Instant Download Ebook PDF Exploring Physical Anthropology A Lab Manual and Workbook 3e 3rd Edition PDF Scribd

(eBook PDF) Exploring Physical
Anthropology: A Lab Manual and

Workbook, 3e 3rd Edition
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/download/ebook-pdf-exploring-physical-anthropology-a-lab-
manual-and-workbook-3e-3rd-edition/
Section 3 Classification, Functional Chapter 13 Early Members of the Human Line
Anatomy, and Primate Adaptations 77 New sections on base of support and center of mass,
Chapter 9 Biological Classification terminology for members of the human line (hominin,
hominid, etc.), australopith tool use, environmental
and the Order Primates
considerations, and sexual dimorphism.
77 New section on introduction to taxonomy and
systematics, additional section on systematic biology. 77 Expanded information on hominins and descriptions
of each species.
77 Expanded sections on primate characteristics and
descriptions of each main primate group. 77 Addition of new australopith species
77 Lab exercise includes new questions that force students 77 Two new tables showing features uniting all australopiths,
to think more, for example, about the adaptive signifi- and features separating the robust group from others.
cance of eye placement on the primate face.
Chapter 14 The Genus Homo
Chapter 10 The Living Primates 77 New section on the most recent fossil find that may
77 Greatly expanded text dealing with living primates that be a new species of our genus: Homo naledi.
includes characteristics of primate groups visible only 77 New section on Denisovans.
on living animals; primate distribution, habitat, and
diet; studying primates in the wild and in captivity; 77 Added discussion of inherent difficulty of interpreting
basics of studying primate behavior. evolutionary relationships based on fossils.
77 New lab exercise includes identifying living primates by 77 Updated information on later Homo.
their characteristics, primate geographical distribution, 77 Expanded information on Homo floresiensis, moved
investigating use of opposable thumbs, and creating an section near anatomically modern humans.
ethogram.
Chapter 11 The Anatomy-Behavior Link:

Dietary and Locomotor Adaptations
77 Improved organization of chapter to improve clarity
through use of sections separated by headers to introduce
Online Instructor’s Manual
locomotor adaptations and anatomical correlates of The associated online Instructor’s Manual (available at
arboreality and terrestriality. www.morton-pub.com) is now in the same attractive
77 New section on primate locomotor categories and format of the lab manual. It offers the following:
associated anatomical features. 77 A set of high-quality photos that correlate with those
77 Lab exercise includes new questions related to dentition in the lab manual for Chapters 6, 7, and 9 through 14.
and dental formula. These may be printed out and used by the instructor for
practice sessions, lab exercises, or testing purposes.
77 Answers to Check Your Understanding questions and
Section 4 Human Origins Lab Exercises.
Chapter 12 Investigating the Past: Fossil Primates 77 Instructor’s “Helpful Hints” section for some chapters.
77 Expanded information on fossil primates, including
77 “Additional Resources,” particularly websites, for
the addition of five newly discovered genera.
material covered in each chapter.
77 Updated discussion of early primate relationships.
77 Errata.
77 Dating techniques incorporated into main text; lab
exercise moved up to immediately after text portion. 77 Suggested list of minimal collection for a physical
anthropology lab class.
77 New lab exercise on interpreting fossil finds to uncover
clues about the fossils themselves, the paleoenvironment,
and taphonomy.
vii
i-xiv Front Matter.indd 7 11/4/16 8:28 AM

Contents
Section 1: EVOLUTION AND ITS GENETIC BASIS

Physical Anthropology: Science and Evolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1 Physical Anthropologists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
The Scientific Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
What is Evolution?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Evolutionary Theory as Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Evolution: A Continual, Nonprogressive Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Common Ancestors: Apes and Humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Check Your Understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Lab Exercise 1.1: The Scientific Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Lab Exercise 1.2: Documenting Biological Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Lab Exercise 1.3: Simulating Natural Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Cells and DNA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2 Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Genetic Material. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Check Your Understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
19
23
Proteins and Amino Acids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
The Genetic Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Summary of Protein Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Mutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Lab Exercise 2.1: Extracting DNA from a Banana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Lab Exercise 2.2: Simulation of DNA Replication
and Protein Synthesis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Lab Exercise 2.3: DNA Structure and Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Chromosomes and Cell Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

3 Chromosomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cell Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Karyotypes: Our 46 Chromosomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
45
49
Sex Determination in Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Chromosomal Anomalies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Tying it all Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Lab Exercise 3.1: Chromosomes and Cell Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Lab Exercise 3.2: Karyotypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
ix

Inheritance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4 Basic Principles of Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Genes and How Traits are Expressed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Predicting Outcomes of Autosomal and Sex-Linked Traits . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
67
70
Check Your Understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Blood Typing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Pedigrees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Genetics Recap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Lab Exercise 4.1: Identifying Genotypes and Phenotypes,
Transmission of Autosomal Traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Lab Exercise 4.2: Testing the PTC Tasting Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Lab Exercise 4.3: Blood Typing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Lab Exercise 4.4: Pedigree Construction
for Red-Green Color-Blindness Trait. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Forces of Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5 Natural Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gene Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
100
101
101
Random Genetic Drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Evolution in Action: Malaria and the Sickle-Cell Trait . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Documenting Evolution: Population Genetics
and Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Lab Exercise 5.1: Sickle Cell and Balanced Polymorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Lab Exercise 5.2: Documenting Evolution: Population Genetics . . . . . . . . 115
Lab Exercise 5.3: Population Genetics Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Section 2: SKELETAL ANATOMY
AND VARIATION OF MODERN HUMANS
The Bones Within Us. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6 Functions of the Skeleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
What We Can Tell From Bone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Classification, Development, and Bone Anatomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
128
128
128
Anatomical Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Features of Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
The Skeleton and Its Major Articulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Muscle Attachments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
The Role of Natural Selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Axial Skeleton Part I: The Skull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Axial Skeleton Part II: Vertebral Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Axial Skeleton Part III: Thorax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Appendicular Skeleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Lab Exercise 6.1: Anatomical Terminology and the Skull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Lab Exercise 6.2: Vertebral Column and Thorax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Lab Exercise 6.3: Muscle Actions, Shoulder Girdle,
Upper Limb, and Hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Lab Exercise 6.4: The Lower Limb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Lab Exercise 6.5: Surface Anatomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Forensic Anthropology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

7 Forensic Anthropology and Forensic Anthropologists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Documenting Human Biological Variation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Osteometric Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
176
176
176
Determining Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Check Your Understanding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Determining Age at Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Determining Ancestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Determining Height. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Evidence of Health and Nutrition on Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Human Behavior Inferred from the Skeleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Lab Exercise 7.1: Osteometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Lab Exercise 7.2: Sex Determination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Lab Exercise 7.3: Estimating Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Lab Exercise 7.4: Ancestry Determination and Stature Estimation . . . . . . 211
Lab Exercise 7.5: Anthroposcopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
xi

Modern Human Biological Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
8 Intragroup Variation: Differences among Individuals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Intergroup Variation: Geographical Populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Check Your Understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
220
222
225
Lab Exercise 8.1: Discrete Trait: Introduction to Fingerprinting. . . . . . . . . 227
Lab Exercise 8.2: Continuous Traits: Cranial
and Postcranial Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Lab Exercise 8.3: The Challenge of Documenting
Intergroup Variation in Humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Section 3: CLASSIFICATION, FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY,

AND PRIMATE ADAPTATIONS
Biological Classification and the Order Primates . . . . . . . . . . . 239
9 Establishing Evolutionary Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Biological Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Science of Naming Organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
239
240
241
Order Primates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Systematic Biology: An Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Lab Exercise 9.1: Biological Classification, Primate Features . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Lab Exercise 9.2: Primate Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Lab Exercise 9.3: Systematic Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
The Living Primates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

10 Who’s Who among the Primates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Primate Distribution, Habitat, and Diet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Studying Primates in the Wild and in Captivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
265
268
268
Introduction to Primate Behavior. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Primate Behavioral Observation Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Lab Exercise 10.1: Distinguishing Primate Groups by Features
and Behavior; Primate Diet and Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Lab Exercise 10.2: Observing Captive Primates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Lab Exercise 10.3: Alternative to Lab Exercise 10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
The Anatomy-Behavior Link:

