COORDINATION (pg 208)

A stimulus is a change in the environment that an organism responds to. Eg) Light
[plants grow towards light], temperature, texture]

A response is the change in the organism because of the stimuli. The response is
important for the organism’s survival.

Receptors: part of an organism which detects the stimulus. Eg. Sense organs: eyes,
ears, skin, nose, tongue.

Effectors: parts of an organism which responds to the stimulus. Eg. Muscles,

glands.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

This controls the body eg. Thinking, reactions, movements. The nervous system is
made up of neurons or nerve cells. Neurones transmit electrical impulses to and
from the brain. Many neurones held together by a sheath make up a nerve. The
nervous system is made up of:

1) Central nervous system (CNS): made up of the brain and spinal cord.
2) Peripheral nervous system (PNS): made of all nerves outside the brain
(cranial nerves) and nerves outside spinal cord (spinal nerves). It is not under
conscious control. Controls digestion, heart and breathing rate.

3 TYPES OF NEURONS:

1) Sensory neurons: conducts electrical impulses from receptors to the central

nervous system.

2) Motor neurones: conducts electrical impulses from the central nervous system
to the effectors.

3) Intermediate or relay neurone: links sensory neurons to motor neurons. They

are found in the CNS.

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Dendrites and dendrons: conducts impulses towards a cell body.

Axon: conducts impulses away from the cell body.

Myelin sheath: surrounds axons and dendrons. Made of fats and proteins. It
insulates that part of the neurone.

Node of Ranvier: gap in myelin sheath.

The messages that neurons transmit are in the form of electrical impulses. The
myelin sheath insulates the nerve fibres so that they can carry impulses much
faster.

THE SYNAPSE (pg 213)

Where the ends of two neurons meet, there is a gap called a synapse. Electrical
impulses cannot pass these gaps. Instead it is converted to a chemical signal in
order to cross the synapse. When this chemical reaches the other neurone, it
causes an electrical impulse to flow in the neurone. Electrical impulses travel in
one direction along a neurone.

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REFLEX ACTION: A reflex action is a quick, automatic response to a stimulus not
involving the brain. It helps the body avoid harm. Eg. Knee jerk, sneezing, blinking.

There are two kinds of reflex action:

1) Spinal reflex action: nerve impulses pass through the spinal cord and do not go
to the brain eg. Knee jerk response, touch hot pan.

2) Cranial reflexes: these are reflexes in the head region such as blinking and
response of the pupil in the eye to light.

TYPES OF ACTION

1) INVOLUNTARY ACTION: not under conscious control of the brain eg.

Heartbeat
2) VOLUNTARY ACTION: you have to decide you are going to do these actions.
Your brain is involved eg. Movement
3) CONDITIONED REFLEX: reactions that are first learned then performed
without conscious thought eg. Riding a bike.

{Explain the process by which voluntary action occurs.}

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 THE BRAIN

It is important in the nervous system. It enables man to ‘think’ and ‘reason’. It

is well protected. The brain has grey matter on the outside and white matter
ojn the inside. It is surrounded by tough membranes called meninges. These
contain cerebrospinal fluid which helps protect it. The brain is also surrounded
by bones of the skull.

PARTS OF THE BRAIN

1) Cerebrum: controls memory, conscious though, intelligence

2) Cerebellum: controls balance, posture, muscle action
3) Medulla oblongata: controls involuntary actions eg heartbeat, breathing
4) Pituitary gland: an endocrine gland that secretes several hormones
5) Spinal cord: impulses conducted to and from the brain.
6) Hypothalamus: control body temperature and water balance

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 THE EYE (pg 226)
The eye is a light sensitive organ that allows us to see. [draw diagram pg 227]
Images are formed on the retina at the back of the eye. The retina contains rod cells and cone
cells. Rod cells allow us to see light and dark only. It allows us to see in black and white only.
Rod cells are located around the sides of the retina. They work best when it is getting dark.
Cone cells allow us to see in colour. They work best when there is a lot of light around. Cone
cells are mostly located in the centre of the retina. The fovea is only made up of cone cells.

Protection of the eye

1) Orbits: sockets in the skull which protect the back ¾ of the eye.
2) Eyelids: close to protect eye against dust, bright light. Blinking spread tears.
3) Eyelashes: trap dust near the eye
4) Conjunctiva: protects the delicate cornea from scratching
5) Tear glands: keeps conjunctiva moist, wash away dust, contain enzymes that destroy bacteria.

DIAGRAM SOWING HOW WE SEE OBJECTS

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 VIEWING NEAR AND DISTANT OBJECTS

Accomodation: the way in which the lens change to see near and distant objects.

When viewing near objects: lens becomes thicker, suspensory ligaments slacken, ciliary muscle
contract.
When viewing distant objects: lens becomes thinner, suspensory ligaments tighten, ciliary
muscles relax

THE EFFECT OF LIGHT ON THE EYE

Bright light: circular muscles of iris contract, iris enlargens, pupil size reduced

Dim light: radial muscles contract, iris smaller, pupil enlargens

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 EYE DEFECTS AND THEIR CORRECTIONS

1) Short sight: person can see near objects but not distant objects. It is caused by the eyeball
being too long from front to back. Correction: use glasses with concave lens.

2) Long sight: person can see far or distant objects but not near objects. It is caused by the
eyeball being too short from front to back. Correction: use glasses with convex lens.

3) Glaucoma: caused by an increase in pressure within the eye due to a blockage in the flow of
aqueous humor. It is painful and a halo is seen around objects in the visual field. The increased
pressure can damage the optic nerve which sends images to the brain. If not treated, it can lead
to permanent blindness. Treatment: use eye drops to control pressure, oral medication, or
surgery to open drainage canals.

