ANATOMY OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

TYPES OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. Central Nervous System

 Brain
 Spinal cord

2. Peripheral Nervous System

 Cranial nerves
 Spinal nerves
 Autonomic nervous system (Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system)
 Our nervous system is made up of special type of cells called neuron.
 Neuron are structural and functional unit of the nervous system.
 Neurons are connected with a supportive tissue called neuroglial cells. Neuroglial
cells are of four types:
1. Astrocytes: acts as blood brain barrier
2. Oligodendrocytes: forms myelin sheath
3. Microglial cells: acts as phagocytic cell
4. Ependymal cells: acts as supporting cell
Parts of neuron

1. Cell nucleus
2. Cell body
3. Axon: carries nerve impulse away from the cell body
4. Dendrites: carries nerve impulse toward the cell body
5. Myelin sheath: outermost covering of neuron made of protein and phospholipid
Types of neuron

1. Afferent neuron/ sensory neuron/ ascending neuron

transmits nerve impulse from sensory organ to brain and spinal cord

2. Efferent neuron/ motor neuron/ descending neuron

transmits nerve impulse from brain and spinal cord to sensory organ

3. Mixed neuron
Neurotransmitters

 special chemical substances produced from nerve cells which helps in nerve
impulse transmission
Eg: Adrenaline, acetylcholine, Gamma Amino Butyric Acid (GABA),
serotonin, dopamine, epinephrine.
Central nervous system
Meninges

 Outermost covering of brain and spinal cord

 Consists of 3 layers:
1. Pia mater
2. Dura mater
3. Arachnoid mater
Cerobrospinal Fluid

 Volume: 150ml
 Produced by choroid plexus
 Daily production: 720ml/day , 0.5ml/min
 Absorbed by arachnoid villi
 Normal pressure: 50-175 mm of H2O
 Composition : water, minerals/salts, glucose, protein, creatinine, urea
Brain

 Main part of CNS

 Located in cranial cavity
 Weight: 1.5kg or 2% of total body weight or 1/50th of total body
weight
Transfer information throughout the body
Parts of brain
1. Cerebrum (Forebrain)

 Largest part of the brain

 Covers 80% of entire brain
 Divided into right and left cerebral hemispheres into longitudinal fissures
 Right side controls function of left side and vice versa.
Lobes of cerebrum
 Functions of different lobes of cerebrum
1. Frontal lobe
 broca’s area for production of speech
 morals, emotions, reasoning and judgement, concentration, intellect

2. Parietal lobe
 Sensory and somatic area

3. Temporal lobe
 Auditory and olfactory center
 Wernicke’s area for comprehension of speech

4. Occipital lobe
 visual area
2. Cerebellum (Hindbrain)

 responsible for coordinating voluntary movements.

 also responsible for a number of functions including motor skills such as balance,
coordination, and posture.
Brainstem

 Brainstem consists of following parts:

1. Midbrain
2. Pons varoli
3. Medulla oblangata
 Midbrain
acts as a conduit between the forebrain above and the pons and cerebellum below.
 Pons varoli
Contains pneumotaxic center and regulates breathing.
 Medulla oblangata
 Lowermost part of brainstem
 Vital centers are present
Cardiac center: control rate and force of heart
Respiratory center: controls respiratory rate and depth
Vasomotor center: controls diameter of arterioles
Reflex center: controls vomiting, coughing, sneezing, swallowing, blinking etc.
Spinal cord

  long, thin, tubular structure made up of nervous tissue

 Length : 45cm, diameter: 1.25cm, weight: 30gm
 Carries sensory information to and motor information from the brain
 Extends from first cervical to second lumbar vertebra
 Transverse section of spinal cord consists of outer white and inner grey matter.
Peripheral nervous system

 Consists of following parts

12 pairs of cranial nerves
31 pairs of spinal nerves
Autonomic nervous system
 Cranial nerves
S.N. NERVE FUNCTION TYPE
I. Olfactory Smell Sensory
II. Optic Vision Sensory
III. Occulomotor Pupillary dilation and constriction, raising eyelid Motor
IV. Trochlear Inward and downward eye movement Motor
V. Trigeminal Mastication, facial sensation, corneal reflex Both
VI. Abducents Lateral eye movement Motor
VII. Facial Facial movement, taste perception Both
VIII. Vestibulocochlear Hearing and equilibrium Sensory
IX. Glossopharyngeal Swallowing, taste sensation, salivation Both
X. Vagus Gag reflex, swallowing, speech Both
XI. Spinal Accessory Shoulder movement Motor
XII. Hypoglossal Movement of tongue Motor
 Largest cranial nerve: Trigeminal
 Smallest cranial nerve: Trochlear
 Longest cranial nerve: vagus
 Shortest cranial nerve: optic
Spinal nerves

