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BRIEF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: THE NATURE OF EARTH SCIENCE...................................2

CHAPTER 2: MINERALS AND MINERAL RESOURCES.......................36
CHAPTER 3: EARTH MATERIALS.......................................................... 68
CHAPTER 4: EARTH HISTORY.............................................................. 98
CHAPTER 5: PLATE TECTONICS..........................................................126
CHAPTER 6: VOLCANISM AND OTHER IGNEOUS PROCESSES....160
CHAPTER 7: DEFORMATION AND EARTHQUAKES.........................192
CHAPTER 8: MOUNTAINS, BASINS, AND CONTINENTAL
MARGINS......................................................................... 224
CHAPTER 9: SCULPTING LANDSCAPES........................................... 252
CHAPTER 10: SOIL AND UNSTABLE SLOPES..................................... 282
CHAPTER 11: GLACIERS, COASTS, AND CHANGING
SEA LEVELS..................................................................... 314
CHAPTER 12: STREAMS, LAKES, AND GROUNDWATER.................. 352
CHAPTER 13: ENERGY AND MATTER IN THE ATMOSPHERE.......... 390
CHAPTER 14: ATMOSPHERIC MOTION............................................... 424
CHAPTER 15: ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE........................................... 448
CHAPTER 16: WEATHER AND STORMS.............................................. 476
CHAPTER 17: O
 CEANS AND THEIR INTERACTIONS WITH
OTHER EARTH SYSTEMS.............................................. 506
CHAPTER 18: CLIMATES AROUND THE WORLD............................... 532
CHAPTER 19: OUR SOLAR SYSTEM.................................................... 562
CHAPTER 20: OUR UNIVERSE.............................................................. 582

vii
 CONTENTS
Preface xvi
Acknowledgments xxvi CHAPT E R 2:
About the Authors xxix MINE RALS AND MI NE R A L
RE SOURC E S 36

C H AP T E R 1:
2.1 What Is the Difference Between a Rock
T H E N AT U RE OF EA RTH SC IE NC E 2 and a Mineral? 38
2.2 How Are Minerals Put Together in Rocks? 40
1.1 How Do Earth’s Features and Processes Influence
2.3 How Do We Distinguish One Mineral from Another? 42
Where and How We Live? 4
2.4 What Controls a Crystal’s Shape? 44
1.2 How Does Earth Science Explain Our World? 6
2.5 What Causes Cleavage in Minerals? 46
1.3 What Forces and Processes Affect Our Planet? 8
2.6 How Are Minerals Classified? 48
1.4 How Do Natural Systems Operate? 10
2.7 What Is the Crystalline Structure
1.5 What Are Some Important Earth Cycles? 12
of Silicate Minerals? 50
1.6 How Do Earth’s Four Spheres Interact? 14
2.8 What Are Some Common Silicate Minerals? 52
1.7 How Do We Depict Earth’s Surface? 16
2.9 What Are Some Common Nonsilicate Minerals? 54
1.8 How Do We Depict Earth’s Heights, Slopes,
2.10 What Are the Building Blocks of Minerals? 56
and Subsurface Aspects? 18
2.11 How Do Atoms Bond Together? 58
1.9 How Do We Describe Locations on Earth? 20
2.12 How Do Chemical Reactions Help Minerals
1.10 How Do We Describe Time and Rates? 22
Grow or Dissolve? 60
1.11 What Is Earth’s Place in the Solar System? 24
2.13 What Are Mineral Deposits and How Do They Form? 62
1.12 How Do We Approach Earth Science Problems? 26
2.14 CONNECTIONS: How Are Minerals Used
1.13 How Do We Develop Scientific Explanations? 28 in Society? 64
1.14 How Do Scientific Ideas Get Established? 30 2.15 INVESTIGATION: What Minerals Would You Use
1.15 CONNECTIONS: How Are Earth-System Processes to Build a House? 66
Expressed in the Black Hills and in Rapid City? 32
1.16 INVESTIGATION: How Are Earth Processes
Affecting This Place? 34

CHAPT E R 3 :
E ART H MAT E RIAL S 68

3.1 How Do Rocks Form? 70

3.2 What Can Happen to a Rock? 72
3.3 What Sedimentary Environments Occur on Land? 74
3.4 What Sedimentary Environments Are Near
Shorelines and in Oceans? 76
3.5 Where Do Clasts Come From? 78
3.6 What Are the Characteristics of Clastic Sediments? 80
3.7 What Are Some Common Sedimentary Rocks? 82
viii
3.8 Why Do Sedimentary Rocks Have Layers? 84
3.9 What Textures Do Igneous Rocks Display? 86
CHAPT E R 5:
PLAT E T E CTONIC S 126
3.10 What Are Common Igneous Rocks? 88
3.11 What Are Some Metamorphic Features? 90
3.12 What Are Metamorphic Processes and Rocks? 92 5.1 What Is Inside Earth? 128

