller.
. A bafIled,ve{ical square ank or a horizontalcylindrical ank has
the samePower number as a vefiical cylindrical tank

SCALE-IJP OF MXING SYSTEMS

The calculationof power requirementsor agitation s only a part

of the mixer design. n any mixing prcblem, hereare severaldefined
objectives such as the time required for blending two immiscible
liquids, ratesof heat lansfer rom a heated acket per unit volume of
the agitated iquid, and mass ansfer rute from gas bubblesdispersed
by agitation n a liquid. For all theseobjectives, he process esults
are to achi eve he optimum mixing and unilbrm blending
 

Mixing f Fluids 317

The process results aIe related to variables charactedzing mixing,

namely geonetlic dimensions,stiller. speed rpn), agitator powel.,and
physical properties of the Jluid (e.g., density, viscosity, and surface
tension) dimensionsless ombinations e_g., he Reynotds
number, Floude number, alld Weber number, pNrDi/o). Sometimes,
empiricai relationships o relate process results ard
agrtationparameters.O ften, however, such r.elationships re non-
existent- Labolatory scales of equifment using the same matedals as
on a large scale are then experimcnted $ith, and the desired process
result is obtained. The laboratory system can then be scaled-up to
predict the conditions o11 he ]argel systen.
For some scalc- up ptoblems, generalized conelalions as shown in
Figures ll, 8-i2, 8 13, and 8-14 areavailableor scale-up. owever,
there is oluch diversity in d1epfocess o be scaled-up,and as such no
single method cal1succcsslully handle all types ol scale,up problenrs.
Va ous methods ol scale-uphavc been proposed:all basedoi
geomctric sinilality between thc laboratory equipment and the ful1
scalepla0t. It is t1otalways possib]e o have the large and small vessels
geometrically sinilar, although it is pefhaps the simplest to attain. If
geoineftic similarity is achievable, dynamic and kinematic similarity
cannot often be predicted at the sanle ime. For these easons,experi-
ence andjudgmeit are relicd on with aspects o scale-up.
Thc main objectives n a fluid agitation processare [25]:
. Equivalent iquid motion (e.g., iquid blending where the liquid
motion or coresponding velocities are :rpproximately he same n
both cases).
. Equivalent suspensiotiof solids, where rhe levels of suspension
aie identical.
. Eqllivalenl rates of mass ransfcr, /here nass ffansfer s occur:rirg
between a liquid and a solid phase, between iquid liquid phases,
or between gas and liquid phascs, and the rates are identical.

A scale ratio R is used or scale up fiom the st4nd.trdconfiguation

a 5 s h o \ d n n l a b l e 8 - 1 . h c p r o c e d u r e. :

l. Determire thc scale-LrPatio R, assumiug hat rhe oiginirl lesscl

is a standard ylinder with Dr, = H1. The volun-re r is
-h2
.g, TUir
V',4= " " r l (8-35)
4
 

318Chemical ngineeringrocesses

The ratio of the volumes is then

v, ro1, + D+'
(8-36)
vt nD l4 Di,

The scale-upmtio R is

*= P"=flbll
Drr Vtr
(8-37)
\. ./

Using the value of R, calculate he new dimensiolts or all

geometric sizes.That is,

Do, = RDa1, J, = RJ,, $y', = ft\i,r,

Ez = REr, Lz = RLr, Hz = RHr

or

o - D o : - D r :r - w : - H , J . z- E :
"-Do, wr Hr Jr Er

2. The selectedscale-up ule is applied to determine he agitator

speedN2 from the equation:

.',=.-,(+l=.-,(+)" (8-3 )

. where n = 1 lbr equal liquid motion

. n = 3/4 for equal suspension f solids
. n = 2/3 for equal rates of masshansler (correspondingequivalent
power per unit volume, which results n equivalgnt ntefacial
area per unit volume)
The value of n is based on theoreticaland ernpirical considera-
tions ard depetrdson the type of agitation problem.
3. Knowing the value of N2, the required power can be determi ned
using Equation 8-17 and the generalizedPower number coraelation.
 

