Terms

1. homeostasis: equilibrium of all physiological events happening inside the body

2. CNS: central nervous system; the brain and the spinal cord (it is covered, encapsulated
by bones)
3. PNS: peripheral nervous system; cranial nerves, spinal nerves, enteric plexus in the
small intestine. (it is not covered, encapsulated by bones)
4. sensory neurons: detect and relay information to the CNS
5. interneurons: carry out the integrative function of the nervous system; analyze and
store information and making a decision regarding information
6. motor neurons: initiate a response by sending impulses to the different organs
7. Epineurium: outermost layer around the entire nerve
8. Perineurium: layer around each fascicle
9. Endoneurium: layer around each axon
10. fiber: a single axon within an endoneurium
11. fascicle: bundle of fibers within a perineurium
12. nerve: bundle of fascicles within an epineurium
13. neuroglial cells: supportive cells that protect and nourish neurons
14. hyperpolarization: membrane becomes more negative than the resting potential
15. depolarization: membrane becomes more positive than the resting potential
16. synapse: junction between a neuron and another cell
17. action potential: complete depolarization of the membrane potential
 Cranial Nerves

Cranial Nerve Sensory, Motor or Mixed Function

I - Olfactory Nerve Sensory Relays odorous stimuli to the

brain

II - Optic Nerve Sensory Relays visual stimuli to the

brain

III - Oculomotor Nerve Motor Controls movements of the

eyeballs and eyelids

IV - Trochlear Nerve Motor Controls movements of the

eyeballs and eyelids

V - Trigeminal Nerve Mixed Sensory: relaying touch, pain

and thermal sensation from
the face/forehead
Motor: involved in
mastication

VI - Abducens Nerve Motor Controls movements of the

eyeballs

VII - Facial Nerve Mixed Motor: innervates (supplies)

muscles of the face, salivary,
nasal and lacrimal glands
Sensory: involved in taste
buds

VIII - Vestibulocochlear Sensory Carries impulses for hearing

Nerve and equilibrium

IX - Glossopharyngeal Nerve Mixed Sensory: relay information

from taste buds,
proprioceptors of
swallowing muscles, as well
as baroreceptors and
chemoreceptors in blood
vessels
Motor: innervates
swallowing muscles and
parotid gland for salivation

X - Vagus Nerve Mixed Sensory: relays information

from baroreceptors and
chemoreceptors in aorta,
 proprioceptors in neck and
throat and sensory receptors in
visceral organ.
Motor: involved in autonomic
functions of heart and lungs,
glands of GI tract and smooth
muscles of respiratory and
digestive tracts.

XI - Accessory Nerve Motor Innervates muscles of throat

and soft palate for
swallowing as well as
muscles for head
movements.

XII - Hypoglossal Nerve Motor Innervates muscles of

tongue during speech and
swallowing.

Mnemonic Cranial Nerves: Oh Once One Takes The Anatomy Final, Very Good Vacations Are
Heavenly
 Chapter 16

Perception is involved in the cortex. Sensation involves chemoreceptor, baroreceptor,

