>Chapter 2

Atomic structur

study the nuclear model of the atom

• learn about the relative charge and mass of the subatomic particles: the proton, neutron and electron
discover how the structure of any atom is defined by its proton number and mass number
learn how the isotopes of an element have the same proton number but different numbers of neutrons
learn how the electrons in an atom are organised in shells around the nucleus
see how the electronic configuration of the atoms of an element relates to its position in the

1
Periodic Table

) learn that the isotopes of an element all have the same chemical properties

) establish how to calculate the relative atomic mass of an element.

; !-,t : ·~.t~~-
'
. .
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GETTING STARTED
Your earlier science courses will have introduced
you to the world of the very small. In biology,
you may have used a microscope to look at some
microscope slides to see the detail of leaves and
small flies. In chemistry, we have seen that matter
is made up of very small particles such as atoms
or molecules.
We have also seen that the chemical formula for
water is H,O. From your previous studies, discuss
the following questions to begin your study of the
sub-microscopic world:
SEEING IS BELIEVING
Scientists have used new imaging techniques
to 'see' atoms. Over the past few decades, the
use of scanning tunnelling microscopes (STM)
- a form of 'atomic microscopy' - has opened
up the manipulation of the atomic world. In
1990, scientists at the Zurich laboratories of the
multinational technology company IBM were able
to create an 'atomic logo' using individual xenon
atoms. The ability to move and position individual
atoms has led to other images of interactions
between atoms. One such image is the atomic
'corral' of 48 iron atoms arranged in a ring, which
appeared in the international press (Figure 2.1).
Figure 2.1: An atomic 'corral' of 48 iron atoms in a ring
on a copper surface. The iron atoms are viewed using a
scanning tunnelling microscope (IBM, published 1993).
2 Atomic structure
What do you understand that the formula of
water means? What do the letters 'H' and 'O'
mean in the formula? What is the difference
between an atom and a molecule?
2 Are you aware of there being any particles that
are smaller than an atom?
New forms of atomic microscope have been
developed, including the atomic force microscope
and the quantum microscope. More recent
advances using both scanning tunnelling and
atomic force microscopes have led to the building
of specific individual molecules. One such molecule
was built to celebrate the 2012 Olympic Games in
London . The single molecule was created using
a combination of clever synthetic chemistry and
state-of-the-art imaging technique. As you would
expect, this molecule, called olympicene, was
made up of five rings and was about 100 000 times
thinner than a human hair. Further advances in
microscopy and image processing are anticipated
that will allow us to observe digitally and 'see' the
reactions between individual atoms.
Discussion questions
Which atoms do you think form the basic
structure of olympicene? Think of the element
that forms the basis of life.
2 Olympicene was made up of five hexagons
arranged with shared sides as in a honeycomb.
Predict the structure of the molecule. How
many atoms do you think make up the skeleton
structure of the five rings of olympicene?
29 )
> CAMBRIDGE !GCSE"" CHEMISTRY: CO URSEBO OK

'-....
2 .1 Atoms and elements 9:-''-t, l'r till' mass \)r the Eart h ·s c ru st. T\v
I • ll l' k,li
, ili1.·on and oxygen. w uc h ure bo und togl' lhl•r _ll'1111.
E~ subsmn...--e a.round us is made up of :itl,m:-. T hey mck$. mnk1.• up al most t hri:t•-qu urtcrs o r ti 111 ., ,1il.
are the UK.-n:dibfy small pMticles from which all the 1.-crtain d ement s art• ublc to form , the cnnipJll'. l.' I' 11'.1 () •1
material 'Qorld is built !Figure~~ ). that a re fo und in li ving th ings. For cx.nm pll.' ~.xi c111"P11
1

. 6 -., . 18"' 11
\Ve talk:ed of atoms. and the mC'lixules they can ti.,rm.
b..)U\' cL, ntams .:> ,., oxygen, , o ca rbon IO•;,: , l} l' ht
1111,1
, "" ni ' , " 1lYd ro~,
• trogen, :?•:.;, cu lei um a nd 2°1., of o ther
"'ben discussing the kinet.i.: panick the;._, ry C'f m:iue r - 1l'll1cn1s.
in Chap ter I . A substall\.--.: made up C'f just o ne type of
atom is called an l'lcment. Elements 1.,mnot be broken
d ov..'ll into anything sim pler by chemical reaction;;.
e lement: a substance that cannot be furth er
There a.re n°"'· I 18 known elements. but most of
divided into simpler substances by ch emical
the known mass of the unive rse consists of j ust two
methods; all the atoms of an element conta in the
elements, hydrogen (92% ) and helium (7".;,)_ \\ith all same num ber of protons
the o ther elements contributing only l~o to the total
I Figure 2.3 ). How a cenain number of these elements compound : a substance formed by the chem ical
concentrnted together to form the Eanb is of great com b ination o f two or more elements in
interest and significance. There are 94 elements fo und fixed p ro p ortions
naturnlly o n Earth but just eight account for more than

Decreas ing size

D ie
1cm
a
Gra in o f sa nd
1
100 cm

Figure 2 .2 : A sen se o f p e rsp ective o n th e size o f th e atom .