Mixing fFluids 31 9

Otherpossiblewaysof scalingup are constant ip speed r(7rNDA),

and a constartratio of circulatingcapacity o head Q/h.
S i n c eP * N ' D l a n dV - D i r h e n

p  -^
- N'D'^ (8-39)

For scale-up rom system I to system2 involving geometrically

similar tanks and same iquid properlies, hp followirig equatiorscan
be applied:

N1Da1 N2D42

For a constaDtip speed,

N" D^,
Nr De.z (8-40)

For a constant ratio of cjrculatitrg capacity to head, Q/h,

N r 3n 2 - Nr3 n2 (8-4r)

Example 8-3
Scraperbladesset to rotate at 35 rpm are used for a pilot platrt
additionof liquid ingredientsnto a body wash ploduct.What should
the speedof the bladesbe io a full-scaleplant, if rhe pilot aud the
full-scaleplants are geometrically imilar in design?Assumescale-
up is basedon constant ip speed, iameterof the pilot plant scraper
blades s 0.6 m, and diarneterof the full-scaleplant scmperblades
is8ft.

Solution

The diameterof the full scaleplant scraperblades= 8.0 x 0.3048

= 2.4384m (2.4 m).
Assumingconstant ip speed,

N, - D^,
N, D- (8-42)
 

320Chemical nsiieeinsPrccesses

where Nt = scraperspeedof pilot plant

N2 = scraperspeedof full-scale plant
Dat = diameter of pilot plant scraperblades
Dlz = diameter of full-scale pla[t scraperblades

Nr Der
N.- =
Do,

_ (3sxo.6)
(2.4)
= 8.75ym

Example8-4
During liquid makeupproduction,color pigmeflts i.e., solid having
identical particle size) are added o the product via a mixer. In the
pilot plant, this mixer runs at 6,700 rpm and has a diameterhead of
0.035m. Full-scaleproduction s geon.retricallyimilar and hasa mixer
headdiameterof 0.12 rn. Determine hc speedof the full-scaleproduc-
tion mixer head.What additional flfonnation s required or the motor
to drive this mixer? Assume hat power curves are available or this
mixer design, alld the scale-upbasis s constantpower/unit volume.

Solution

Fol constanrpower per unit volume, Equation 8-39 is applied:P/V

* N3D2a r Ni Dir = N;Dir. Therefore,

N, = N, Do,
' \ D o , l"'
J

whereN, = 6,700 ym
D.rr-0035m
D,qz 0.12m

r n ols r2/l
N,  =6.700 :r::: I
\0.12l
 

Mixing f Fluids 321

Nz = 2,946.7 pm

Nz = 2,950 pm

The power required or mixing is P = NppNrDl, wherc he Power

number Np) s a llnction of the Reynolds umber i.e., Np = f(Nr")]:

^r.rn2

P.

The plant must be prov idedwith the viscosityof the productand ts

d e n s i t l f t e r d d i l i o n f r h ep i g m e n t s .

Example 8-5
A turbineagitatorwilh six llat bladesand a disk hasa diameter f
0.203m. It is used n a tank with a diamete. f 0.61 m and height of
0.61 m. The width is W = 0.0405m. Four bafflesare used wirh a
width of 0.051 n. The turbine opentesar 2'75 ym in a liquid having
a densityof 909- g/m3and viscosityof 0.02 Pas.
Calculate he kW power of the turbine and kWrn3 of volume. Scale
up this system o a vesselwhosevolume s four times as large, or
the caseof equalmass ransfermte.

Solulion

The Reynolds umber or mixing s NR..The numberof revolutions

per sec,N = 275160 4.58 rev/sec.

,, pND':"
''- p

(90q)(4.58t(0.20312
kq rev , ..r.. I
0.02 lmr sec te I
= 8,s78.1

Nt" = 8,600
 

322Chemi€l Ensineeringro@sses

Using curve 6 in Figure 8-14, the Power number N" = 6.0. The
power of the turbine P = trtoPN3Dl:

f, ? I
P= (6.0,(e0qx4.581(0.2011
+.trf. .m5l
sec- lm- I

= 0.1806 w (0.24hp)

The original ank ,olume r - rtD+r/4. he ankdiameter rr = 0.61:

/.\rn 6r 13
4

Vr = 0 178m3

The power per unit volume is P/V

P 0.1806
v 0.178
=1.014kWm3

For the scale-upof the system, he scale-up atio R is

a D+,
nD3-"
;17=
";
I

R=Llr = Dt,
Drr
(8-37)
\vr /
where z = 4Vr

vz=4 0.178)
= 0.712 3
I
R = ( 4 ) l= 1 . s 8 7
 

Mixing fFluids 32 3

The dimensions f the argeragitatorand ank are:

Da2= RDol = 1.58? 0.203 0.322m

D.., = RDr, = 1.587 0.61= 0.968m

For equal mass ransfer rate n = 2/3

-2

n,=N,f]l'
  (8-r8l
\ R/

=4.5sr )j
\1.587/

= 3.37 rev/sec

The Reynolds numberN*" is

., - PN:Di:

(c09(3.37)(0.122
- fkp rev , ..r""'l
0.02 fm' sec t<g I

= 15,880.9

Nn = 16'000
Using curve 6 i n Figure 8-14,NP = 6.0- Power equiredby the
agitalor s P2 = NlpNtDi,

,'
,=(6.0xe0ex3.37f { +.
0.322)5 t e v 3,m-
.l
. I
Lm" sec- |

Pz = '722.5'7W

= (0.97
 

324chemical nsineeringroesses

T h ep o w e rp e ru n i t o l u m eP / V ( :

P2 _ O-'.723
v2 0;712

= 1.015 wm3

MIXING TIME SCALE-UP

Predicting}e rime br oblarniDgoncenrahon niformil) n r balch
mixing operatior can be basedon model theory.Using the appropriate
dimensionless roups of the pertinentvadables,a rclationshipcan be
developed etweenmixing times n the model and arge-scale ystems
for geometricallysimilar equipment.
Consider he mixing in both small and arge-scale ystems o occur
in the turbulent egion, designated s S and L respectively.U sing the
Norwood and Metzner's cofielation [26], the mixing time for both
systems s

rr(Nrolr.;'2/'rvopvz t"(N"oL)'?/3*vooK
(8,43)
Hg'.Dt3 Hll'.D't
Applying he scale-upule of equalm ixing imes,andrearTanglns
Equation -43,yields

2 3411
/N, )l = s*)tf o*ltf "* )tfg")t (8-44)
\NsJ \Drr/ [DorJ \Do"J HrJ

Assuminggeometricsimiladty,

Ht= Po" (8-4s)

Hs D,rs

D'"= D^.
(8-46)
Drs D,rs
 

Mxingof Fluids 325

SubstitutingEquatiors 8-45 and 8-46 nto Equation8-44 gives

23411
/rr \; /n \,/n \;/n \,/n \,
lll'1" =1"+l'l+l"l+l'l:* l' B_411
\Ns J \Do. _/ \Dor./ \ Do, ./ [ Do, J

.2 I

ful'=
\Ns /
fo-16
lDo"J
OI

[N,) - (oo,);
- (8-48)
l\l lD*
The exponent r for the mixing time scale-up ule is 0.25.
The power P of the agitator or both large and small systemss

DD
= (8-49)
pnt-i[ p$1"
where

r, _ 1u, 1r1 o, )5
(8-50)
r. lNrJ o*.J
SubstitutingEquation8-48 nto Equatiotr8-50 yields

e = l ^/ 'o^.
l l ' " 1 )o"rl^. )t
(8-51)
P. \Dos./ \DosJ

of

P, fl Do, lt"
(8-52)
P, Do,
 

326Chemical ngineeringrocesses

The power per unit volume P/v for both large and small-scale
syslems s:

=L.f Ir)' (8-s3)

Ps \ Drr-./

Substituting quations 46 and 8 52 into Equction8-53 gives

, \5.75 .3
(P/v)'- - lD* I ID^s
(P/v), lD*J lr*l
/ \2.15
-1D"" (8 s4)
\Dos./

Table 8-7 summarizescorrelations or the effec1sof equipment

size on the rotational speed needed or the same mixing time b y
va.ious nvestigators.
The relationships n Table 8-7 show that the rotational speed o
obtain the samebatch mixing time is changedby a small power of
the increase n linear equiprnent imensionas equipnlent ize s
changed.Equation 8 49 shows that greaterpower is required or a
large-scale ystem compared o a smaller system.Often, the power
required for a larger system may be prohibitive, thus modification
of the scale-up ule is needed e.g., . = 10ts or tL = 100ts) o
obtain a lower power requirement. l should be noted that relaxa-
tion of mixing time rcquirementsmay not pose other problems.For
example, f the mixing is accompanied y a chemical reaction n a
CSTR,assuminghat the NorwoodMetznef126lcorrelation or mixing
time (t) is sti1l applicable, t must be ensured hat the mixing time in
the arger scale tL = 10tsor tL = 100ts) s less han 57oof lhe average
residence ime of the liquids in the reactor,otherwise he conversion
 

