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Chapter 6: The Nervous System

Major Organs: Brain, Spinal Cord, Nerves
Two Main Division of Nervous System:
1. (CNS) Central Nervous System (brain and spinal cord)
2. (PNS) Peripheral Nervous System (network of all the nerves)
Afferent vs. Efferent
Afferent (incoming) - PNS -> CNS
Efferent (outcoming) - CNS -> PNS
Somatomotor – (soma means “body”, motor means “movement”)
Somatic Nervous System – division of (PNS) Peripheral Nervous System
Autonomic Division’s Two Subdivision:
1. Parasympathetic – Rest-and-Veg effect
- Digestion and Elimination of waste
- Long preganglionic
- Short postganglionic
2. Sympathetic – Fight or Fight
- For physical activity
- Short preganglionic
- Long postganglionic
Neuron three basic parts:
1. Dendrites – receive information (neuron may have anywhere from 1 –
1,000 dendrites)
2. Body – containing the nucleus and organelle for protein synthesis.
The golgi complex then packages the neurotransmitter in secretory
vesicles called synaptic vesicles -> axon -> synaptic knob at the end
(axonal transport).
3. Axon – carries the nerve impulse along its length to the synaptic knobs
at the end of the neuron. Intermittently covered with a myelin sheath.
White Matter vs. Gray Matter
White matter – myelinated axons
Gray matter – unmyelinated axons
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Types of Neurons
Multipolar Bipolar Unipolar
Location CNS and PNS Nasal cavity, Skin, organs, etc.
retina, inner ear
Type of message Motor Sensory Sensory
Direction of Efferent Afferent Afferent
message

Type of Neuroglia Location Function

Oligodendrocytes CNS Form myelin in the CNS
Ependymal cells CNS Produce cerebrospinal
fluid
Astrocytes CNS Form the blood-brain
barrier
Microglia CNS Provide protection
Schwann cells PNS Form myelin in the PNS
Satellite cells PNS Regulate the chemical
environment of ganglia
in the PNS

Sclerosis – If the neuron in the CNS becomes damaged, astrocytes fill the space
with scar tissue.
Gliomas – These tumors tend to be malignant and grow rapidly, competing with
the brain for space in the cranial cavity.
Neurolemma (plasma membrane) – outermost layer of Schwann cell
Brain and spinal cord are covered by meninges.
Three membranes:
Dura mater (tough mater) – the most superficial layer of the meninges.
Arachnoid mater (spider-like mother) – delicate web-like layer.
Pia mater (affectionate mother) – tight to the brain and spinal cord.
Epidural space – between the vertebrae and the dura mater.
Subarachnoid space – space between arachnoid mater and pia mater.
Cerebrospinal fluid – made by ependymal cells lining cavities in the brain
called ventricles.
Choroid plexus – a bed of capillaries (small blood vessels)
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4 important function of CSF:

1. Provides buoyancy
2. Provides protection
3. Facilitates chemical stability – removing hydrogen ions, which is an
example of maintaining homeostasis through acid-base balance.
4. Provides nutrients
Concussion – injury of the brain resulting from impact.
Cerebrum – characterized by a series of grooves (sulci) and folds (gyri). Plays a
crucial role in both the interpretation of and the ability to produce language.
Gyri – to give extra surface area
Longitudinal fissure – that seperates the cerebrum into right and left
hemispheres.
Corpus callosum – a white fibrous band, deep to the fissure and keeps the
right and left hemispheres connected.
General sensory area – to identify sensory messages coming in.
Association area – to interpret messages.
Frontal lobe - The frontal lobe has two motor areas: a premotor area that
plans efferent skeletal muscle messages and a primary motor area that then
sends out the planned, voluntary skeletal muscle messages. This lobe is also
responsible for motivation, judgment, and aggression.
Parietal lobe – responsible for general senses, like touch.
Temporal lobe – responsible for the sense of hearing.
Occipital lobe – responsible for vision.
Insula – small lobe located deep in the cerebrum, can only be seen when
temporal lobe is retracted.
Limbic system – for memory and learning (hippocampus), emotions (amygdala).
Thalamus – switching station for incoming sensory messages except those for
smell.
Hypothalamus – temperature regulation, autonomic functions, endocrine
functions, food and water intake, and sexual development.
Brainstem – composed of 4 parts: medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain, and
reticular formation. SLEEP-WAKE CYCLE
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Frontal Lobe

Cerebrum Parietal Lobe

Sulci
Temporal Lobe

Occipital Lobe

Thalamus

Diencephalon
Hypothalamus

Medulla oblongata

Pons

Brainstem
Midbrain

Reticular
formation
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Pons – large bulge on the anterior surface of the brainstem. Has ascending
tracts of neurons carrying sensory messages to the thalamus and descending
motor tracts from the cerebrum.
4 bulges of the midbrain
2 superior colliculi for visual reflexes
2 inferior colliculi for auditory reflexes
Cerebellum – last subdivision of the brain. Has tracts of white matter, called
arbor vitae, which branch like a tree.
Reflexive memory – for example ay pagtatype sa keyboard ng di nakatingin.
Spinal cord – solid cylindrical structure
Meningitis – is a serious inflammation of the meninges caused by viruses or
bacteria often acquired through a respiratory, throat, or ear infection. A test,
called a lumbar puncture, can be done to look for the presence of a pathogen in
the CSF.
Cranial Nerves
Name Type of Messages: Function
Sensory, Motor, or Both
I. Olfactory nerve S Sensory of smell.
II. Optic nerve S Sensory of vision.
VIII. Auditory nerve S Sensory for hearing and
equilibrium.
III. Oculomotor nerve M Motor for eye movement.
IV. Trochlear nerve M Motor for eye movement.
VI. Abducens nerve M Motor for eye movement.
XI. Accessory nerve M Motor for trapezius,
sternocleidomastoid,
and muscles of the
larynx.
XII. Hypoglossal nerve M Motor for the tounge.
V. Trigeminal nerve B Sensory for pain, touch,
and temperature for the
eye and lower and upper
jaws.
Motor for muscles of
chewing.
VII. Facial nerve B Sensory for taste.
Motor for facial
expression.
IX. Glossopharyngeal B Sensory for taste.
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nerve Motor for swallowing.