Bacteria
1
1000() cm
-
Molecu le of
hae mog lobin
1
100000() cm
0

At om
1
0

1000 000 000 cm

0

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•
•
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l!,..,.
f

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. . 3 · Th e' Horsehead nehu la show,r_,g huge clouds made up predominantly ol h ydrogen and helium,.
Figure 2 , , . .- . .... .- -- - - ·· •

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 2 Atomic structure

Structure of the atom KEYWORDS

Our modern understanding or the atom is based on
the atomic theory pul forward by the English chemist
John Dallon in 1807. Dalton's idea was that atoms were
the basic b~ilding _blocks o_r the elements. He thought
or them as md1v1s1ble particles that could join together
to make molecules. Although certain parts or the
theory have had lo change as a result or what we have
discovered since Dallon's time, his theory was one or
the great leaps or understanding in chemistry. II meant
that we could explain many natural processes. Whereas
Dalton only had theories for the existence or atoms
modern le~hniques (e.g. scanning tunnelling micros~opy)
can now directly reveal the presence or individual atoms.
e lectron : a subatomic particle with negligible
mass and a relative charge of -1 ; electrons are
present in all atoms, located in the shells (energy
levels) outside the nucleus
proton : a subatomic particle with a relative
atomic mass of 1 and a charge of+ 1 found in the
nucleus of all atoms
nucleus: (of an atom) the central region of an
atom that is made up of the protons and neutrons
of the atom; the electrons orbit around the
nucleus in different 'shells' or 'energy levels'

Research since Dalton's time has shown that atoms are neutron : an uncharged subatomic particle
made up or several subatomic particles. The electron was present in the nucleus of atoms - a neutron has a
discovered in 1897, followed soon after by the proton . mass of 1 relative to a proton
Crucial experiments then showed that an atom is mostly subatomic particles: very small particles -
space occupied by the negatively charged electrons, protons, neutrons and electrons - from which all
surrounding a very small, positively charged nucleus. The atoms are made
nucleus is al the centre or the atom and contains almost
all the mass or the atom. By 1932, when the neutron was
discovered, it was clear that atoms consisted or three
subatomic particles - protons, neutrons and electrons.
These particles are universal - all atoms are made from
them. The atom remains the smallest particle that shows
the chemical characteristics or a particular element.
Note that the term subatomic particles, while a useful
description, is not an essential term to learn.

ACTIVITY 2.1

Understanding atomic structure - a timelin e On your timeline, try to answer the

of discovery following questions:

The discovery of the nature of the subatomic What was remarkable about the structure
particles that make up all atoms took place in a of the atom suggested by the Geiger and
relatively short space of time around the beginning Marsden gold foil experiments carried out in
of the 20th century. Working in a group, investigate Rutherford's laboratory?
this key period in the history of science and
2 What is it about the nature of the neutron
produce a timeline showing how our understanding
that made it the last of the particles to
of the model of the atom developed . You should
be discovered?
include words and phrases such as:
Once your timeline is complete, work individually to
indivisible, subatomic particles, protons, neutrons,
answer this question:
electrons, 'plum pudding' model, nuclear model,
nucleus, orbiting electrons. 3 What do you think was the most important
discovery? Justify your answer.
Key scientists to research include J. J. Thompson,
Ha ntaro Nagaoka, Ernest Rutherford, James
Chadwick and Nie ls Bohr.

31 )
> CAMBRIDG E IGCSETMCHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK

CONTINUED

Peer anessment Points to cons1der when preparing you

. of t he other group's r own r11'r1eli"
and in your review
Once your group has completed a tlmeline and you Work: ·,e
have all answered the questions as a group and • Are all the major discoveries and
individually (question 3), exchange your group's experiments included?
timeline and answers with another group. Now
review the timeline and the answers prepared by • Has the work and discoveries of any .
the other gto\lp. When you have finfshed your other than those listed in the introdusci_entists
been included? ction
group rev)ew, share 90\Jrfeedback and comments
with each other,
Are the events in the correct time seq
uence?
Is the timelin_e prese~ted in a clear way
and can the 1nformat1on be quickly and
easily understood?