s
b
o _5
ll^iog
i :1,
q) 29 :n
E
E x
E*-g:a 5
<a

E
 t
E €
o
{, _?:
z<
t nN i-a :r;-
AN N O
>< d@ .;2
lrl
Ji -;
o3
o>
"i-

0, 6 ;> rl
;]
o
o
gPEP
(E 6NNN
z
G
o
=
(lt
N E
E
'= i
E  J
: r'1 a
o n
F
0
'
€
tt o ".
z s
o
o EIE8
t z
ID
 

328Chemi€lEngineeringro@sses

The power per unit volume P/V for both large- and small-scale
systemss:

p- InDt"
-
Ps/Vs _ ;r]"
v;
=L.(P^l' (8-53)
Ps \ Drr- ,/

SubstitutingEquations 8-46 and 8-52 nto Equation8-53 gives

.)t t
(P/v), _ I oo, (oo. )'
p/vt -
tD*l lD* l
/ \2.75
I Dor l (8-s4)
I D"s /

Table 8-7 summaLizes orrelatiols for the effects of equipment

size on the rotational speed needed for the same mixirg time by
varioLls nvestigators.
The rclationships in Table 8-7 show that the rotational speed o
obtain the same batch mixing time is changedby a small powel of
the increase n lioeal equipn'ient imensionas equipment size is
changed.Equation 8-49 shows that grcater power is required for a
large-scalesystem cornpared o a smaller systen. Often, the power
required fol a larger system may be prohibitive, thus modifiaation
of the scale-up ule is needed e.g., tt = 10ts or tL = l00ts) to
obtain a lower power requiremert. It should be noted that relaxa-
tion of mixing time requirementsmay not pose other problems.For
exarnple, f the mixing is accompanied y a chemical reaction irr a
CSTR, assuming hat the Norwood-Met zner 26] correlation or mixing
time (t) is still applicable, t must be ensurcd hat the mixing time in
the larger scale tL - 10ts or tL = 100ts) s less han 57o of the a verage
residence ime of the liquids in the reactor,otherwise he conversion
 

MixlngfFluids329

scale-up chart only applies to systems of sinilar geometry. When

the geonetry is diiTerent, pecialand specilic analysesof the system

Samant aDd Ng l28l coDpared various scaleup rules for agitated

reactors,T hey suggssted lat a scale-up ule of power per unit volume
and conslaDt verage esidence ime (where he power pcl unit volurne
llnd average csidence ime cannot be incrcased) s the most suited n
many operatiorls. lowever, lhis still may not improve or prese e the
peformance of the systems.Therefbre,adequrteconsiderationmus
be given to a tradeolTbetweenperformance nd operating onsfaints.

REFERENCES

1. Levenspiel,O., Chenical ReactionEngineering,3rd ed., John.

Wiley & Sons,New York 1999.
2. Keyode Coker, A., Modeling oJ Chenical kineticsa cl rcdctor
design Gulf PnblishingConpatry Ney' Delhi 2001.
3. Penny,W. R., "Guide o tiouble reemixers,"Chem.E ng.,77 (12),
r'7 , t9'70.
4. Holland,F. A. andChapman, .5., Liquid MiJiilxgtndProcessiirg
in Stired Tunks,R einhold,New York, 1966.
5. Myers,K. J., Reeder,M., andBakker,A ., "Agitating or success,"
T'heChemicalE ngifleer, p. 3942, 1996.
6. Uhl, V W. and Gray, J. B., Eds. Miting Theory and Prdctice,
Volume 1, AcademicPress nc., New York, 1966.
7. Gates,L. E-, Henley,T. L., and Fenic,J. G., "How to select he
optimum urbine agttatot,"Chem.Eng., p. 110,Dec. 8, 1975.
8. Hicks, R. W., Morton, J. R., md Fenic, J. c., "How to design
agitators br desired rocess esponse," hen1. ng., p. lO2,
Aptll 26. 19'76.
9. Dickey, D. S., "Succeedat stirred tank reactordesign, Cfrem.
Eng.,pp. 22-31,Dec. 1991.
10. Rushton, . H., Costich,E. W., and Everett,H. J., "Power char-
acteristics f mixing npellers," Cltem Eng. Prog,46.395, 1950.
ll. Metzner,A. B. and Otto, R. E., "Agitation of non-Newtonian
fi'rj.ds," IChEJ,3,pp. 3-10, 1957.
 