11 Dietary and Locomotor Adaptations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Dietary Adaptations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Skull Form. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
290
294
Locomotor Adaptations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Lab Exercise 11.1: Dietary Adaptations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Lab Exercise 11.2: Positional Adaptations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
xii

Section 4: HUMAN ORIGINS
Investigating the Past: Fossil Primates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
12 Investigating the Past . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Geological Time Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Determining Fossil Age: Dating Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
312
313
313
Plate Tectonics and Climatic Trends in the Cenozoic Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
The Question of Primate Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Primate Beginnings: The Paleocene Epoch (66 mya to 56 mya) . . . . . . . . . 315
The “True” Primates of the Eocene Epoch (56 mya to 34 mya) . . . . . . . . . 316
The Oligocene Primates (34 mya to 23 mya) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Miocene Hominoids (23 mya to 5.3 mya) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Lab Exercise 12.1: Investigating Past Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Lab Exercise 12.2: Dating Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Lab Exercise 12.3: Primates through the Miocene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Early Members of the Human Line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

13 The Comparative Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bipedalism: Hallmark of Humanity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ape–Human Anatomical Comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
344
344
345
Early Members of the Human Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Lab Exercise 13.1: Bipedalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Lab Exercise 13.2: Comparative Base: Apes and Humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Lab Exercise 13.3: Features of the Australopiths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Lab Exercise 13.4: Measuring Cranial Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Lab Exercise 13.5: Tooth and Jaw Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
The Genus Homo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

14 Earlier Homo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Check Your Understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Later Homo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
384
387
389
Special Case of the Neanderthals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Anatomically Modern Humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
The Origin of Modern Humans and Disappearance
of the Neanderthals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Homo floresiensis: The Hobbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
A New Discovery: The Denisovans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Lab Exercise 14.1: Stone Tools and Early Homo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Lab Exercise 14.2: Later Homo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Lab Exercise 14.3: Body Proportions in Neanderthals
and Anatomically Modern Humans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
xiii

Concluding Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Appendices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
A Cutouts of Beetles, Lab Exercise 1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
B Cutouts of DNA and RNA Bases, Amino Acids,
Ribosome and tRNA Molecules, Lab Exercise 2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
C Cutouts of Chromosomes, Lab Exercise 3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
D Latin and Greek Roots for Selected Anatomical Terms. . . . . . . . . . 423
E Fossil Primates: Paleocene through Miocene
(New World primates not included). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
F Fossil Members of the Human Line (Hominids/Hominins) . . . . . . . 427
G Comparison of Homo rudolfensis
and Homo habilis Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Photo Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
xiv

1
Physical Anthropology:
Science and Evolution
I have called this principle, by which each slight variation, if useful,

is preserved, by the term of Natural Selection. — Charles Darwin
OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

Have
1 Explain what physical anthropology 6 Explain how the study of evolution
is and how it is a scientific pursuit. is scientific. you ever
2 Give the definition of science. 7 Define the principle of common wondered..............
ancestry.
3 Describe the steps in the scientific Is evolution really “just”
method, and practice using them. 8 Document biological variation a theory?
using data collection.
4 Explain what evolution is and how Did humans evolve from
it is different from natural selection. 9 Practice some basic descriptive apes?
statistics.
5 Describe the role of variation in natural If humans evolved from
selection. apes, why do apes still
exist?
W
hat is physical anthropology? Physical, or biological, anthropology is a
unique scientific field. While anthropology in general is a social science,
physical anthropology is based upon biological principles using an
evolutionary perspective. Like the other sciences, physical anthropology depends
upon the scientific method to create explanatory theories. Physical anthropology
focuses on human evolutionary history and modern biological variation and
adaptations within the context of human cultures and behaviors. In order to
place humans in context as part of the natural world, physical anthropology
also deals with our closest living relatives, other members of the order Primates.
Physical Anthropologists
Many areas of study and types of professions fall within the realm of physical
anthropology. All such studies are undertaken following the steps of the scientific
method. Following are some examples of physical anthropologists:
1. Paleontologists study fossils to make inferences about human and nonhuman
primate evolutionary history.
001-016 Ch 01 Anthropology intro.indd 1 11/3/16 4:04 PM

2. Primatologists study the ecology and behavior of non nnAttilaAndics and his coauthors compared human
human primates, including patterns of learning and and dog brain activity by using functional magnetic
social bonding; studying primate behavior may also resonance imaging (fMRI). They found evidence for
provide clues about the behavior of early humans. responses to the same stimuli in similar auditory
regions of both species’ brains, especially when the
3. Human biologists study the range of variation in
voices were associated with more positive emotions
modern human adaptations.
(Andics et al., 2014).
4. Skeletal biologists may use their studies in archaeological
5. The goal of the scientific method in the life sciences is
or forensic contexts.
forming a theory, which may be stated if a hypothesis
5. Geneticists may investigate relatedness among individ is corroborated. A theory explains the results we see.
uals, questions about human populations, evolutionary nnThe conclusions of the dog brain study include:
relationships and classification, and biomedical issues. “These findings suggest that acoustical cues related
to vocal emotional valence are processed similarly in
the dog and human auditory cortex. . . . These results
The Scientific Method expand earlier findings that dogs react similarly to
Humans are inquisitive by nature. We are curious about some emotional state changes of other dogs and
the way things work and we like to be able to explain the humans. . . .” (Andics et al., 2014).
things we observe. Science—the activity of seeking out
reliable explanations for natural phenomena—allows Law Versus Theory
us to do that. You are probably already familiar with the But what about a law? A law is more typical of sciences
procedure that scientists follow: the scientific method. such as physics and chemistry. These scientific fields often
The basic steps, though presented with slight variations describe a phenomenon consistently observed under a
by different authors, are as follows: observation, question, specific set of conditions, and may even be represented
hypothesis, testing hypothesis through experimentation or simply by a mathematical equation.
data collection, and proposing a theory. A theory is the usual goal in life sciences like biology
1. We observe some phenomenon empirically, that is, and physical anthropology. While both theories and laws
using at least one of our five senses: sight, touch, smell, are based on confirmed hypotheses, a theory is explana
hearing, taste. tory—the explanation is supported by a body of evidence.
Longstanding and well-accepted theories include the the
nnFor example, dogs appear to respond differently ory of relativity, gravitational theory, and atomic theory.
to happy voices than to angry ones; their response Without thinking about it, we derive benefits from the
(tail-wagging, adopting particular facial expressions) scientific method on a daily basis. Most household products
differs depending on the sound of the voice. we use, and certainly all the medications we take, have been
2. We ask ourselves a question about the phenomenon. subject to controlled, rigorous testing as part of this process.
Often, these are the how/what/why types of questions. Science strives to explain phenomena and search
nnHow similar are dogs to humans in the way they continually for the most accurate explanation. Thus,
process emotion in others? theories and laws are not absolute, but are subject to
being disproved or at least modified when new evidence
3. To investigate the questions in a systematic way, we is presented.
propose a hypothesis. Basically, we take an educated
guess at the answer to our question. Our hypothesis
What is Evolution?
must be formulated so that if it is not true, it will be
disproved, or falsified, through experimentation or Evolution provides the framework for our understanding
data collection. As such, a scientific hypothesis must of how species arise and change over time. What is evolu
be testable. tion and how does it occur?
Evolution can be most accurately defined as a change
nnUpon hearing a range of dog and human sounds, we
in allele frequency in a gene pool over time. Alleles are
predict that dog brains will exhibit similar patterns
alternative versions of genes, and a gene pool consists of all
of brain activity as human brains.
the genes in a population, which is a group of potentially
4. We design an experiment or some other alternate interbreeding organisms. Allele frequency refers to how
study to collect data that will test the reliability of often each allele for a given trait occurs in a gene pool.
our hypothesis. Can it be corroborated/validated To illustrate allele frequency change, and thus evolution,
or does the evidence serve to falsify/disprove it? consider the following hypothetical experiment.
2 Exploring Physical Anthropology