thermoreceptors, etc. There are two classes of sensory modalities: general senses (somatic and
visceral) and special senses.
Process of sensation: sensory receptors get stimulated, transduction of chemical signal into
electrical information via a series of graded potentials reaching their threshold, generating a
nerve impulse which gets conducted from the PNS to the CNS via first order neurons. Lastly,
sensory information gets integrated in the CNS.
● The graded potential triggered in a neuron with a free nerve ending and an
encapsulated nerve ending is called generator potential.
● In a sensory cell it is called receptor potential.
Differences and similarities between generator potential and receptor potential: they’re both
graded potentials, however, generator potential triggers an action potential in the first order
neuron, whilst the receptor cells release neurotransmitters on first order neurons, producing a
postsynaptic potential (PSP).
Classification of receptors: exteroceptors, interoceptors, proprioceptors, mechanoreceptors,
thermoreceptors, nociceptors, photoreceptors, chemoreceptors and osmoreceptors.
Somatic sensations:
1. Tactile Sensations:
a. Touch: Corpuscle of touch (rapidly encapsulated nerve ending), hair root plexus
(rapidly free nerve endings), type I cutaneous mechanoreceptors or Merkel
tactile discs (slowly adapting free nerve endings), and type II cutaneous
mechanoreceptors or Ruffini corpuscle (slowly adapting encapsulated nerve
endings).
b. Pressure: Merkel tactile discs, corpuscle of touch and lamellated pacinian
corpuscles (encapsulated nerve endings)
c. Vibration: Corpuscle of touch, lamellated pacinian corpuscle
d. Itch: Merkel tactile discs and hair root plexus
e. Tickle: Merkel tactile discs and hair root plexus
2. Thermal Sensations:
a. Free nerve ending thermoreceptors in the skin.
 3. Pain Sensations:
a. Nociceptors located everywhere except brain. Pain is triggered due to the
release of chemicals that stimulate nociceptors. The speed of pain is
“controlled” by myelinating or not myelinating axons.
b. Three ways in which pain relief occurs:
i. Blocking formation of chemicals that stimulate nociceptors
ii. Blocking conduction of nerve impulses along pain fibers
iii. Lessen the perception of pain in the brain (morphine)
4. Proprioceptive sensations:
a. Muscle spindles: proprioceptors in skeletal muscles (stretch reflex). Based on
input from muscle spindles, the brain sets muscle tone. Sensory neurons
monitor the degree of stretching, impulses are sent to the cerebral cortex and
cerebellum, motor neurons cause the same muscle to contract in response to
stretching.
b. Tendon organs: proprioceptors located between tendons and muscles (tendon
reflex). Sensory nerve endings sense overstretching in tendon, impulses are
sent to the cerebral cortex and cerebellum, motor neuron is inhibited so muscle
can relax.
c. Joint kinesthetic receptor: Ruffini corpuscles, found in joint capsules and
respond to pressure.
Somatic sensory pathways: relay information from somatic receptors to primary
somatosensory area in the cortex.
1. Posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway: receptors from upper limbs and lower
limbs are involved. First order neurons and second order neurons from upper limb
synapse at cuneate nucleus (lateral) of the medulla. First order neurons and second
order neurons from lower limb sill synapse at gracile nucleus (medial) of medulla.
Second order neurons will decussate at the medulla, then they will synapse with third
order neurons at the thalamic nuclei. Finally, information is sent to primary
somatosensory area of cortex.
2. Anterolateral (spinothalamic) pathway to the cortex): first order and second order
neurons synapse in the spinal cord, second order neurons decussate to the other side
of the spinal cord and will synapse with third order neurons in the thalamus. Finally,
information is sent to the primary somatosensory area of cortex.
 3. Trigeminothalamic pathway to cortex: First order and second order neurons synapse in
the pons of the medulla, second order neurons decussate to the other side of the brain
stem and synapse with third order neurons in the thalamus. Finally, information is sent
to the primary somatosensory area in the cortex.
4. Sensory pathways to cerebellum, unlike to cortex: involve just two neurons,
information goes to the cerebellum, not the thalamus and signal travels up to same side
of body (no decussation).
Somatic motor pathways: two motor neurons involved, upper motor neuron and lower
motor neuron. Control of body movements involve the basal nuclei and cerebellum. There are
four distinct neural circuits which provide input to lower motor neurons:
1. Local circuit neurons: close to LMN cell bodies in spinal cord and brainstem, they
coordinate rhythmic activities.
2. Local circuit neurons and LMN receive input from upper motor neuron. UMN from
brainstem and cortex.
3. Neurons from basal nuclei provide input to UMN
4. Cerebellar neurons provide input to UMN
Direct motor pathways:
1. Lateral corticospinal pathway: (hands and feet skilled movements) from cortex to
lateral part of the spinal cord through tracts. UMN synapse with local circuit neurons or
LMN. 90% decussates
2. Anterior corticospinal pathway: (movement of trunk and proximal parts of limbs)
remaining 10% that does not decussates in the pyramid, but in the spinal cord instead.
3. Corticobulbar pathway: (movements of skeletal muscles in head) from cortex to nuclei
in brainstem and then cranial nerves.
Indirect motor pathways:
1. Rubrospinal: from red nucleus
2. Tectospinal: from superior colliculi
3. Vestibulospinal: from vestibular nucleus
4. Lateral reticulospinal: from reticular formation
5. Medial reticulospinal: from reticular formation

Cerebellum receives input from motor area of cortex and basal nuclei about intention for
movement, receives input from proprioceptors which monitor actual movement, compares
intention of movement with actual movement performed and sends out corrective feedback
to UMN in cortex or brainstem.