Characterist ics of protons,

neutro ns and electrons
1r·•-?¥-flt'
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·,:~o11~1f,~l1'/
___'J"~ It•_ I~ -
-
.. I .-
-::) jf
,
lltl -

--
r_~
-
-
Location
~n atom
proton 1 +1 in nucleus
The three subatomic particles are found in distinct
neutron 1 0 in nucleu;
regions of the atom. The protons and neutrons are
located in the small central nucleus. The electrons
are present in the space surrounding the nucleus. The electron
-1- outside
1840 -1
electrons are held within the atom by an electrostatic nucleus
(negligible)
force of attraction between them and the positive charge
of the protons in the nucleus. Table 2.1: Properties of the subatomic particles.
The key characteristics of these three subatomic
particles are listed in Table 2.1 . You will note that The simplest atom is the hydrogen atom, which has one
protons and neutrons have almost the same mass. Both proton in its nucleus. It is the only atom that has no
are given a relative mass of I. Electrons have virtually neutrons; it consists of one proton and one electron.
no mass (1/1840 or 0.00054 of the mass of a proton). The next simplest atom is that of helium. This has
An important feature of these different particles is two protons and two neutrons in the nucleus, and two
their electric charge. Protons and electrons have equal orbiting electrons (Figure 2.4).
and opposite charges ( + 1 and -1 , respectively), while
neutrons are electrically neutral (have no charge).
Although atoms contain electrically charged particles,
the atoms themselves are electrically neutral (they have
no overall charge). This must mean that in any atom
there are an equal number of protons and electrons. In
this way, the total positive charge on the nucleus (due to
the protons) is balanced by the total negative charge of
the orbiting electrons.

32 )

1111111

nucleus made
of protons e electron
and neutronse / This has one negative electrical charge (-1) .
It has hardly any mass.
The proton • has one positive charge
(+ 1) and a mass of 1 unit.
The neutron • has no electrical charge
and a mass of 1 unit.
A helium atom has these charged particles in it:
2 protons charge +2 ---i.__ these charges
2 electrons charge -2 ____,-- cancel out
We say the charges balance.
The atom has no overall electrical charge.
A helium atom has:
2 protons mass 2 units
2 neutrons mass 2 units
2 electrons with hardly any mass
So a helium atom has a total mass of:
2 + 2 = 4 units
Figure 2.4: Structure of a helium atom .
Lithium is the next simplest atom after helium.
A lithium atom has three protons, four neutrons and
three electrons. The subatomic arrangement of larger
atoms gets more complicated with the addition of more
protons and electrons. The number of neutrons required
to hold the nucleus together increases as the atomic
size increases. An atom of gold consists of 79 protons,
118 neutrons and 79 electrons.
Proton (atomic) number and
mass (nucleon) number
Only hydrogen atoms have one proton in their nuclei.
Only helium atoms have two protons. Indeed, only gold
atoms have 79 protons. The number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom determines which element it is. This
important number is known as the proton number or
atomic number of an atom . The proton number is given
the symbol Z.
We have seen that protons alone do not make up all
the mass of an atom. The neutrons in the nucleus also
contribute to the total mass. Because a proton and
a neutron have the same relative mass, the mass of a
particular atom depends on the total number of protons
and neutrons present. Protons and neutrons are known as
nucleons and the total number of protons and neutrons
2 Atom ic structure
present is called the mass number or nucleon number of an
atom. The mass number is given the symbol A.
KEYWORDS
proton number (or atomic number) (Z): the
number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
mass number (or nucleon number) (A) : the total
number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of
an atom
An important way of representing a particular atom
of an element is to combine the chemical symbol of
the element (discussed in more detail in Chapter 4)
with the proton and mass numbers of the atom . The
symbol Z representing the proton number and symbol A
representing the mass number of an atom can be written
alongside the symbol for that element, in the general
format ; X . Figure 2. 5 shows how a helium atom's
structure is written in this way.
··'-~L..
This is the mass number, This is the symbol
the number of protons for hel ium.
ciJ
This is the atomic
number (proton number).----e 2
Figure 2.5: Representing the structure of a helium atom
using the format ; X .
Using this format, an atom of lithium is represented as
; Li . The atoms of carbon, oxygen and uranium are
represented as •: C , ; 0 and ':," U.
When the proton and mass numbers are known for the
atoms of an element, we can work out the following:
• proton number (Z) = number of protons in
the nucleus
• mass number (A)= number of protons+ number
of neutrons
It is also possible to establish two other
important relationships:
• number of electrons= number of protons
= atomic number
• number of neutrons = mass number - atomic
number= A-Z
33 )
) CAMBRIDGE IGCSfTIII CHEMISTRY: COURStBOOK