330chemical ngineeringrocesses

12. Dickey, S. D. and Fenic,J. G, "Dimensional nalysis or fluid

agitation systens," Clrcm.Eng., Jan 5, 1976.
13. Fasano, . B., Bakker, ., andPenny,W . R., "Advanced mpeller
geometry oosts iquid agitation," hen.. n|,l0(8), pp. 110-116,
August 1994.
14. Gates, L. E., Hicks, R. W., and Dickey, D. S., "Application
guidelines for turbine agitators,"Chem Eng., 83, pp. 165 170'
Dec. 6, 1976.
15. Cutter, . A., AlChEI, 12, 35, 1966.
16. Moo-Young,M., Tichar,K., and Dullion,F. A L.' AIChEJ' 18,
1'18, 19'12.
17. van de Vusse, . G., "Mixing by agitation f miscible iquids,"
Chem.Eng. Scl.,4, 178, 1955.
18. Fox, E. A., and Gex, V E., "Singlephase lendingof liquids'''
ArchEJ, 2, 539, 1956.
19. Prochazka, . and Landau, ., Coll CzechChen] Cummun,26:
2 9 6 1 ,1 9 6 1 .
20. Moo-Young, M., Tichar, K., and Takahashi, . A L.' "The blend-
irg efTiciencies f some npelleis ;n batch mixing''' A/Cftt"r, 1
18(1),pp. 178 182, 1912.
21. Sano,Y andUsui, H., "Interclations mongmixing ime, power
numbeL nd dischargelow rate number n bafflcd mixing vessels,"
l. Chem.Eng.,Japan, 8:47-52,1985.
22. Gray, .8., "Batchmixing f viscous iquids," hen. Eng.Progr,
59,No. 3, p. 59, 1963.
23. Bakker,A. and Gatcs,L. E.. "Proper'ly hoosemechalrical gitators
for viscous iqri,tJs,"Chen. En1. Pro7., Dec. 1995.
24. Bates, . L., Fondy,P L., andCorpsteir. . R., E.C Proc.Des,
2,310, 1963.
25. Rautzen,R. R.. Corpstein.R . R, and Dickey, D.S., "How to
use scale-upmethods or lurbinc agitators,"Chen. Eng, Oct
25, 19'.16.
26. Norwood, K. W. and Metzner,A. B., "Flow patternsand nixing
rates n agilatedvessels,"AlClE"/, 6,432, 1960.
28. Samant,K. D. and Ng, Ka, M., "Developmento f liquid-phase
agitated eactolsrsynthesis. imulationand scaie-up."AIChII'
V o l . 4 5 ^N o . 1 1 , p . 2 3 7 12 3 9 1 ,N o v e m b e r9 9 9
 

[rl,ing i Ftuids 31

PROBLEMS

8.1 A tank 1.2m in dianreler.nd 2m high is nllcd to a depll of 1.2n with a latex
h a l i n g a v j s c o s i i yo f 1 0 P a n d a d e n s i t y o f 8 0 0 k g / n r r . T h e l a i k i s n o t b a f f l e d .A
l h r e e b l . d e 3 6 0 n n - d i a m e r e r p r o p e l l e r s i i s t a l l e d i n i n c t a n k 3 6 0n n f r o n t h e
bottoD. The piich is l:l ( ilch equals diameter). Tle notor ailablc dcvelops
8 k W . l s r l r e n o t o r a d e q u a t e o d r i v e l h i s a g i t a t o ra t a s p e e do f 8 0 0 r/nin?
8,2 W h a t i s r h e n a x i n u m s p e € d l w h i c h a g i l a t o ro f l h e t a n k d o s c r i b e d n Prob. 8.1 nay
b e d r i v e n f l l e l i q u i d s r e p l a c e d y o n eh a i n g a v i s c o s i t y f I P a n d h e s a n e d e n s i t y ?
8.3 what power is .equired or the nixing opc.ation ofProb. 81 ifa propeller 360 nn
i n d i a m e t e r h r r n i r g a t 1 5 r / s i s n s c d a n d i f f o u r b a l e s , e a c n 1 2 0m m w i d e , a r e