Difference between learning and memory: learning is the ability to acquire new skills through
experience, memory is process by which information is stored and retrieved.
● Plasticity: capability for change in learning
● Long term memory for information that can be verbalized is stored in the cerebral
cortex. Long term memory for motor functions stored in basal ganglia, cerebellum and
cortex.
 Chapter 13

Spinal cord and spinal reflexes: highway for upward and downward travel of sensory and
motor information. Spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column, the meninges and
cerebrospinal fluid.
Gray matter of spinal cord contains neuron cell bodies, neuroglia, unmyelinated axons and
dendrites.
● sensory nuclei: receive input from sensory neurons
● motor nuclei: provide output to tissues via motor neurons
White matter surrounds grey matter and contains mostly myelinated axons.
Pattern of more white matter going up the spinal cord as for you add more axon tracts going
up; myelinated axons. White matter is divided into columns and tracts. Ascending tracts carry
sensory information up to the brain and descending tracts carry motor information down
from the brain.
Spinal cord functions:
1. Gray matter receives and integrates information
2. White matter tracts are for nerve impulse conduction to and from the brain
Posterior and anterior roots of spinal nerve merge to form a mixed nerve.
Spinal nerves branches:
1. Posterior rami
2. Anterior rami: form plexus
3. Meningeal branches
4. Rami communicantes
Anterior rami join to form nerve plexus; if one fails you still have others working.
● Cervical plexus contains the phrenic nerve which supplies diaphragm.
● Brachial plexus supplies the shoulder and upper limb
● Intercostal nerves do not form nerve plexus
● Lumbar plexus
● Sacral and coccygeal plexus contain the sciatic nerve
Skin segments are called dermatomes.
Reflexes and Reflex Arcs: sensory receptor responds to stimulus, sensory neuron conducts
impulse from receptor to integration system; if it synapses with motor neuron is
monosynaptic, if an interneuron is involved it is polysynaptic. If motor neuron affects organs
on the same side it is ipsilateral reflex, if motor neuron crosses to other side it’s contralateral. If
effector is skeletal muscle it’s a somatic reflex, if it’s a smooth muscle or gland it’s autonomic.
1. Stretch reflex: control muscle length by causing muscle contraction. In stretch reflex,
sensory neuron synapses directly with the motor neuron.
a. Stretching stimulates muscle spindles which causes the sensory neuron to get
excited, its impulse travels to the spinal cord where it synapses with motor
neuron. Motor neuron gets excited and causes effector muscle to contract and
relieve the stretching. Simultaneously, the motor neuron to antagonist muscle is
inhibited.
b. Somatic, monosynaptic, ipsilateral
2. Tendon reflex: controls muscle tension by causing muscle relaxation. Motor neuron is
hyperpolarized and muscle relaxes.
a. Increased tension stimulates sensory receptor (tendon organ) which causes
excitation of sensory neuron; sensory neuron synapses with interneuron which
synapses with motor neuron. Motor neuron to antagonist muscle is excited and
signals the muscle to relax.
b. Somatic, polysynaptic, ipsilateral
3. Flexor reflex: moves limb away to avoid pain
a. Stimulation of sensory receptors, sensory neuron gets excited, it synapses with
interneuron (ascending and descending interneuron) which synapses with
motor neuron and signals the effector muscles to contract and withdraw limb.
b. Somatic, polysynaptic, ipsilateral and intersegmental
4. Crossed extensor reflex: helps maintain balance during flexor reflex
a. Same as flexor reflex except that during integration, the synchronized extension
of the joints of a limb and flexion of the joints in the opposite limb occurs.
b. Somatic, polysynaptic, contralateral and intersegmental
Abnormal response to plantar flexion reflex in babies is called Babinski sign.