After completing the extensive process of receiving mutation, and natural selection. Introduced only briefly
permission by your university’s Internal Review Board here, these evolutionary forces will be the focus of Chapter 5.
to conduct this experiment, you stand, blood-typing kit In the hypothetical blood-typing experiment, the
in hand, at the entrance of the campus student union for frequency of the A, B, and O alleles would have likely
one week and collect a drop of blood from all who pass by changed as a result of two of the evolutionary forces. Gene
(and give you their permission in writing). Use the col flow would occur as new students move in and replace
lected samples to determine the blood type of each partici those who leave; obviously, the number of entering students
pant: type A, B, O, or AB. From the frequency of blood carrying any particular pair of alleles for ABO blood type
types, you can calculate the frequency for the specific A, B, won’t be exactly the same as those who have left.
and O alleles in this random sample. Additionally, a population’s allele frequencies change
You will need to wait 20 years to conduct the second between generations depending upon each individual’s
part of the experiment. Return to the same student union mate choices. Different combinations of parental alleles
entrance and repeat your experiment, but this time you will combine to produce a different proportion of blood
will blood-type the next generation of students. Will you types in the next generation. This illustrates one form of
find the same exact numbers of people with type A, B, O, genetic drift.
and AB blood? And will you calculate the same frequency Mutation, a heritable alteration in the genetic material
of A, B, and O alleles? Of course not. The allele frequency (DNA), is the only evolutionary force to produce new
will have changed, because the factors that cause evolution variation in a gene pool.
are constantly in action. Although early scientists debated the topic of evolu
This occurs in all populations of all species, whether in tionary change, no one proposed a likely mechanism for
nature, in a laboratory, or on a farm. Examples of evolution it until the mid-1800s. At that time, Charles Darwin and
include the changing nature of a virus as it is transmitted Alfred Russell Wallace independently established a series
from one species to another, the bacterial strain that d
evelops of steps by which evolution could work. They called their
resistance to antibiotics, and the anatomical and behavioral explanation for evolution natural selection.
changes occurring between generations as humans select
for certain features in a breed of horses. Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection
Evolution’s Genetic Basis The steps in natural selection are:
Our physical traits (as well as some behavioral ones) 1. More individuals of each species are produced than
are determined, or at least influenced, by our genes. For can possibly survive.
example, one gene determines our blood type, and another 2. Variation exists, making some individuals of a species
determines whether or not we have sickle-cell anemia better adapted to their environment than others.
because of incorrect hemoglobin production. Genes are
3. Members of a species compete for limited resources.
functional segments of deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA.
(Other factors that limit population growth are also
DNA is the genetic material and, together with certain
at play—disease, predation, etc.)
proteins, makes up the chromosomes (G: chrome 5 color;
soma 5 body) in the nucleus of cells. 4. Individuals with inherited traits that allow them to be
The specific version of a gene we inherit from each better adapted to their environment will be more likely
parent is an allele. For example, our mother and father to survive to reproduce than will those with traits that
each contributed an A, B, or O allele to us at conception. make them less well-adapted.
This combination of the two alleles determines whether 5. Individuals with the well-adapted traits are likely to
we have type A, B, O, or AB blood. In this way, allele pairs contribute more offspring to the next generation,
for all of our genes provide the “blueprint” to produce passing on their genes in higher numbers than those
each of us. A copy of the same blueprint resides in all of with the less favorable traits, causing a change in allele
our cells, except for the egg and sperm cells we produce. frequency. If a particular form of a trait continues to
In these cells, the genes we have inherited from our parents have a selective advantage in a given environment, it is
become “jumbled up” in the process of cell production, likely to become increasingly common in the population.
resulting in variation in our offspring. 6. If change in a number of traits accumulates over many
generations, the eventual descendants may be sufficiently
How Evolution Occurs: different from their ancestors to be considered a new
The Evolutionary Forces species. However, most natural selection simply acts
Most researchers consider there to be four main factors to maintain a balance between the adaptations of
that cause evolution to occur: gene flow, genetic drift, organisms and their environment.
Chapter 1 b Physical Anthropology: Science and Evolution 3

Although the first few steps make reference to species, For example, larger seeds have a greater advantage over
please note that natural selection acts on individuals. It is in- smaller ones in deep shade, while smaller seeds may mature
dividuals that either reproduce or not, or produce many faster than large ones in more exposed conditions.
offspring versus only a few. This differential reproductive While Darwin and Wallace knew that variation within
success basically sums up natural selection. species was important, they didn’t know how it arose.
Figure 1.1 illustrates the occurrence of natural selection That knowledge would come later, with early advances
in bird wing shape. Assume in this example that selection in genetics.
favors a wing shape that is most efficient for fast take-offs—
short and broad. Inherited variation in wing shape is already
present in the population, but because those with the short Evolutionary Theory as Science
est, broadest wings are the most successful at surviving to No ideas have been proposed that provide a scientific
reproduce, the alleles determining this wing type are repre- alternative to evolutionary theory. That is, no alternate
sented at higher frequencies in subsequent generations. testable hypotheses have been proposed to explain the
It is easy to confuse natural selection with evolution; genetic and anatomical similarities in groups of organisms,
remember that evolution is a change in a population’s the origin of new species, and the changes occurring within
allele frequency over time, and natural selection is one a lineage through time. Arguments that have been advanced
of the four factors that cause the change to occur. to detract from theories of evolution are based on a lack of
understanding of both evolution and the scientific method.
Importance of Variation Again, hypotheses must be testable!
Variation serves as the vital “fuel” for natural selection Consider the following hypothesis, formulated to
and must be present for the process to occur. The within- investigate the cause of the mass extinctions of dinosaurs
species variation of such traits as wing shape, tooth enamel at the end of the Cretaceous period about 65 million years
thickness, leg length, canine size, fur thickness, disease ago. The hypothesis proposes that dinosaurs ate the newly
immunity, and so on, enable some individuals to have higher evolved angiosperms (flowering plants), some of which
fitness (reproductive success) than others. This v ariation contained psychoactive agents, because they couldn’t taste
also makes it more likely that in the face of environmental the bitterness and thus avoid them. The dinosaurs’ livers
change at least some individuals of a species will survive to were ineffective at processing plant toxins, so they basically
reproductive age. died of drug overdoses (Colbert et al., 1946).
To understand variation within species, we must think There are a number of problems with this hypothesis,
in terms of adaptive significance, or the advantage of certain including the fact that not only dinosaurs, but most of life
forms in the process of natural selection. The size of wild on Earth, was wiped out during the extinction event.
pods in legumes, for example snow peas, may be associated However, the important point here is that this is not test-
with plant success. A larger pod with more and/or larger able; we have no way to test the efficacy of dinosaur taste
seeds may have increased competitive ability because of buds or liver function (Gould, 1985).
the larger seeds’ greater probability of seedling establish- Misunderstandings about evolution abound. For ex
ment, ability to withstand environmental hazards, and ample, the statement, “Evolution is just a theory, not a
production of larger, hardier seedlings. proven fact,” demonstrates confusion between the terms
However, specific environment conditions ultimately hypothesis (an untested idea) and theory (an idea with its
determine the better adapted trait; one form may provide basis in a corroborated hypothesis). Unfortunately, this has
an advantage under one set of conditions but not in others. been driven largely by improper use of the word theory, as
Time 1 Time 2
Time 3
FIGURE 1.1 Process of natural selection,

selecting for shorter, broader wings over
time.
001-016 Ch 01 Anthropology intro.indd 4 11/22/16 7:42 AM