,._., ln$idltthe--..: ;;~:,:.-~}

·--
'

"'8ss
s,lllbcil ....,.(1) nt.mber ... -~ :.• •-. .. ·""'""":1htn,
_. .:~
·-· .... ,. £A) Protons (2)
(l) '
hydrogen H 1 1 1 0
1
helium He 2 4 2 2
' lithium
2
Li 3 7 3 4
3
berylnum Be 4 9 4 5
4
carbon C 6 12 6 6
oxygen
6
0 8 16 8 8
, sodium 8
Na 11 23 11 12
calcium 11
Ca 20 40 20 20
gold Au
20
79 197 79 118
uran ium 79
u 92 238 92 146
_,,
92
T
~a~b:'.'.l~e2::.'.2::_:S~u'.:
ba~t~o'm"..'
.': ic.:..'c.:'.:o".'m'. .':p'.o~s,~llo~n.'
:'. . . ..a'.'.'.n.'.':d'..'.s'.."tru_:=ctu'..::re_:o::...::_
f at:::o_:_m_:_s_ _ _ _elements.
of dmerent _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _______

Table 2.2 shows the numbers of protons, neutrons and

electrons in particular atoms in various elements. Note
that the rules apply even to the smallest or largest atoms.
An atom of any element is defined by the number of the
different constituent subatomic particles present in that
atom. The most important number is the proton number
of that atom as it defines which element it belongs to. We
shall see later in this chapter, and in Chapter 4, that the
Periodic Table of the elements is arranged in order of
increasing proton number. For example, magnesium is
the twelfth atom in the table, so it must have 12 protons
and 12 electrons in its atoms.
Questions
What are the relative masses of a proton, neutron
and electron, given that a proton has a mass of I?
2 How many protons, neutrons and electrons arc
there in an atom of phosphorus, which has a proton
number of 15 and a mass number of 3 I?
3 Explain the terms atom and element, and include
a clear description of the relationship between the
two terms.
4 Explain why neutrons are important in making th e
nucleus of an atom stable. You need to consider the
charges on the different subatomic particles present.
2.2 Isotopes
Measuring the mass of atoms
A single atom cannot be weighed on a balance.
However, the mass of one atom can be compared to
that of another using a mass spri:lronll'ter. Since 11 eare
comparing the masses of atoms, the values we obtain
are relative values and we need to set a standard against
which other atoms are measured. The element carbon
bas been chosen as the standard. Carbon was chosen as
the standard because, as we shall see in Chapters 18-20.
there are far more compounds containing carbon than
any other element. The masses of all other atoms are
compared to the mass of a carbon atom. This gives a
series of values of the rclatirc alomic ma~~ (ti,) for the
different elements.
mass spectrometer: an instrument in which
atoms or molecules are ionised and then
accelerated; the ions are then separated
according to their mass
relative atom ic mass (A ): the average mass of
naturally occurring atom; of an element on a
scale where the carbon-12 atom has a mass of
exactly 12 units

34 )
 2 Atoc-.ic structure

" - . ~ ~ ~of
~z Pl= ~ a l =
Characteristics of isotopes
d:=.etts~aroom. a : : d ~) b::::d Tr.: <ffi= bm<cCJ ~ o f the SIID! demml is
an l&r.e c f § . : . = ~ TI:s is r-st !he =m of oreuum o the awms.. 1k atoms
w a:icu:.:.at«:S
tfz&::1 ltta:.oc3f:a-.e ll:e =
o( pr(l(OC;.1.zi::ddtttrocls. Tird::ffa= ~OO'loen~
=hcr5 fu?.-e !he= =-ha of protom and do.--uons.. Tb.:
i:!oropcs of m ~ 1 are &.fined by tbrir d.tff~ in
;i:acr:ered of~ ~ o f Ba= =b:nof cria,s =beL Tir isolopes are refared 10 using Ihar
r.:cetmCS i::i lt.e =le ef .wx::is of ( b e ~ clcnmt.. =s. c:mrer. fO£
W'i:lw toS ooa:a. t u = al tE:e 1Z:.!Ir ~= the NXl'pes of carbon are
cari>oo--12. c:arbon- 13 2:00 carbon--! 4. Tabk 2..4 gn>::S th.:
deum of I.be i;o{opo of ;;e>,eral ~ I S .
a b = = ~ 50I.OpeSof c.ubon.. ilie
,..hiclJ ; i l l ~ ~ = =red Element Isotopes
00.'\ IO b e ~ pmsdy. The HOlOpe cari>oa-12 is l5Cd deuterium
a lb ~ d . <me .uom of carbon-12 ism-en lire (99_9<n,) {0.01%)
tritium"'
mauoi 12 From thisv.eobuin I ~ =
irnit ta.m.a..J = / 2 x masaof ooe atom of carl>oo-12. :H :H :H
Hydrogen
Tzblt 2.3 ~someeumpies of l.be ~.dues obtained 1 proton 1 p<Oton 1 proton
otha ebnmIS.. It ,bu.r.,
that carbon-12 .noms are Oneutrons 1 neutron 2 neutrons
12 time, as h=,•y as hydrogen atoms, "'inch are the 1 aectron 1 ekctron 1 e lectron
lightffl awms of all Calcium atoms are 40 times as carbon-1 4:.,
carbon-1 2 carbon-13
II=)' as hydrogen atoms.
(98.9%) (1.1 %) (trace)