8 . , 1 T h e p r o l c l l c r i n P r o b . 8 . 1 i s r e p l a c c dw i t h a s i x b l a d e u r b i f l e 4 0 0 m m i n d i a m e t e r .
and the fluid to be agitated s a pseudoplastic oweFlaw liquid having an aPparedl
viscosily fl5 P shen tle velocity ladienl s 10 s- . Atwhat speed hould he urbhe
rotate to dcli rcr I kW/nr olliquid? For this 1luid, = 0.75 and p= 950 ke/mr.
8.5 A mixing rine of29 s was nre.sured for a 4.5_ft baflled lank with a 1.5_ll ix_blade
t u r b i i e a n d a l i q u i d d e p t h o 1 4 . 8 f t . T n e i u r b i n e s p e E dw a s 7 5 r / m i n , a n d t h e t ' l u i d
has a viscosityof I cP and a densily of 65 lb/f.. Esli'natc the mixing tines if.n
inpeller one quarter or one-halfthe ank dianeter sere used witl tne speeds hosen
ro give tle same power per unit volume.
8.6 A pilot-plaut re.clor, a scalemodel of a production unit. is of ch size that t g
c h a r g e d o l h e p i l o t - p l a n t r c a c t o r s e q u i v a l e n i o 5 0 0 g o f t h e s a m en d t e r i . l c h a r g e d
ro the production unii. lhc produclion unil is 2 m in dianeter and 2 n deep and
conrainsasix-bladetrrbineagilato.0.6mindiametcr'lheoPtinunr.gilatorspeed
i n r h e p i l o t - p l a n r r e a c t o r s l b u n d b y e x p e r i n e n t o b e 3 3 0 / n i n . ( a , )w h t a r e l h e
s i g n i l i c a n ld i s e n s i o n s o f l h e p i l o t p l a n l r e a c t o ? ( r ) l f t h e . e a c t i o n d a s s h a s t h e
p r o p e r t i c so f w a t e r d t 7 0 " C a n d t h e p o { e r i n D u t p e r u n i t v o l u n e i s t o b e c o n s t a l t ,
ar w .1 sleed should hc inrpeller urn in tle hree reactor? c) At $hdt speed hotld
i t r u r n i f r h e m i x i n g t i n e i s l o b e l e p t c o D s t a m t ?d l A t w h a l s p e e d h o n l d i t t u n i f
lhe Rcynolds ntrnber is held cotstant? f4 wlich b.sis would you recommcnd or
sclleup? why?
8 . 7 A s t i f e d t a n k r e a c t o r 3 f t i n d i l n e t e r w i l l a l 2 _ i . , f l a t _ b l a d eu r b i n e h . s b e e n u s e d
I o r a b a l c h r e a c l i o n n w h i c h t h e b l e n d i n e i n e o f a d d c d r e a g e n t ss c o n s i d e l e d i 1 i c a l .
S . t i s f a c t o r y c l t s w e r e o b t a i n e dw i t n a s t i t r c rs p e € do f 4 0 0 r / n i n . T h e s a m e e a c l i o n
is 1o be c arried oul in a tank 7 t in dianeler. for which a 3 I slandard urbi ne is
a r a i l a b l e . d . /W h a l c o r d i l i o n s i n o u l d g i v e t h e s . n e b l e n d i n g i m e i n t h e h r g e r t . n k ?
( b l w h a l w o u l d b e l h c p e r c e n t . g ec h a i g e i i t h e p o w c r p e r u n i t v o l u n e ? D e n s i l y
p = 6 0 b / f t r r v i s c o s i l y1 1 5 cl.
8.8. A six-bladedisk tL,rbire Da = 3 ff) is used to dispese hydroeen gas into d slur.y
reaclor containing netlyl linolcateai 90'C aid 60lbjtii.': gange wilh I percent
s u s p e n d e d a t a l y s tp a r t i c l e s D , 50ltr, p/ = 4 g/cnn). The reactor dianeter is 9 f t
a n d i h e d e l h i s l 2 f i . T h e g a s l o w r a t e s 1 8 0 0 s i d f t l / n i n , h e o i l v i s c o s i t ys l 6 c ?
. n d t h e d e n s i t y s 0 . 8 . 1 g / c n i l 9 0 ' c . T h e r e a c t o r s f u l l y b a f f l e d . a) w h a t l g i t a l o r
s p e c d s n e e d e d o g i v e 5 h p / 1 0 0 0g a l d u r i n g l h e r e . c l i o n ? f 4 W h a t i s t h e p o w e r
consudption wilh gas flow on and rvitl gas flow off?
 