X. Vagus nerve B Sensory and motor for
organs in the thoracic
and abdominal cavities.
Motor for larynx.

Spinal nerves – 31 pairs

Polarize – ECF (+), ICF (-)
Depolarized – Sodium Channel open Na in
Repolarized – Potassium Channel open K out
Local Potential vs. Action Potential
Local potential – stimulating the dendrite of a neuron.
Action potential – electricity along an axon of a neuron.
Reflex – an involuntary, predictable, motor response to a stimulus without
conscious thought.
Reflex arc – where the reflex occurs
Reflex Arc Anatomy
1. Receptor – the dendrite of a neuron receiving the stimulus.
2. Afferent neuron (sensory) – carrying signals to the CNS.
3. Integrating center – either the brain or spinal cord.
4. Efferent neuron (motor) – signals away from CNS.
5. Effector – structure causing the effect. Skeletal muscle (somatic reflex),
gland or smooth muscle (autonomic reflex).
3 Types of Memory
1. Immediate Memory – a few seconds.
2. Short-Term Memory – a few seconds to a few hours.
3. Long-Term Memory – a lifetime and is not limited as long as to the
amount of information it can hold.
Aphasia – any language deficit resulting from damage to either Wernicke’s or
Broca’s area.

Wernicke’s Area vs. Broca’s Area

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Wernicke’s area – interpret incoming language. When damage, may speak

clearly but are unable to understand the language directed to them.
Broca’s area – find words for outgoing language. When damage, a person is
perfectly capable of understanding incoming language but may not be able to
find the words to respond.
Pathway
Unipolar neuron -> spinal cord -> medulla oblongata -> pons -> midbrain ->
thalamus -> parietal lobe -> frontal lobe.
Nervous System Disorders
Disease/Disorder Description
Alzheimer’s disease A progressive, irreversible disease of
the brain that is characterized by
dementia.
Cerebral palsy A group of symptoms that occur
following injury to the brain
prenatally, perinatally, or postnatally.
Cerebrovascular accident Death of brain tissue due to a lack of
blood supply.
Depression A mental disorder caused by an
imbalance of neurotransmitters that
affects a person's mood by altering
the way he or she feels, thinks,
sleeps, eats, and works.
Encephalitis Swelling of the brain that is usually
caused by a bacterial or viral
infection.
Epilepsy A condition that is characterized by
recurring seizures.
Huntington’s disease A genetic disease that destroys brain
cells responsible for movement and
coordination.
Hydrocephalus A condition resulting from excess
cerebrospinal fluid buildup in the
brain.
Multiple sclerosis A disease characterized by
demyelination of the axon.
Paralysis A loss of muscle function due to an
interruption in the pathway between
the brain and muscles.
Parkinson’s disease A degenerative disorder of the brain
characterized by tremors and slow,
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uncoordinated movements.
Rabies virus A virus transmitted by infected
animals to humans. The virus causes
acute encephalitis.

CHAPTER 7: THE NERVOUS SYSTEM – SENSES

2 CATEGORIES OF SENSES
1 General senses – skin, muscles, joints tendons, and organs
2 Special senses – taste, smell, hearing, equilibrium, and vision
TYPE OF STIMULUS
 Thermoreceptors – detect heat and cold
 Mechanoreceptors – detect touch, vibration, stretch, and pressure
 Nociceptors – pain receptors that detect tissue injury or potential tissue
injury
THE 4 KINDS OF INFORMATION
1. Type of sensation
2. Location
3. Intensity
4. Duration
PATHWAY FOR PAIN (V, VII, IX, or X)
1. Unipolar neuron -> spinal cord -> medulla oblongata -> pons -> midbrain
-> thalamus -> parietal lobe
2. Unipolar neuron -> spinal cord -> reticular formation -> parietal lobe or
hypothalamus and limbic system

PATHWAY FOR TASTE (VII, IX, X)

Cranial nerve -> medulla oblongata -> hypothalamus and amygdala
Gustation – is the term for taste
Surface of the tongue is covered with bumps called lingual papillae.
Taste cells – banana-shaped and have hairlike microvilli (taste hairs)
Microvilli – the chemoreceptors for taste.
Basal cells – develop to replace taste cells as they die.
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Support cells – physically support 50 – 150 taste cells in the taste bud. They do
not have sensory role.

PATHWAY FOR OLFACTION (CN I)

The only special-sense pathway that does not go through the thalamus.
Bipolar neuron -> CN I -> temporal lobe (general sensory area) -> frontal lobe
(association area)
Olfaction – the sense of smell
Olfactory mucosa – where the receptor for olfaction are located.
12 million olfactory cells are bipolar neurons
Olfactory cells – live for approximately 60 days.

PATHWAY FOR HEARING (CN VIII)

The frequency of waves determines the pitch of the sound.
Pitch is measured in cycles per second, called hertz (Hz).
Volume is measured in decibels (dB)
Pinna – external ear flap composed of elastic cartilage