Relative Carbon
'; C ;c :c
Bement Atomic symbol atomic mass 6 p<otons 6 p<otons 6 p<0tons
(A) 6 neutrons 7 neutrons 8 neutrons
carbon C 12 6 electrons 6 e lectrons 6 electrons
hydrogen H 1 neon-20 neon-21 neon-22
oxygen 0 16 (90.5%) (0.3%) (9.2%)
calcium Ca 40 ~ Ne ~ Ne ~ Ne
Neon
copper Cu 64 10 protons 10 protons 10 protons
gold AJ.J 197 10 neutrons 11 neutrons 12 neutrons
Table 2.3: Relative atomic masses of some e lements. 10 electrons 10 electrons 10 e lectrons
chlorine-35
chlorine--37 (25%)
(75%)
KEYWORD
~ Cl ~ Cl
isotopes: atoms of the same e lement that have Chlorine
17 protons 17 protons
the same proton number but a d ifferent nucleon
number; they have different numbers of neutrons 18 neutrons 20 neutrons
in the ir nuclei. Some isotopes are rad ioactive 17 e lectrons 17 electrons
because their nuclei are unstable (rad ioisotopes).
WTritium and carbon- 14 atoms are radioactive
isotopes because their nuclei are unstable.
Table 2.4: Several e lements that exist as mixtures
of isotopes.

35 )
 )
•=--- -- - - ~
CAMBRIDGE IGCSE 1M CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK

2.3 Electronic In 1913, Niels Bohr. wo rking with Ernest l<u h

. how electron· t eri'''d
devcJon,•d a theory to exp Iam
r· . . ' ;) i,1,trt
arranged m atom~ This theol") helps to explain h,
configuration of elements colours in the flame test are produced ''· •.

Electrons in shells
The aurora borcalis i, a >P<'Ctacular di,pby ,ern in lhe
,ky in the far nonh (a similar phenomenon - the aurora
australis occurs in the southern hemisphere). It is
caused by radiation from the Sun moving the electrons in
csta,ce
horn
nud~
I
~n;~:;; :~d
01011011 third level

:-~E:
:.ern~1

80191ftll second level on!yro:i•·

elemcris
~r.: .:··

Oft level only roor-, • .,.:,

atoms of lhe gases of the atmosphere Tlrst

Similar colour effects can be created in a simpler way in

1111 electrons

the laboratory by heating the compounds of some metals

Figure 2.1 2: The different energy levels (shells) in an,,.,
in a Bunsen name (Figure 2. 10: see also the fl ame tests in
Chapter ~2). (not to scale). Electrons fill the shells starting fro mtn, . : .
closest to the nucleus. ,' '

A simplified version of Bohr's atomic theor~ of the

arrangement of electrons in an atom can be summariScc
as follows (see Figures 2. 12 and 2.13):
, electrons are in orbit around the central nucleu, of
the atom

_, I
I the electron orbits are ca lled electron shells (or
energy levels) and have different energies

r r r r shells that are further from the nucleus hal'e

Figure 2.1 0: Some fiame test colours for different elements
These flame test colours are also seen in fireworks. Differenl
metal compounds are used in various types of firework
to produce the spectacular effec1s we S<.'C at displays
(Figure 2.11 ). The colours produced are due to elcc1rons
higher energies
1he shells are filled starting with ihe one with 101,,,
energy (closest to the nucleus) 1
ihe first shell can hold only two electrons
the second and subsequent shells can hold eight
elec1rons to give a slable (noble gas) arrangem\'111

I
in the atom moving between two different electronshells. of eimrons.