in, “I have a theory,” to mean only a guess
THEN: 400 MILLION YEARS AGO NOW: 2016
at an explanation. If only someone would
start a campaign to replace that usage
with, “I have a hypothesis.”
Evolution is a Fact. It Occurs.
Allele frequencies change in each popula-
tion, even from one generation to the next.
That is established, and we can see it all
around us. The theoretical part is how it
occurs. For example, natural selection is
a mechanism for evolution. Scientists may
argue about whether natural selection or
mutation plays the larger role in producing
evolutionary change, but not about FIGURE 1.2 Sharks have undergone little change through time.
whether evolution does or does not occur.
Centuries of scientific discoveries in the areas of geology, common ancestor dictates the development of the same
biology, anthropology, paleontology, physics, and chemistry features in various groups.
have brought us to the level of knowledge at which we find Humans have a femur, a humerus, and a mandible—
ourselves now. Questioning, probing, critiquing—these are as do birds, crocodiles, and dogs—because our shared
qualities in the nature of scientists, and we continue to common ancestor also had those bones. A feature shared
engage in them to better provide explanations for natural by descendants of a common ancestor that also possessed
phenomena. But if it is not testable, it is not science! that particular feature is called a homology (Fig. 1.3). Ho
mologous features will be discussed further in Chapter 9.
Evolution: A Continual, Obviously, humans did not evolve from modern apes.
Nonprogressive Process The fossil record and genetic data both indicate that
humans shared a common ancestor with the African apes
Evolution occurs continually in all populations. It is a non (chimpanzee and gorilla) between 7 and 8 million years
progressive process, which means that a species does not ago. This common ancestor would have been quite ape
evolve in any predetermined way. Natural selection does like, and the earliest members of the human line do have
not make populations “better.” Because environmental
conditions fluctuate throughout time, traits selected for in
one set of conditions may be selected against in another. In Humerus
addition to natural selection, the other evolutionary forces Mandible Mandible
of mutation, genetic drift, and gene flow also act together
to change allele frequencies in a population. Femur
If a species is well adapted to its environment and the Humerus
environment remains the same, the species may undergo
little or no obvious change. Two excellent examples are
sharks (Fig. 1.2), which first evolved over 400 million
years ago in the Devonian period of the Paleozoic era, and Mandible
cockroaches, which first evolved about 305 million years
ago in the Carboniferous period (also in the Paleozoic Femur
Humerus
era). On the other hand, members of the human line have Femur
changed greatly since diverging from our apelike ancestor,
because of adaptations to our environment.
Common Ancestors: Apes and Humans

Mandible
The human body plan shares some basic similarities
Femur Humerus
with other animals, and we have greater similarity to
those with whom we share a more recent ancestry. All
living vertebrates shared a common ancestor more than
FIGURE 1.3 Various vertebrates demonstrating homologous
features.
500 million years ago. The DNA passed down from that

many apelike features such as a small brain and forward-
jutting jaw.
While modern apes and humans each have evolved
since our shared ancestor several million years ago, humans
changed in appearance and behavior to a much greater
degree (Fig. 1.4).
While the apes have their own unique evolutionary
history, their environment and lifestyle have changed less
than ours. Because there has been less selection pressure
to cause species change, the apes have undergone little
obvious change since that common ancestor. But remember, Gorilla Chimpanzee Human
evolution is a continuous process in all populations, so the
apes have by no means “stopped evolving”!
Thus, humans and modern apes have a shared com
mon ancestry in much the same way you and your siblings
share your parents as ancestors; likewise, you and your
cousins share ancestry via your grandparents.
In physical anthropology, we draw conclusions by rely
FIGURE 1.4 African ape/human evolutionary
ing on the scientific method, and interpret all the evidence
within the framework of evolutionary theory. The shared tree demonstrating the great degree of human
ancestry of all living things is recorded in the genes. change since the common ancestor. Estimates
In the next couple of chapters, we will look more of divergence times vary, but the African ape/
closely at the genetic material. What is it? How is new human common ancestor may have lived as
genetic variation produced? How are traits passed from recently as seven million years ago.
one generation to the next?
References
Andics, A., M. Gacsi,T. Farago, A. Kis, and A. Miklosi. “Voice-sensitive Gould, S. J. “Sex, drugs, disasters and the extinction of dinosaurs,” in
regions in the dog and human brain are revealed by comparative The Flamingo’s Smile. New York: WW Norton and Company,
fMRI.” Current Biology 24 (2014): 574–578. 1985.
Colbert, E. H., R. B. Cowles, and C. M. Bogert. “Temperature
tolerances in the American alligator and their bearing on the
habits, evolution, and extinction of the dinosaurs.” Bulletin
of the AMNH 86 (1946): 331–373.

Check Your Understanding 1.1 Name
Section Date
1 What makes physical anthropology scientific?
2 List a couple of examples of what physical anthropologists do.
3 What is science?
4 Number the steps of the scientific method in correct order from one to five, and fill in the blanks.
________ Ask a question (why, what, how, etc.).
________ Experiment or collect data.
________ State a ___________________________________, which is based on a corroborated __________________________________.
________ Observe some phenomenon.
________ Propose a ___________________________________, which must be testable/falsifiable.
5 Explain hypothesis and theory and the difference between them.
6 What is the definition of evolution as discussed in this book?
7 What is allele frequency?
8 What is a population?
9 List the four main evolutionary forces.

10 Explain the difference between natural selection and evolution.
11 Explain why variation within each species is important for natural selection.
12 What is wrong with the statement, “Evolution is just a theory”? How would you respond if someone said this to you?
13 Explain how evolution is nonprogressive.
14 What is wrong with the statement, “If humans evolved from apes, why are there still apes”? How would you respond
if someone asked you this question?
15 Why have humans changed more than chimpanzees and gorillas since diverging from our shared common ancestor?

LAB EXERCISE Name
1.1 The Scientific Method

Section Date
Working together in pairs or groups of three, answer the following questions

Materials Needed
about the scientific method.
qq
No additional materials are needed
1 You have observed (or heard) that your neighbor’s rooster crows every
morning just before daylight. Not only are you tired of being woken up
before dawn, you also would like to know why it crows more at that time
than at any other time of the day. Listed below are three hypotheses
proposed to investigate this phenomenon.
Hypothesis 1: The rooster just feels like crowing at that time every day.
Is this a testable hypothesis? Why or why not?
If you could test it, how would you do so?
Hypothesis 2: The rooster’s crowing ensures that the sun rises.
Hypothesis 3: The rooster has an “internal clock” based on its genetically determined circadian rhythm
(natural biological processes occurring on a 24-hour cycle).

2 You have observed that the spider plants in your living room are dying, and you decide to find out why.
a What question are you likely to ask about this phenomenon that would lead you to developing a hypothesis?
b Formulate a testable hypothesis to investigate this phenomenon. It may be in the form of a question or stated
as a prediction.
c What could be an untestable hypothesis for this same phenomenon?
d Design a simple experiment or set of observations that would allow you to test your (testable) hypothesis.
3 Working with your lab partner(s), think of some phenomenon that you find interesting and would like to investigate.
a Describe the phenomenon.
b What is a question that might lead to developing a hypothesis about this phenomenon?
c Formulate a testable hypothesis.
d Design a simple experiment or set of observations that would allow you to test your (testable) hypothesis.
4 Explain what is scientific about the study of evolution. (Hint: Think about the definition of evolution and how you
would apply the steps of the scientific method.)

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
a point which His Majesty's Government can afford to concede.
I think it would have a deplorable effect in Cape Colony and
Natal to obtain peace by such a concession." Mr. Chamberlain
agreed with the High Commissioner, writing in reply: "His
Majesty's Government feel that they cannot promise to ask for
complete amnesty to Cape and Natal rebels who are in totally
different position to burghers without injustice to those who
have remained loyal under great provocation, and they are
prepared substantially to adopt your words, but you must
consider whether your last line is strictly applicable to
Natal." Mr. Chamberlain made numerous other criticisms of Lord
Kitchener's suggested letter, and amended it in many
particulars, the most important of which related to the form
of government under which the late republics would be placed.
Lord Kitchener would have said: "Military law will cease and
be at once replaced by civil administration, which will at
first consist of a Governor and a nominated Executive with or
without an advisory elected Assembly, but it is the desire of
His Majesty's Government, as soon as circumstances permit, to
establish representative Government in the Transvaal and
Orange River Colony." His political superior instructed him to
change the statement as follows: "For 'military law will
cease' say 'military administration will cease.' It is
possible that there may be disturbed districts for some time
after terms have been accepted, and Governor of Colonies
cannot abandon right of proclaiming martial law where
necessary. In the same sentence omit the words 'at the same
time' and 'at once' and substitute at the beginning the words
'at the earliest practicable date.' For 'consist of a
Governor' down to 'Assembly' read 'consist of a Governor and
an Executive Council composed of the principal officials with
a Legislative Council consisting of a certain number of
official members to whom a nominated unofficial element will
from the first be added.' In place of the words 'to establish
representative government' substitute 'to introduce a
representative element, and ultimately to concede to the new
Colonies the privilege of self-government.' It is desirable at
this stage to be quite precise in order to avoid any charge of
breach of faith afterwards."
Out of the instructions he received, Lord Kitchener finally

framed the following letter to Commandant Botha, sent to him
on the 7th of March: "With reference to our conversation at
Middelburg on 28th February, I have the honour to inform you
that in the event of a general and complete cessation of
hostilities and the surrender of all rifles, ammunition,
cannon, and other munitions of war in the hands of the
burghers or in Government depots or elsewhere, His Majesty's
Government is prepared to adopt the following measures:
"His Majesty's Government will at once grant an amnesty in the