 Cervical nerves: 8 pairs

 Thoracic nerves: 12 pairs
 Lumbar nerves: 5 pairs
 Sacral nerves: 5 pairs
 Coccygeal nerve: 1 pair
Autonomic Nervous System
Past Questions

1. The middle layer of meninges is:

a. Dura mater
b. Pia mater
c. Arachnoid mater
d. Subarachnoid mat

2. The physiological unit of nervous system is:

a. Neuron
b. Neuralgia
c. Astrocytes
d. Microglia
3. Blood brain barrier is made up of:
a. Oligodendrocytes
b. Astrocytes
c. Microglial cells
d. Ependymal cells

4. CSF is secreted from:

a. Choroid plexus
b. Pia mater
c. Dura mater
d. Arachnoid villi
5. Axon carries nerve impulses:
a. Towards the cell body
b. Towards the dendrite
c. Away from the cell body
d. Away from dendrite

6. Primary visual center is located in:

a. Frontal
b. Parietal
c. Temporal
d. Occipital
7. During lumbar puncture CSF is drawn from:
a. Lumbar vertebrae
b. Arachnoid space
c. Intervertebral disc
d. Subarachnoid space

8. Brain can survive without oxygen for:

a. 2 min
b. 4 min
c. 6 min
d. 8min
9. Which of the following is the part of brain stem?
a. Cerebrum
b. Cerebellum
c. Pons
d. Spinal cord

10. Acetylcholine is neurotransmitter of:

a. Sympathetic nervous system

b. Parasympathetic nervous system
c. Central nervous system
d. Autonomic nervous system
11. There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves, among them sensory cranial nerves are:

a. olfactory, optic, vestibulocochlear

b. Oculomotor, trochlear, trigeminal
c. Abducents, facial, vagus
d. Optic, hypoglossal, vagus
12. The smallest cranial nerve is:

a. Trochlear
b. Trigeminal
c. Facial
d. Optic
13. Broca’s area is concerned with:
a. Comprehension of speech
b. Production of speech
c. Learning and reasoning
d. Sensation of smell

14. Sympathetic stimulation of bronchus produces:

a. Bronchial constriction
b. Bronchial dilation
c. Increased broncho secretion
d. Decreased broncho secretion
15. Vomiting center is present in:
a. Cerebrum
b. Cerebellum
c. Midbrain
d. Medulla oblangata

16. Which of the following organ is responsible for reflex action?

a. Spinal cord
b. Medulla oblangata
c. Cerebrum
d. cerebellum
MICROBIOLOGY
Introduction

 Branch of science that deals with the study of microscopic organisms such as
bacteria, virus, fungus protozoal parasite.
Cell organelles and their functions
Factors affecting growth of microorganism

 Nutrition
 PH
 Atmosphere
 Light
 Temperature
 Moisture/Humidity
Types of microorganism

 Bacteria
 Virus
 Fungus
 Protozoal parasite
Bacteria

 Bacteria are unicellular microscopic organism that divide by binary fission.

Classification of bacteria

 According to motility
1. Motile bacteria
Eg: salmonella typhi
2. Non-motile bacteria
Eg: staphylococcus
 According to atmospheric requirement
1. Aerobic bacteria
Eg: streptococcus
2. Anaerobic bacteria
Eg: clostridium
 According to staining
1. Gram positive bacteria
Eg: staphylococcus, streptococcus, enterococcus, clostridium, lactobaccilus
2. Gram negative bacteria
Eg: Neisseria, pseudomonas, salmonella, Escherichia, vibrio, shigella
 According to shape
1. Cocci
Oval or spherical shaped
2. Baccilus
Rod shaped bacteria
Eg: mycobacterium, Corynebacterium
 According to nature
1. Normal flora
Those microorganisms which are usually present in our body surfaces but doesn't
produce any harmful effect.
Eg: E. coli in colon
Lacto bacillus in vagina
Staphylococcus epidermidis on skin
2. Pathogenic bacteria
Those microorganisms which when invade our body invariably lead to the production
of disease or infection.
Eg: Neisseria, brucella, clostridium, cornyebacterium etc.