.
KEYWORDS
- •->; •'M'/ ,/1,j ,1"
I r ' ' electron shells (energy levels): (of electrons) the
\I I allowed energies of electrons ,n atoms - electrons
fill these shells (or levels) starting with the one

i\i\~ ,,[:
closest to the nucleus
\ I;>
atomic theory: a model of the atom in which
electrons can only occupy certain shells (or 14
energy levels) moving outwards from the nucleus
of an atom
li'

~ \~ - ~ ~-
,v . '>•-~
tr•·~
'4 .. ,.
Fi9ure
~---
2.11: Spectacu Iar firewark displays are the product of electrons changing energy level ,n the different me
• • ,._, __ .
compoun ds present in the fireworks. .
~':{(

i.
•~-:~>., .
 2 /,t.omlc i trurtur•

First or lowest energy
level, Only two eloctron,
can rit in to this level
Second onc,gy level 20 clcmt nl s in lhc Periodic T:,blc f~c Jhc Ap~mfo:) art
Eight olectro n~ con shown In Tnblc 2.IJ.
1111n 10 1h15 lcvel

L
For a11y atom, the comhination of the arrang.."ll'lCnt
of clee1 ron, in shells wi th 1he num ben of proton.and
neutrons makL-s it possible to dmw a full iunatomic
representation. Figure 2.14 shows such a reprC11C11talJ{)1l for
an utom of carbon-12 (carbon atoms being po,i,ibly the
most versatile atoms in the univcl'5C: Chaptcr3 IS-2JJJ.

, · • · •~ - - -. . be!<'C°JOf'd
Third energy level. / • o.r.;<d<
Eight electrons can 1
,' . - -... ·•._ nudeuz
nucleus made of fit into th is level to
give a stable

~.~<)
protons and neutrons
arrang emen t.

Figure 2.13: Bohr's atom,c theory of th e arrangement of

nucleus
. ·, , ·-.~ --
.
electrons in an atom .
contains 6 protons',
and 6 neutrons • • ·- -t;>- - · ·
Funher evidence was fou nd that supported these ideas
of how the electrons are arranged in atoms. The number Figure 2.14: A visua lisation of the subatom ic structure
and arrangement of the electrons in the atoms of the first of carbon- 12.

Element Symbol Atomic ·- ... '

Fimshell Second shell Third shelr Fourth Bectronic.
hydrogen H
number(2)
1 ... shell configuration
1
hel ium
lith ium
He
Li
2
3 ..
.. ... 2
2,1

...... .......
beryllium Be 4 2,2
boron B 5 2,3
carbon C 6
..... 2,4

.... ......
nitrogen N 7 2,5
oxygen 0 8
....... 2,6

...... ........
fluorine F 9 2,7
neon
sodium
Ne
Na
10
11 ........
........ .
....
2,8
2,8,1

.... ........ .....

magnesi um Mg 12 2,8,2
alum iniu m
silicon
Al
Si
13
14
.... ........ .....
2,8,3
2,8,4
phosphorus p 15
........
••••••••
...... 2,8,5

.... .......
s
sulfur
chlorine Cl
16
17 ........
........ ........
2,8,6
2,8,7
argon
pota~s1um
Ar
K
18
19 .... ........
........ ........ ...
........ 2,8,8
2,8,8,1
calcium Ca 20 2,8,8,2
Table 2.6: £1er.11on,c conf,gurat,ons o f the first 20 elements.

39 )
>
:_~ ~C~A~M~B~R~ID~G~E~ IG~C=S~E=TM
~C~H
~ EM
~ IS~T:RY
~:~C~O~U~R:S=E=B-=-
O~O_K_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