Transvaal and Orange River Colonies for all bona fide acts of
war committed during the recent hostilities. British subjects
belonging to Natal and Cape Colony, while they will not be
compelled to return to those Colonies, will, if they do so, be
liable to be dealt with by the law of those Colonies specially
passed to meet the circumstances arising out of the present
war. As you are doubtless aware, the special law in the Cape
Colony has greatly mitigated the ordinary penalties for high
treason in the present cases.
"All prisoners of war now in St. Helena, Ceylon, or elsewhere

will, on the completion of the surrender, be brought back to
their country as quickly as arrangements can be made for their
transport.
"At the earliest practicable date military administration will

cease and will be replaced by civil administration in the form
of Crown Colony Government. There will therefore be, in the
first instance, in each of the new Colonies a Governor and an
Executive Council, consisting of a certain number of official
members, to whom a nominated unofficial element will be added.
But it is the desire of His Majesty's Government, as soon as
circumstances permit, to introduce a representative element
and ultimately to concede to the new Colonies the privilege of
self-government. Moreover, on the cessation of hostilities a High
Court will be established in each of the new Colonies to
administer the law of the land, and this Court will be
independent of the Executive.
"Church property, public trusts, and orphans funds will be

respected.
"Both the English and Dutch languages will be used and taught
in public schools where parents of the children desire it, and
allowed in Courts of Law.
"As regards the debts of the late Republican Governments, His

Majesty's Government cannot undertake any liability. It is,
however, prepared, as an act of grace, to set aside a sum not
exceeding £1,000,000 to repay inhabitants of the Transvaal and
Orange River Colonies for goods requisitioned from them by the
late Republican Governments, or, subsequent to annexation, by
Commandants in the field being in a position to enforce such
requisitions. But such claims will have to be established to
the satisfaction of a Judge or Judicial Commission appointed
by the Government to investigate and assess them, and if
exceeding in the aggregate £1,000,000, they will be liable to
reduction pro rata.
"I also beg to inform your Honour that the new Government will
take into immediate consideration the possibility of assisting
by loan the occupants of farms who will take the oath of
allegiance to repair any injury sustained by destruction of
buildings or loss of stock during the war, and that no special
war tax will be imposed on farmers to defray the expense of
the war.
"When burghers require the protection of fire-arms such will

be allowed to them by licence and on due registration,
provided they take the oath of allegiance. Licences also will
be issued for sporting rifles, guns, &c., but military
firearms will only be allowed for means of protection.
{513}
"As regards the extension of the franchise to Kaffirs in the

Transvaal and Orange River Colony, it is not the intention of
His Majesty's Government to give such franchise before
representative government is granted to these Colonies, and if
then given it will be so limited as to secure the just
predominance of the white races. The legal position of
coloured persons will, however, be similar to that which they
hold in Cape Colony.
"In conclusion, I must inform your Honour that if the terms

now offered are not accepted after a reasonable delay for
consideration they must be regarded as cancelled."
On the 16th of March the following reply came from the Boer
Commandant: "I have the honour to acknowledge receipt of your
Excellency's letter stating what steps your Excellency's
Government is prepared to take in the event of a general and
total cessation of hostilities. I have advised my Government
of your Excellency's said letter; but, after the mutual
exchange of views at our interview at Middelburg on 28th
February last, it will certainly not surprise your Excellency
to know that I do not feel disposed to recommend that the
terms of the said letter shall have the earnest consideration
of my Government. I may add also that my Government and my
chief officers here entirely agree to my views." This ended
the negotiations.
A discussion of the negotiations in Parliament occurred on the

28th of March, when Mr. Bryce (Liberal) said "they were agreed
that the Government took an onward step when they allowed the
peace negotiations to be entered into, and it was important to
observe that, not only Lord Kitchener, but Sir Alfred Milner
was persuaded that General Botha meant business. It was
possible there were causes at work with which the House were
not acquainted which caused the negotiations to be broken off.
General Botha wrote to Lord Kitchener:—'You will not be
surprised to hear that my answer is in the negative.' One of
two things must have happened—either Lord Kitchener heard from
General Botha something that the House had not heard of, or
else General Botha was so much struck by the difference
between the terms which Lord Kitchener had discussed and the
terms contained in the letter that he conceived a distrust of
us altogether and believed that the Government would not
accept what Lord Kitchener had offered. He thought the
Government were right in asking that the oath of allegiance
should be taken, that they were entitled to insist upon the
provision that all hostilities must cease, and that they could
not pledge themselves as to the precise time when they would
bring back the prisoners. But there were three points on which
there were substantial differences between the terms Lord
Kitchener appeared to have offered and the terms in the final
letter. The first is the question of amnesty for the Cape
rebels. Lord Kitchener and General Botha appeared to have come
to an agreement on that subject. General Botha did not object
to the disfranchisement of the Cape rebels, and Lord Kitchener
did not appear to have conveyed any suggestion whatever of
anything except disfranchisement. He could conceive nothing
more likely to turn back the pacific desires of the Boers than
the fact that they found that, instead of the Cape rebels
having nothing but disfranchisement to fear, they were to be
held subject to the Cape laws as to treason. He was not
arguing whether that was right or wrong. The question was what
the Boers would think, and he put it to the House that it was
the most natural thing that they should be struck by the
contrast between the terms which Lord Kitchener appeared to
offer and the terms which were offered when the final letter
came, and that that was just the point upon which brave men,
feeling for their comrades, would be inclined to stand out.
They would be told that they would displease the loyalists at
the Cape if they did not exact all the penalties for treason.
He hoped they would never in that House consider it any part
of their business to satisfy the vindictive feeling of the
colonists at the Cape."
As to the difference between the terms of future government

for the inhabitants of the late republics proposed by Lord
Kitchener and those laid down by the Colonial Secretary, Mr.
Bryce said: "He should like to have known what the proposals
were that General Botha made with regard to a modified
independence, for he thought it was quite possible that it
might turn out in the long run that some kind of what was
called modified independence, protection, would be a great
deal easier for this country to work than a system of Crown
colony government. He thought the contrast between the
elective assembly which Lord Kitchener offered and the purely
arbitrary and despotic system which the final letter conveyed
must at once have struck the Boers as indicating the
difference between the views which the military man on the
spot entertained and the proposal which they might expect from
the Government. Of course there were objections to the
immediate grant of self-government. So also there were
objections to any course, and that course should be chosen
which was open to the fewest objections. But the proposal of
Crown colony government was, of all courses, the worst that
could be suggested. It had been suggested that members of the
Liberal party had asked for full-grown representative and
responsible government, but they never had suggested that.
What they had objected to was Crown colony government. They
admitted that when the war ended there must be an intermediate
period of administration, military or civil, but there was all
the difference in the world between an admittedly provisional
administration understood to be provisional and the creation
of the whole apparatus of Crown colony government. The Boer
population had an aversion to Crown colony administration,
associated in their minds with the days of Sir Owen Lanyon,
and an arbitrary form of government it was known to be. Of
course it was arbitrary; honourable members who questioned
that could not know what Crown colony administration was. The
existence of a nominated council did not prevent it being
arbitrary inasmuch as the members were obliged to vote as they
were directed by the Governor. He could not help thinking that
Lord Kitchener might, if he were asked to do so, throw some
light on a remarkable expression in the letter from General
Botha in which he said, after the mutual interchange of views
at their meeting, Lord Kitchener would not be surprised to
learn that he was not disposed to recommend the terms
proposed."
{514}
The radical Mr. Labouchere was sharper in his criticism: "He