3. Opportunistic bacteria
These are bacteria which are present in our body but produce disease/ infection when
immunity of host is lowered.
 Nosocomial infection
Those infection which are acquired by patient after hospitalization.
Common nosocomial infection Causative organisms
UTI E. coli, klebsiella, proteus, enterococcus
Lower RTI Hemophilus, streptococcus, staphylococcus,
respiratory viruses
Wounds and skin sepsis Staphylococcus aureus, proteus, enterococcus
GI infection Salmonella, shigella
Virus

 These are obligatory parasite that shows both living and non-living character.

Living character Non- living character

Contain genetic material Can be crystalized
Can reproduce No metabolism
Can mutate
Types of virus

 According to genetic material

1. DNA virus : pox virus, Herpes simplex virus
2. RNA virus: enterovirus
 According to pathogenicity
1. Neurotropic virus
These are viruses which affects the nervous system.
Eg: polio virus, rabies virus.

2. Dermatropic virus
These are viruses which affect skin
Eg: small pox, chicken pox, measles

3. Pneumotropic virus
Eg: Rhino virus
4. Carcinogenic virus
Eg: Human papilloma virus(HPV) – causes genital wart and cervical cancer
Cytomegalo virus( CMV)- causes Kaposi sarcoma
Oncovirus- may cause leukemia
Hepatitis ‘B’ & ‘C’ virus- causes liver cancer
Fungus

 These are eukaryotic Protista constituting a large diverse group of heterotrophic

organism which exists as saprophytes.

Eg: Candida albicans – causes candidiasis

Histoplasma capsulatum- causes histoplasmosis
Pneumocystis pneumonia- causes pneumonia in AIDS patient
Tinea capitis- causes ringworm of scalp
Protozoa
 Unicellular microscopic organism which when invade our body causes disease or
infection.

Name of parasites Mode of infection Vector Disease caused

Entamoeba histolytica Ingestion of cyst None Amoebiasis
Giardia lamblia Ingestion of cyst None Giardiasis
Leishmania donovani Biting of sand-fly Sand fly Kalazar (Leishmaniasis)
Plasmodium vivax Biting of infected female Anopheles Malaria
anopheles
Trypanosoma cruzi Biting of infected Reduviid bugs Chagas disease
phelbotomus
Trichomonas vaginalis Sexual intercourse None Vaginitis
Immunity

 State of resistance or insusceptibility exhibited by host toward the

microorganisms, toxic molecule, and foreign cells.
 Resistance is achieved by showing immune responses.
1. Non- specific immune response
 Body surface barriers
 Antimicrobial secretions
 Phagocytes
2. Specific immune responses
Involves activation of cell mediated and humoral immunity
 Cell mediated immunity
Immune response that occurs within the cell and involves T lymphocytes
 Humoral immunity
immune response outside the cell and involves B lymphocytes that differentiate into
plasma cells and secrete antibodies
 Antigen
Any substance including allergen which when enters our body triggers in production
of antibodies
 Antibodies
Immune substance produced by plasma cells against foreign molecules
Also called immunoglobulin
 Types of immunoglobulin
1. IgM: first antigen to be detected after exposure to foreign substance
2. IgG: consists more than 75% of total immunoglobulin, only immunoglobulin
that crosses the placental barrier
3. IgA: present in blood, mucus, and human milk secretions, play important role
against viral and respiratory pathogens
4. IgE: responsible for hypersensitivity and allergic responses
5. IgD: unknown function
 Types of immunity
1. Active immunity
 Natural active immunity: antibodies formed during course of disease and provides
lifelong immunity.
Eg: measles, chickenpox, smallpox, yellow fever
 Artificial active immunity
Administration of vaccine or toxoid stimulate formation of homologous antibodies,
revaccination needed to sustain immunity.
2. Passive immunity
 Natural passive immunity
Passage of performed antibodies from mother through placenta to fetus or through
colostrum to neonate
 Artificial passive immunity
Injection of antibody derived from immunized animal or humans, provide immediate
protection