When the a toms of elements other t han the b

G ro up and period number
F ig ure 2. 16 ind icates tha t the number o f o uter electro ns
in a n atom is the sa me as the groulJ number fo r the .
e le m ent in the Pe riodic Table. The num ber of occu pied
e lect ron she lls in an a to m tells you the 11criod (row)
number of the eleme nt in the table.
E le m ents in t he same gro up have the sa me number of
o ute r e lectrons. Fo r the elements in G roups I to VII, the
numbe r of the group is the number of electro ns in the
o ute r she ll. As you move across a period in the table. a
she ll o f e lect ron s is being fi lled .
The p roperties of a n element are closely determined by the
number o f o uter electrons in the atom. The elements in
G roup U have two outer electrons. l11e elements in Period 3
have three shells o f electrons. A magnesium atom has
two electrons in its third (outer) shell and is in G roup II.
A potassium ato m has one electron in its fo urth, outer shell,
a nd is in Gro up I and Period 4 (Figure 2.16). An argon
a tom has a n o uter shell conta ining eight electrons - a very
stable arrangement - a nd is in G roup VIU (the noble gases).
KEYWORDS
group number: the number of the vertical
column that an element is in on the
Period ic Table
period (row) number: the horizontal row of
the Periodic Table that an element is in
T he n o ble gas e lectronic co nfiguration
Noble gases (Group VIII ) are very unreactive gases. The
a toms o f the n o ble gas elements a ll have a very stable
electron a rrangem ent. That means their atoms exist
n at u rally as single atoms. N o ble gas atoms do not make
c he mica l bo nds with the atoms of o ther elements by
sh a ring or t ransferring their outer electrons. N oble gas
a toms a ll have a 'full ' outer shell of electrons (Table 2.8).
This m ean s that they usually have eight electrons in their
o uter shell.
comb ine togethe r to Iio rm mo Iecules, the ato no .le &a~
often achieve the same sta bl e a rra ngement ofIlls
el invOlve,i
characteristic of the n o ble gases. We will expl ectron 5
fo rmatio n of chemical bo nds in detai l in C ha ore the
Pler 3.
noble gases: elements in Group VIII - a gr
sta ble, very unreactive gases oup of
Questions
9 a What are the m a ximum numbers of electrons
that can fill the fi rst and the second shells
(energy levels) of an atom?
b What is the electron a r rangement of a calcium
a tom, which ha s a n ato mic number of 20?
How ma ny electrons a re there in the outer shells
c
of the atoms of the no ble gases argon and neon?
10 Carbon -12 and ca rbon - 14 are d ilTerent isotopes of
carbon. How ma ny electron ~ a re there in an atom of
each isotope?
11 The electronic configura ti, ,. · ,r the atoms of fo ur
elements a re:
A 2,4 B ! ~. 7
C 2,8,4 D
a Which two elements n1 , , . : G ro up IV of the
Periodic Table? Explai n yn ur a nswer.
b Which element is a noble gas? E xplain you r
a nswer.
c Which of these elements is in Group VII of the
Periodic Table? Exp la in you r a nswer.
d Which two elements arc in the third period (row)
of the Periodic Table? Explain you r a nswer.
e Wh at is the proton num ber of element C?
Expla in your a nswer.

Element Atomic number (Z) Period number . , a,•·•

Electronic e9
Hel ium 2 1
. timtHr;<l.f outer electrons•
2
Neon 10 2 2

- -
2,8
Argon 18 3 8
2,8,8
8
*The other noble gases 1n Group VIII (krypton, xenon, and radon) also have . h I
Table 2.8 : El ectron ic configurations o f no ble gas elements.
e,g t oute r e ectrons.

42 >
 2 Atomic structure

REFLECTION

Do you find diagrams help you to visualise the structure, movement and interaction of small objects such
as atoms and molecules?

If diagrams do not help, can you think of other ways that could? Discuss your ideas with a partner.

SUMMARY
~ -· _, .- -'3':tZ:-· . ~_,_
The elements are the basic building uni ts of the material world _ they ca nnot be chemically broken down into
anything simpler.

The atoms of the elements are made up of different combinations of the subatomic particles (protons.
neutrons and electrons) and an element is made up of atoms that all have the same number of protons.
These subatomic particles have particular electrical charges and relative masses.
In any atom, the protons and neutrons are bound together in a central nucleus, and the electrons ·orbit ' the
nucleus in different energy levels (or shells).
The number of protons in an atom is defined as the proton (atomic) number (Z) of the element and the tot al
number of protons and neutrons in as atom is defined as the mass (nucleon) number (A).
Isotopes of the same element can exist and differ only in the number of neutrons in their nuclei.
The chemical properties of all the isotopes of an element are the same as they have the same
> electron ic configuration.

The relative atomic mass of an element can be calculated from data on the abundance of the di ffere nt
> isotopes of that element.

The electrons in atoms are arranged in different shells (or energy levels) that are at different dist ances from
the nucleus of the atom.
Each shell (or energy level) has a maximum number of electrons that it can contain and the electrons fill the
shells closest to the nucleus first.
The electronic configuration of an element determines the group number and period number of th at element
in the Periodic Table.
,.