332 Chemic€l ngineeins @esses

E . 9 . F o . t h e c o n d i t i o n s f P r o b . 8 . 8 ,e s t i n a t e h e p o w e r e q u i r e d o r c o n p l e t e s u s p e n s i o n
of rhe calalyst.
8 . 1 0 -A 1 5 p e r c e n t l u r . y o f 2 0 - t o - 2 8 - m e s hi m e s t o D er w a i e . i s r o b e k e p t i t r s u s p e n s i o n
in a 20-fFdiameter ank using a six-blade s twbine, (d) If Da./Dt=U3, an,J WDa= 0.2,
w h a t s i i n e r s p e e d s r c q u i r e d ?@, C a l c u l a t e h e s t i r r e rs p e e d n d p o w e r r e q u i . e n e n r
if Da/Dt = 0.4.
8 . 1 1 .A f o a c t i o n n w h i c h t h e p r o d u c t f o r m s r f y s t a l l i n e s o l i d h a s b e e n s t u d i e d n a
1 + t - d i a m e t e ri l o Lp l a l t r e a c t o re q i p p e dw i L h d 4 i n . s i x - b l a d e u r b i n ew i t h c u r v e d
b l a d e s .A i s t i f f e r s p e e d se s s h a 6 0 0 / m i n . a s o l i d d e p o s i r o m e t i f t e s o r m s o n t h i
b o i t o m , a n d t b i s c o n d i t i o n n u s t b e a v o i d e d t h e c o n m e r c i o l r e a c t o r .D e n s i t y o f
thc liquid is 70 b/fp; viscosity s 3 cP. (a) What is ihe power consunption n rhE
small reactor, and what is reconmended or an 8000-ga1 eactor if geomerrical
s i m i l a r i t y s p r e s e r v e d ?@, H o w m u c h n i g h t t h e r e q u i r e d o w e r b e o w e r e db y l s i n g
a differenl tyDe of agilator or different geomel.y?
8 . 1 2 .G a s e o u s L h y l e n eC : H a ) i s t o b e d i s p e m e dn w a t e r n a t u r b i n e - a g i r a r e de s s e l t
l l r c a n d a a b s o l u t ep r e s s u r e f 3 a t n r . T h e v e s s e l s 3 m i n d i a m e t e r w i t h a
maximum liqtrid delth of 3 nr. For a flow rate of 1000 r/h of eurylene, easuied
a t p r o c e s s o n d i t i o n s , p e c i l y d t h e d i a m e t e ra r d s p e e d f l h e t u r b i n e m p e l l e r , b ,
th€ power drawn by the agitdto., c) tho maximum voltrne ofwater allowable, nd
(d) rhe nte nt which water s vaporized y the elhylene eaving he liquid surface.
A s s u m e h a t n o n c o f t h e e t h y i e n e i s s o l v e sn t h e w a t e r a n d t h a i t h e e t h y l e n ee a v i n g
i s s a t u r a t e dw i t h w a r e r .
E . l 3 . F o r a f l o w r a t e o l 2 5 0 n r / h i n t h e v e s s c l e s f f i b e d n P r o b . 8 . 1 2 ,e s t i m a t e h e g a s
h o l d u p , m e a n b u b b l e d i a m e t e r , n d i n i e r f a c i a l r e ap e r u n l t v o i u m e .