held that it was nonsense to call the terms offered to the
Boers liberal and lenient; they were neither. We had burnt
their farms and desolated their country, and then we offered
them a small gift of money to put them back on their farms
while we took away their independence and their flag. He
honoured the men who resisted, no matter at what cost, when
the question was the independence of their native land. How
right General Botha was in distrusting the alterations made by
the Secretary for the Colonies in the matter of the gift was
shown by the right honourable gentleman himself, when he said
that, whereas the gift was to be limited to a certain sum, the
loyalists were to be paid first. In that case what would
remain to the burghers of the two colonies? The position of
the Boers in the Empire under the terms of the Colonial
Secretary would be little better than that of Kaffirs. As far
as ultimate self-government was concerned, they were to put
their faith in the Colonial Secretary. If he might offer them
a word of advice it would be—Put no faith in the Colonial
Secretary; get it in black and white. We had lost a great
opportunity of ending the war and settling South Africa. Peace
won by the sword would create a dependency in which racial
feuds would go on and the minority would be maintained over
the majority by a huge British garrison. The Dutch majority
was certain to increase every decade. The Transvaal farmers
lived in a poor, rude manner which English people would not
accept. …
"He did not particularly admire the Boers. To his mind they
had too much of the conservative element in them; but, judging
between the Afrikanders and the English who went to South
Africa, whilst fully recognizing that among the latter there
were many respectable men, he thought, taking them
collectively, the Boers were the better men. If we wanted to
maintain our rule in South Africa the Boers were the safest
men with whom to be on good terms. What were the Boers ready
to do? As he read the correspondence, they were ready to enter
the area of the British Empire, but only upon terms. Surely
our problem was to find terms honourable to us and to them,
which would lead to South Africa becoming one of those great
commonwealths connected with the Empire such as existed in
Australia and Canada. He suggested that, in the first place,
we should offer a full and absolute amnesty. He urged that the
Orange State and the Transvaal should as soon as possible be
made self-governing colonies. The Orange State was regarded by
every Englishman who had written about it as a model State. As
to the Transvaal, he admitted there was a difficulty, but he
would suggest that the main area of the country should be
separated from the Rand. The Rand might be administered by a
governor, a military governor if they liked, while in the rest
of the country the Dutch would have a majority. If this course
were adopted, instead of our giving some sort of pecuniary aid
to the Transvaalers, they might be paid a reasonable rent for
the Rand district, of which they would be deprived. … They on
that side of the House would be perfectly ready to agree to
the establishment of a provisional government, military or
civil—he should himself prefer Lord Kitchener to Sir Alfred
Milner—to carry on the country while they were arranging for
the colony to be self-governing. They were accustomed to be
told that Sir Alfred Milner was a sort of divine pro-consul.
He believed Sir Alfred Milner to be a most honourable man, and
very intelligent in many walks of life; but the truth was that
he began life as an Oxford don and then became an official in
the Treasury, facts which militated against his success in
practical politics. He believed that a man like Lord Dufferin
would do more for the cause of peace in South Africa than all
our soldiers."
SOUTH AFRICA: The Field of War: A. D. 1901 (February-April).

The High Commissioner, Sir Alfred Milner, on the situation
and prospects.
Leave of absence obtained by Sir Alfred.
A British Blue Book, made public in London on the 18th of

April, contains an interesting despatch from Sir Alfred
Milner, frankly reviewing the general situation in South
Africa, as it appeared to him on the 6th of February, when he
wrote, from Cape Town, and giving his forecast of future
prospects. The following are the more important passages of
the communication:
"A long time has elapsed since I have attempted to send to you
any general review of South African affairs. The reason is
twofold. In the first place, I am occupied every day that
passes from morning till night by business, all of which is
urgent, and the amount and variety of which you are doubtless
able to judge from the communications on a great variety of
subjects, which are constantly passing between us. In the next
place, I have always hoped that some definite point would be
reached at which it might be possible to sum up that chapter
of our history which contained the war, and to forecast the
work of administrative reconstruction which must succeed it.
But I am reluctantly forced to the conclusion that there will
be no such dividing line. I have not the slightest doubt of
the ultimate result, but I foresee that the work will be
slower, more difficult, more harassing, and more expensive
than was at one time anticipated. At any rate, it is idle to
wait much longer in the hope of being able to describe a clear
and clean-cut situation. Despite the many other calls upon my
time, and despite the confused character of the present
position, I think it better to attempt to describe, however
roughly and inadequately, the state of things as it exists
to-day.
"It is no use denying that the last half-year has been one of
retrogression. Seven months ago this Colony was perfectly
quiet, at least as far as the Orange River. The southern half
of the Orange River Colony was rapidly settling down, and even
a considerable portion of the Transvaal, notably the
south-western districts, seemed to have definitely accepted
British authority, and to rejoice at the opportunity of a
return to orderly government, and the pursuits of peace.
To-day the scene is completely altered. It would be
superfluous to dwell on the increased losses to the country
caused by the prolongation of the struggle, and by the form
which it has recently assumed. The fact that the enemy are now
broken up into a great number of small forces, raiding in
every direction, and that our troops are similarly broken up
in pursuit of them, makes the area of actual fighting, and
consequently of destruction, much wider than it would be in
the case of a conflict between equal numbers operating in
large masses.
{515}
Moreover, the fight is now mainly over supplies. The Boers
live entirely on the country through which they pass, not only
taking all the food they can lay hands upon on the farms,
grain, forage, horses, cattle, &c., but looting the small
village stores for clothes, boots, coffee, sugar, &c., of all
which they are in great need. Our forces, on their side, are
compelled to denude the country of everything moveable, in
order to frustrate these tactics of the enemy. No doubt a
considerable amount of the stock taken by us is not wholly
lost, but simply removed to the refugee camps, which are now
being established at many points along the railway lines. But
even under these circumstances, the loss is great, through
animals dying on the route, or failing to find sufficient
grass to live upon when collected in large numbers at the
camps. Indeed, the loss of crops and stock is a far more
serious matter than the destruction of farm buildings, of
which so much has been heard. I say this not at all as an
advocate of such destruction. I am glad to think that the
measure is now seldom if ever resorted to. At the same time,
the destruction of even a considerable number of farms, having
regard to the very rough and inexpensive character of the
majority of these structures in the Orange River Colony and
Transvaal, is a comparatively small item in the total damage
caused by the war to the agricultural community.
"To the losses incidental to the actual course of the

campaign, there has recently been added destruction of a
wholly wanton and malicious character. I refer to the injury
done to the head-gear, stamps, and other apparatus of some of
the outlying mines by Boer raiders, whose sole object was
injury. For this destruction there is, of course, no possible
excuse. … Fortunately the damage done to the mines has not
been large, relatively to the vast total amount of the fixed
capital sunk in them. The mining area is excessively difficult
to guard against purely predatory attacks having no military
purpose, because it is, so to speak, 'all length and no
breadth'—one long thin line, stretching across the country
from east to west for many miles. Still, garrisoned as
Johannesburg now is, it is only possible successfully to
attack a few points in it. Of the raids hitherto made, and
they have been fairly numerous, only one has resulted in any
serious damage. In that instance the injury done to the single
mine attacked amounted to £200,000, and it is estimated that
the mine is put out of working for two years. This mine is
only one out of a hundred, and is not by any means one of the
most important. These facts may afford some indication of the
ruin which might have been inflicted, not only on the
Transvaal and all South Africa, but on many European
interests, if that general destruction of mine works which was
contemplated just before our occupation of Johannesburg had
been carried out. However serious in some respects may have
been the military consequences of our rapid advance to
Johannesburg, South Africa owes more than is commonly
recognized to that brilliant dash forward, by which the vast
mining apparatus, the foundation of all her wealth, was saved
from the ruin threatening it.
"The events of the last six or seven months will involve a

greater amount of repair and a longer period of recuperation,
especially for agriculture, than anybody could have
anticipated when the war commenced. Yet, for all that, having
regard to the fact that both the Rand and Kimberley are
virtually undamaged, and that the main engines of prosperity,
when once set going again, will not take very long to get into
working order, the economic consequences of the war, though
grave, do not appear by any means appalling. The country
population will need a good deal of help, first to preserve it
from starvation, and then, probably, to supply it with a
certain amount of capital to make a fresh start. And the great
industry of the country will need some little time before it
is able to render any assistance. But, in a young country with
great recuperative powers, it will not take many years before
the economic ravages of the war are effaced.
"What is more serious to my mind than the mere material