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 The Endocrine system (pg 217)

The endocrine system controls growth and development and is made up of a number of glands
called endocrine glands.

A gland is a structure which secretes a specific chemical substance. There are two types.
1) Exocrine glands 2) Endocrine glands

Endocrine glands Exocrine glands

Examples
Means of transport
Named examples of secretions
Thyroid gland, ovary, testes,
pancreas
Blood transports the secretion
from the gland to its target
organ
hormones
Salivary gland, pancreatic
gland, tear gland
A duct transport the secretion
from the gland to its target
organ
Saliva, pancreatic juice

The endocrine glands produce hormones.

Hormones: are chemical substances produced in the body that help control and regulate the
activity of certain organs and cells.
They are produced in very small amounts and travel through the body in the bloodstream to
target organs. Hormones affect these organs.

The Main Endocrine Glands & Their Hormones

Endocrine gland Hormone Function/Effect on the body
1) Pituitary gland *pituitary growth hormone -growth. Too much (gigantism) too little (dwarfism)
*anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) -causes kidneys to absorb more water from urine

2) Thyroid gland *thyroxine -controls physical growth, mental growth, metabolic

rate(rate of chemical reactions in the body)
Too little in infants: cretin- retarded physical and
mental development.
Too little in adults: sluggish, obesity
Too much in adults: weight loss fast heartbeat
3) Pancreas Insulin -released when blood sugar level rises. Causes liver
and muscles to convert glucose to glycogen. Causes
body cells to absorb glucose for respiration. Too
little insulin: diabetes
4) Adrenal glands adrenalin Released in large amounts when excited, anxious,
frightened. It increases heart rate, breathing
5) Ovaries Oestrogen, Progesterone Development of secondary sex characteristics and
menstrual cycle. Pregnancy
6) Testes Testosterone Development of secondary sex characteristics,
production of semen

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 How Is The Nervous System Different From The Endocrine System?

Nervous System Endocrine System

Messages travel as electrical impulses along
nerves
Messages travel rapidly
Messages carried to specific region of the body
Messages have an immediate effect on the
body
Effects are short lasting
Messages travel as chemicals in the blood
(hormones)
Messages travel slowly
Messages are transported to all parts of the
body but only produce a reaction in target cells
or organs
Messages have a slower effect on the body
Effects maybe long lasting

How does alcohol affect the nervous system?

Alcohol is quickly absorbed in the blood stream through the stomach. Alcohol slows down the
passage of nerve impulses. It affects the synapse. A slowing down of nerve impulses results in
slow reaction times, unsteady walking, slurred speech. It also causes the kidneys to excrete a lot
of water.

DRUGS (pg 219)

 A drug is a chemical which alters the way the body works. It affects the mind and behaviour
of a person.
 Drugs can help treat an illness however the problem is when people take harmful drugs for
pleasure.
 Drugs can: 1) lead to addition or dependency
2) All drugs become poisonous if used frequently
3) Mixing drugs and alcohol is dangerous and can lead to death.
 Prescription drugs: you need to have a prescription written by a doctor before you can get
the drug as they have many side effects.
 Non-prescription drugs: these are over the counter drugs that you can buy without a doctor’s
prescription. Eg. Panadol
 Illegal drugs are controlled by the government and persons are not allowed to have them
 Drug dependency: this is when a person needs the drugs to function normally. If they do not
get the drug they suffer with severe withdrawal symptoms like seizures, panic.
 Drug addition: the compulsive use of a substance despite its negative effects.

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 ABUSE OF DRUGS
 COCAINE: this is an illegal drug. It is a stimulant which speeds up heart rate and elevates
blood pressure. Cocaine- makes you feel alert, well-being, happy, ‘high’ but is very
addictive. It can cause violent behaviour, hallucinations, anxiety, lung and nasal damage.
 ALCOHOL: the short term effects are violent behaviour, nausea, impaired mental function.
The long-term effects are dependence, cirrhosis or hardening of the liver, stomach ulcers,
liver cancer, heart disease, high blood pressure. Drinking during pregnancy can cause low
birth weight, poor physical and mental development of the fetus, miscarriage.
 ANTIBIOTICS: these kill bacteria. Taking it went it is not needed can cause bacteria to
become resistant to them and not work. Too much can also kill good bacteria.
 CAFFEINE: the drug found in coffee and some soft drinks. It is a stimulant as the person
feels alert and energetic but it is addictive and interferes with the proper functioning of the
central nervous system. It prevents the absorption of calcium and lead to weak bones and
teeth in older years.
 PAINKILLERS: eg aspirin reduces fever and inflammation. It blocks the transmission of
pain signals from the receptor to the spinal cord and brain. It can cause irritation of the
stomach walls and in children, brain and liver damage.
 DIET PILLS: an unhealthy and dangerous way to lose weight. These pills can increase heart
beat which lead to heart attack, stroke and death.
 STEROIDS: these are abused by athletes and body-builders as they increase strength and
speed. They cause aggression and masculinization of women.
 TRANQUILISERS: these are sedative that cause you to become calm. It can treat anxiety
and stress but can cause a person to become unmotivated and unable to cope with daily
activities.

 PHYSIOLOGICAL (PHYSICAL) EFFECTS OF DRUGS: slurred speech, accelerated

ageing, bone loss, heart and blood pressure affected.

 PSYCHOLOGICAL (MENTAL) EFFECTS OF DRUGS: depression, memory loss,

impaired vision, anxiety, paranoia.

SOCIAL & ECONOMIC EFFECT OF DRUG ABUSE

*SOCIAL: loss of life due to overdose; family and personal neglect; increase crime and social
unrest.
*ECONOMIC: loss of working time which reduces productivity and cause loss of earning for the
country; increase demand on health services for treatment; research for cure is also expensive.

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