43 )
 > CAMBRIDGE !GCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK

PROJECT
1
Now it is your turn to try to represent
creating a 3D model. an atom
You will have seen many different representations 6y
of atoms in the media. Often images show Working in groups, construct a mode/ f .
e le ctrons orbiting like planets (Figure 2.17a). After o either-
completing this chapter, you will have learnt much • a planetary model of a simple ato ·
rn, or
more about atom'ic structure and understand that • a model showing the energy levels
e lectrons a re arrang e d arou~d a ce ntral nucleus in
that electrons can occupy in an ate
ene rgy le ve ls (Figure 2.17b).
representing the energy levels like ;i-
a a certain number of electrons on ea:~s With
Figure 2.15 for the basis of such a rnod!;? (se.
Having constructed your model, take a rno
assess how well it represents an atom Be rnent to
.
of your mo d el an d d 1scuss t h e limitations
· ofCfit1ca
th /
model with your group. e

How well does your model represent what yo h

learnt in this chapter? u ave

b
,::;:~~::;;;;--- styrofoam ball

laminated card

~----=Li::::i---------~:':::_:plastic straw
Figure 2.17 a: A plane tary model of an a to mic s howing
three e lectrons orb iting a nucle us. b: Mode l of the
e lectron energy levels in an ato m.

44 >
 2 Atom ic structu re

XAM -STYLE QUESTIONS

1 The st_ructure of an atom is defined by two numbers: the proton

(atomic) number and the mass (nucleon) number. What is the electronic
configuration of an atom with proton number 5 and mass number 11 ?
A 2,8, 1 B 3,2 C 2,3 D 1,8,2 [1)

2 ~~~mium is_ an element _that has se~eral isotopes. One of these isotopes
1s 48 Cd. Which particle m the table 1s another isotope of cadmium?

Protons Neutrons
A 48 64
B 48 112
C 112 48
D 64 48 (1)
COMMAND WORDS
3 Elements in the Periodic Table are arranged in order of their proton number.
a Define the meaning of the term proton number. (1 I define: give precise
b Argon, proton number 18, has a larger mass number than potassium, meaning
proton number 19. Explain why this is. (2) explain: set out
c Complete this table showing the properties of the three particles that purposes or
make up atoms. reasons/make
the relationships
Particle Charge Mass Position in atom between things
evident/provide
proton +
why and/or how and
neutron 1 in the nucleu s
support with relevant
electron - [SJ evidence

d An atom of which element has only two of the three particl~s liskd in state : express in
the table above? 11I clea r terms

e Argon and helium are both nob\ ),'.~~~- ln v,hat way >I' ,,v·.
electron structures similar? !i l
\~~•':ill: 10]

4 12
6
C and
.
14 C are two isotopes of the e)emer,t r,.,Hn<lll
6
a In what way does the structure of their nton1s diffor? (3)
b Carbon reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide. What is the
electronic configuration of an oxygen atom? (1 I
c Germanium (A, =32) is an element in the same group as carbon.
i How many electrons does germanium have in its outer electron shell? [1 ]
ii State which period of the Periodic Table germanium is found in. (1)
[Total: 6)

45 >
 CAMBRIDGE !GCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK

ONTINUED
The clement copper has 1110 main iso topes ~Cu and ;,;cu. 1101h isotopes
ha\c the ,amc d1cmi,al pn>palles.
a E:-.plain why the d1cmical properucs of these two isotopes arc th e same. 12]
b The l'erinJk Table gi1c, the approximate relative atomic mass of
coppe r as 64.
Naturn l copper consists of 70.0% ''Cu and 30.0'1/., ' 'Cu. Calculate the
accura te rdatiw atomic mass of copper. 121 . m given facts
[Total: 4] igures or inf ,
orrnati~

ELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST

·.,·,~t\:o:. '.'?t•f:({tijt/n:,·.••· . ,. . ;_ ,;~/:Itr·

~---·
Needs Almost Confident
I can more work there ~ to move
.~ on

understand that matter is made up of elements 2.1

and compounds
describe the structure of the atom as a central
2.1
nucleus surrounded by electrons
define the properties of protons, neutrons and
electrons, and the meaning of the proton (atomic
2.1
number) number and nucleon (mass) number of
an atom
define isotopes as atoms of an element with the
2.2
same proton number but different nucleon numbers
d escribe isotopes of an element as having the
same chemical properties as they have the same 2.2
electronic configuration
calcul ate the relative atomic mass of an element
fro m the relative masses and abundancies of 2.2
its isoto pes
describe the electronic configuration of an atom and
the significance of it in terms of the position of the 2.3
e lement in the Periodic Table
determine the electronic configuration of atoms
wi th proton numbers 1 to 20 2.3

6 >