destruction of the last six months is the moral effect of the
recrudescence of the war. I am thinking especially of the
Orange River Colony, and of that portion of the Transvaal
which fell so easily into our hands after the relief of
Mafeking, that is to say, the country lying between
Johannesburg and Pretoria, and the border of Bechuanaland.
Throughout this large area the feeling in the middle of last
year was undoubtedly pacific. The inhabitants were sick of the
war. They were greatly astonished, after all that had been
dinned into them, by the fair and generous treatment they
received on our first occupation, and it would have taken very
little to make them acquiesce readily in the new regime. At that
time too, the feeling in the Colony was better than I have
ever known it. The rebellious element had blown off steam in
an abortive insurrection, and was glad to settle down again.
If it had been possible for us to screen those portions of the
conquered territory, which were fast returning to peaceful
pursuits, from the incursions of the enemy still in the field,
a great deal of what is now most deplorable in the condition of
South Africa would never have been experienced. The vast
extent of the country, the necessity of concentrating our
forces for the long advance, first to Pretoria and then to
Komati Poort, resulted in the country already occupied being
left open to raids, constantly growing in audacity, and fed by
small successes, on the part of a few bold and skilful
guerrilla leaders who had nailed their colours to the mast.
The reappearance of these disturbers of the peace, first in
the south-east of the Orange River Colony, then in the
south-west of the Transvaal, and finally in every portion of
the conquered territory, placed those of the inhabitants who
wanted to settle down in a position of great difficulty.
Instead of being made prisoners of war, they had been allowed
to remain on their farms on taking the oath of neutrality, and
many of them were really anxious to keep it. But they had not the
strength of mind, nor, from want of education, a sufficient
appreciation of the sacredness of the obligation which they
had undertaken, to resist the pressure of their old companions
in arms when these reappeared among them appearing to their
patriotism and to their fears. …
{516}
"As the guerrilla warfare swept back over the whole of the
western Transvaal, and practically the whole of the Orange
River Colony, its effect upon the Cape Colony also became very
marked. There was a time, about the middle of last year, when
the bulk of the Dutch population in the Cape Colony, even
those who had been most bitter against us at the outset,
seemed disposed to accept the 'fait accompli,' and were
prepared to acquiesce in the union of all South Africa under
the British flag. Some of them even began to see certain
advantages in such a consummation. The irreconcilable line
taken in the Cape Parliament, during its recent Session from
July to October, was a desperate effort to counteract this
tendency. But I doubt whether it would have succeeded to the
moderate extent to which it has, had it not been for the
recrudescence of the war on the borders of the Colony, and the
embittered character which it assumed. Every act of harshness,
however necessary, on the part of our troops, was exaggerated
and made the most of, though what principally inflamed the
minds of the people were alleged instances of needless cruelty
which never occurred. Never in my life have I read of, much
less experienced, such a carnival of mendacity as that which
accompanied the pro-Boer agitation in this Colony at the end
of last year. And these libels still continue to make
themselves felt. …
"The present position of affairs, alike in the new territories

and in a large portion of the Cape Colony, if by no means the
most critical, is possibly the most puzzling that we have had
to confront since the beginning of the war. Naturally enough
the public are impatient, and those who are responsible for
the government of the country are bombarded with most
conflicting advice. On the one hand, there is the outcry for
greater severity and for a stricter administration of Martial
Law. On the other hand, there is the expression of the fear
that strict measures would only exasperate the people.
Personally, I am of the opinion, which I have always held,
that reasonable strictness is the proper attitude in the
presence of a grave national danger, and that exceptional
regulations for a time of invasion, the necessity of which
every man of sense can understand, if clearly explained and
firmly adhered to, are not only not incompatible with, but
actually conducive to, the avoidance of injustice and cruelty.
I am satisfied by experience that the majority of those Dutch
inhabitants of the Colony who sympathize with the Republics,
however little they may be able to resist giving active
expression to that sympathy, when the enemy actually appear
amongst them, do not desire to see their own districts
invaded, or to find themselves personally placed in the
awkward dilemma of choosing between high treason and an
unfriendly attitude to the men of their own race from beyond
the border. There are extremists who would like to see the
whole of the Cape Colony overrun. But the bulk of the farmers,
especially the substantial ones, are not of this mind. …
"The inherent vice, if I may say so, of almost all public

discussion of our South African difficulties is the tendency
to concentrate attention too exclusively upon the Boers. Say
what we will, the controversy always seems to relapse into the
old ruts—it is the British Government on the one hand, and the
Boers on the other. The question how a particular policy will
affect, not merely our enemies, but our now equally numerous
friends, seems seldom to be adequately considered. And yet it
would seem that justice and policy alike should lead us to be
as eager to consider the feelings and interests, and to retain
the loyalty, of those who are fighting on our side, as to
disarm the present enmity and win the future confidence of
those who are fighting against us. And this principle would
seem an the easier to adhere to because there is really
nothing which the great body of the South African loyalists
desire which it is not for the honour and advantage of the
Mother Country to insist upon. Of vindictiveness, or desire to
oppress the Afrikanders, there is, except in hasty utterances,
inevitable in the heat of the conflict, which have no
permanent significance, or in tirades which are wholly devoid
of influence, no sign whatever. The attitude of almost all
leading and representative men, and the general trend of
public feeling among the loyalists, even in the intensity of
the struggle, is dead against anything like racial
exclusiveness or domination. If this were not so, it would be
impossible for a section of pure bred Afrikanders, small no
doubt in numbers but weighty in character and position, to
take the strong line which they do in opposition to the views
of the majority of their own people, based as these are, and
as they know them to be, upon a misconception of our policy
and intentions. These men are among the most devoted adherents
to the Imperial cause, and would regard with more disfavour
and alarm than anyone the failure of the British nation to
carry out its avowed policy in the most complete manner. They
are absolutely convinced that the unquestioned establishment
of the British supremacy, and the creation of one political
system from Cape Town to the Zambesi, is, after all that has
happened, the only salvation for men of their own race, as
well as for others. Of the terms already offered, a great
majority, I believe, of the South Africans at present in arms
on our side entirely approve. There is, no doubt, an extreme
section who would advocate a sterner attitude on our part, but
they are not numerous, and their feelings are not lasting. The
terms offered by Lord Kitchener, which are, in substance,
identical with repeated declarations of policy on the part of
His Majesty's Government, are generally regarded as a generous
and statesmanlike offer, as one which, if firmly adhered to,
will ultimately be accepted, but as an offer which we cannot
afford to enlarge. On the other hand, there is a very general
desire that no effort should be spared to make the generous
character of our intentions widely known, and to encourage any
disposition on the part of the enemy to parley, with the object
of making them better acquainted with the terms on which we
are prepared to accept their submission.
"If I might sum up the predominant, indeed, the almost

unanimous feeling of those South Africans who sympathise with
the Imperial Government, I should describe it as follows:—They
are sick to death of the war, which has brought ruin to many of
them, and imposed considerable sacrifices on almost all. But
they would rather see the war continue for an indefinite time
than run the risk of any compromise which would leave even the
remotest chance of the recurrence of so terrible a scourge in
the future. They are prepared to fight and suffer on, in order
to make South Africa, indisputably and for ever, one country
under one flag, with one system of government, and that system
the British, which they believe to ensure the highest possible
degree of justice and freedom to men of all races.
{517}
But, with that object accomplished, they are willing, and,
indeed, ready, to bury racial animosities. They have fought
against the principle of race oligarchy in one form, and they
do not wish to re-establish it in another. For the attainment
of that object, they would rely for the present on the
vigorous prosecution of the war in which they are prepared
themselves to take the most active part, coupled with every
inducement to the enemy to come in on the terms already
offered, and for the future, as soon as public security is
assured and the circumstances permit, on the extension to the
newly acquired territories of a system of Colonial
self-government. For my own part, I have no doubt that this
attitude is a wise one, and that it only requires persistence
in it, in spite of the discouraging circumstances of the
moment, to lead us to ultimate success."
Great Britain, Papers by Command, Cd. 547.
The same Blue Book made known the fact that, on the 3d of
April, Sir Alfred Milner applied for and obtained leave of
absence for three months from his duties in South Africa.
SOUTH AFRICA: The Field of War: A. D. 1901 (April).

The situation.
Early in April it was announced that the seat of government of

the South African Republic had been transferred from
Pietersburg to Leydsdorp in the Zoutpansberg by the
Vice-President, General Schalk-Burger, which seems to indicate
the beginning of another stage of the South African war. The
Boers are said to have been for some time past collecting
great quantities of cattle and sheep in the fastnesses of the
Zoutpansberg, where also they have ample supplies of
ammunition, and intend making it a point of ultimate
resistance as well as a base of present operations.
SOUTH AFRICA: The Field of War: A. D. 1901 (April).

The cost of the war to Great Britain as stated
by the Chancellor of the Exchequer.
In his speech (April 18), on introducing the budget for 1901,

in the House of Commons, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Sir
Michael Hicks-Beach, made the following statements of the cost
of the war to Great Britain: "I would remind the Committee
that so far we have borrowed towards the cost of the war
£67,000,000—£13,000,000 Treasury bills, £10,000,000 Exchequer
Bonds maturing rather less than three years hence, £14,000,000
Exchequer Bonds maturing about five years hence, and
£30,000,000 War Loan maturing in 1910. Now, Sir, in what mode
may we fairly borrow such a large sum as we now require? This
can no longer be considered a small war. In cost it is a great
war. Let me just make a statement to the Committee as to what,
so far, the estimated cost of this war has been. In 1899-1900 the
Estimates were £23,217,000. Last year they were £68,620,000,
and this year's Estimates amount to £60,230,000, including in
each case the interest on the sums borrowed. That amounts to
over £152,000,000. I must ask the Committee to remember that
in those figures I include the cost of both the South African
and Chinese wars. Then I have to add a million and a quarter
for this year's borrowing, making in all over £153,000,000.
That is double the cost of the Crimean War, and when I look
back at the Peninsular War I find the two most expensive years
were 1813 and 1814. The forces engaged, of course, were very
much smaller than those engaged now; but in those two years
the total cost of our Army and Navy amounted to £144,581,000.
This amount is less than the charges of the South African and
Chinese wars. Therefore, I think I am justified in saying that
in cost this has been a great war. I think, then, it is clear
we can no longer, in borrowing towards the cost of it, rely
upon temporary borrowing. We have already £67,000,000 of
unfunded debt borrowed for this purpose and maturing within
the next ten years. We have also some £36,000,000 of 2¾ and 2½
per cent., redeemable in 1905. Therefore, whatever may be the
prosperity of the country, whatever may be the condition of
our finances, it is perfectly obvious to my mind that the
stanchest advocate of the redemption of the debt will have
ample scope for his energies in the years that are now before
us. For this reason I propose to ask the Committee to extend
the powers of borrowing which they gave me in previous Acts,
to Consols."
----------SOUTH AFRICA: End--------
SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC, The.
See (in this volume)

SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL);
also,
CONSTITUTION (GRONDWET) OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN
REPUBLIC.
SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
See (in this volume)

AUSTRALIA; and CONSTITUTION OF AUSTRALIA.
SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1892-1899.

The Dispensary Law.
In 1892 the Legislature of South Carolina passed an Act,

commonly called the Dispensary Law, which caused turbulent
agitations in the State, and excited much interest in the
country at large. It was based upon the principle of what is
known as the Gothenburg system of regulation for the sale of
intoxicating liquors, making the traffic a State monopoly,
carried on by officials, under rigorous restrictions, with
profit to the public treasury, and none else. It provided for
the creation of a State Board of Control, under the direction
of which a Commissioner, appointed by the Governor, should
purchase all intoxicating liquors allowed to be sold in the
State, and should furnish the same to such agents (called
"dispensers") in the several counties as might be appointed by
county boards to sell them, in accordance with the regulations
prescribed. It required all liquors purchased by the
Commissioner to be tested by an official chemist and declared
to be pure and unadulterated. It allowed nobody but the
official "dispensers" to deal in any manner with any kinds of
intoxicating liquors after the 1st of July, 1893. It forbade
the selling of such drinks by the authorized salesmen to
minors and drunkards, and it required all who bought to sign
and date a printed or written request, stating their residence
and age.
The law was fiercely resisted in many parts of the State by

mobs, and powerfully assailed in the courts; but Governor
(afterwards Senator) Tillman, who then occupied the executive
chair, gave it resolute enforcement and support. The attack in
the courts had momentary success in 1894, the Supreme Court of
the State rendering a decision adverse to the
constitutionality of the law; but, meantime, the Legislature,
in 1893, had made changes in the Act, and its new enactment
was held to be untouched by the judgment of the court.
{518}
Before a new case could be brought to issue, the retirement of
one of the justices of the Supreme Court brought about a
change of opinion in that tribunal, and the law in its new
form was sustained. Disorderly resistance to the enforcement
of the law was long kept up; but in the end such resistance
seems to have been mostly overcome.

Instant Download Ebook PDF Exploring Physical Anthropology A Lab Manual and Workbook 3e 3rd Edition PDF Scribd

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Instant Download Ebook PDF Exploring Physical Anthropology A Lab Manual and Workbook 3e 3rd Edition PDF Scribd

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

(eBook PDF) Exploring Physical

Anthropology: A Lab Manual and

Chapter 11 The Anatomy-Behavior Link:

i-xiv Front Matter.indd 7 11/4/16 8:28 AM

Section 1: EVOLUTION AND ITS GENETIC BASIS

Cells and DNA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Chromosomes and Cell Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

i-xiv Front Matter.indd 9 11/4/16 8:28 AM

i-xiv Front Matter.indd 10 11/4/16 8:28 AM

Forensic Anthropology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

i-xiv Front Matter.indd 11 11/4/16 8:28 AM

Section 3: CLASSIFICATION, FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY,

The Living Primates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

The Anatomy-Behavior Link:

i-xiv Front Matter.indd 12 11/4/16 8:28 AM

Early Members of the Human Line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

The Genus Homo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

i-xiv Front Matter.indd 13 11/4/16 8:28 AM

i-xiv Front Matter.indd 14 11/4/16 8:28 AM

I have called this principle, by which each slight variation, if useful,

OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

001-016 Ch 01 Anthropology intro.indd 1 11/3/16 4:04 PM

2 Exploring Physical Anthropology

001-016 Ch 01 Anthropology intro.indd 2 11/3/16 4:04 PM

Chapter 1 b Physical Anthropology: Science and Evolution 3

001-016 Ch 01 Anthropology intro.indd 3 11/3/16 4:04 PM

FIGURE 1.1 Process of natural selection,

4 Exploring Physical Anthropology

001-016 Ch 01 Anthropology intro.indd 4 11/22/16 7:42 AM

Common Ancestors: Apes and Humans

Chapter 1 b Physical Anthropology: Science and Evolution 5

001-016 Ch 01 Anthropology intro.indd 5 11/3/16 4:04 PM

6 Exploring Physical Anthropology

001-016 Ch 01 Anthropology intro.indd 6 11/3/16 4:04 PM

1 What makes physical anthropology scientific?

2 List a couple of examples of what physical anthropologists do.

________ Ask a question (why, what, how, etc.).

________ Experiment or collect data.

________ State a ___________________________________, which is based on a corroborated __________________________________.

________ Observe some phenomenon.

________ Propose a ___________________________________, which must be testable/falsifiable.

5 Explain hypothesis and theory and the difference between them.

6 What is the definition of evolution as discussed in this book?

7 What is allele frequency?

9 List the four main evolutionary forces.

Chapter 1 b Physical Anthropology: Science and Evolution 7

001-016 Ch 01 Anthropology intro.indd 7 11/3/16 4:04 PM

13 Explain how evolution is nonprogressive.

8 Exploring Physical Anthropology

001-016 Ch 01 Anthropology intro.indd 8 11/3/16 4:04 PM

1.1 The Scientific Method

Working together in pairs or groups of three, answer the following questions

Is this a testable hypothesis? Why or why not?

If you could test it, how would you do so?

Hypothesis 2: The rooster’s crowing ensures that the sun rises.

Is this a testable hypothesis? Why or why not?

If you could test it, how would you do so?

Is this a testable hypothesis? Why or why not?

If you could test it, how would you do so?

Chapter 1 b Physical Anthropology: Science and Evolution 9

001-016 Ch 01 Anthropology intro.indd 9 11/3/16 4:04 PM

c What could be an untestable hypothesis for this same phenomenon?

a Describe the phenomenon.

State a _, which is based on a corroborated ________.

Propose a ___________________________, which must be testable/falsifiable.