3.13 CONNECTIONS: How Are Different Rock Types 5.2 What Are the Major Features of Earth? 130
Expressed in Landscapes? 94 5.3 Why Do Some Continents Have Matching
3.14 INVESTIGATION: What Materials Compose Shapes? 132
These Landscapes? 96 5.4 Where Do Earthquakes and Volcanoes Occur? 134
5.5 What Causes Tectonic Activity to Occur in Belts? 136
5.6 What Happens at Divergent Boundaries? 138
5.7 What Happens at Convergent Boundaries? 140
5.8 What Happens Along Transform Boundaries? 142
5.9 How Does Seafloor Vary from Place to Place? 144
5.10 What Features Occur Along Mid-Ocean Ridges? 146
5.11 How Do Oceanic Islands, Seamounts,
C H AP T E R 4: and Oceanic Plateaus Form? 148
E A RT H H ISTORY 98 5.12 What Are the Characteristics and History
of Continental Hot Spots? 150

4.1 How Do We Infer the Relative Ages of Events? 100 5.13 How Do Plates Move and Interact? 152

4.2 What Is the Significance of an Unconformity? 102 5.14 How Is Paleomagnetism Used to Determine
Rates of Seafloor Spreading? 154
4.3 How Are Ages Assigned to Rocks and Events? 104
5.15 CONNECTIONS: Why Is South America Lopsided? 156
4.4 What Are Fossils? 106
5.16 INVESTIGATION: Where Is the Safest Place to Live? 158
4.5 How and Why Did Living Things Change
Through Geologic Time? 108
4.6 How Was the Geologic Timescale Developed? 110
4.7 What Is the Evidence for the Age of Earth? 112
4.8 What Events Occurred Early in Earth’s History
and How Did Earth Change Over Time? 114
4.9 What Were Some Milestones in the Early History
of Life on Earth? 116
4.10 What Were Some Milestones in the Later History
of Life on Earth? 118
4.11 How Do We Study Ages of Landscapes? 120 CHAPT E R 6:
4.12 CONNECTIONS: What Is the History VOLCANISM AND OTHE R
of the Grand Canyon? 122 IGNE OUS PROC E SSE S 160
4.13 INVESTIGATION: What Is the Geologic History
of This Place? 124 6.1 How Does Magma Form? 162
6.2 How Does Magma Move? 164
6.3 What Is and Is Not a Volcano? 166
6.4 What Controls the Style of Eruption? 168
6.5 What Hazards Are Associated with Volcanoes? 170
6.6 What Volcanic Features Consist of Basalt? 172
ix
 6.7 What Are Composite Volcanoes 7.12 What Were Some Recent Large Earthquakes? 216
and Volcanic Domes? 174 7.13 What Were Some Major North American
6.8 What Disasters Were Caused by Composite Earthquakes? 218
Volcanoes and Volcanic Domes? 176 7.14 CONNECTIONS: What Is the Potential for
6.9 What Are Calderas? 178 Earthquakes Along the San Andreas Fault? 220
6.10 What Types of Volcanism and Other Igneous 7.15 INVESTIGATION: Where Did This Earthquake
Processes Occur Along Plate Boundaries? 180 Occur, and What Damage Might Be Expected? 222
6.11 How Do Large Magma Chambers Form
and How Are They Expressed in Landscapes? 182
6.12 How Are Small Intrusions Formed
and Expressed in Landscapes? 184
6.13 What Areas Have the Highest Potential
for Volcanic Hazards? 186
6.14 CONNECTIONS: What Volcanic Hazards
Are Posed by Mount Rainier? 188
6.15 INVESTIGATION: How Would You Assess
Hazards on This Volcano? 190 CHAPT E R 8:
MOUNTAINS, BAS INS, A ND
CONT INE NTAL MAR G I NS 224

8.1 Why Are Some Regions High in Elevation? 226

8.2 Where Do Mountain Belts and High Regions
Form? 228
8.3 How Do Local Mountains Form? 230
8.4 Where Do Basins Form? 232
C H AP T E R 7 : 8.5 How Do Mountains and Basins Form
at Convergent Continental Margins? 234
D E F OR M ATION AN D
E A RT H QUAKES 192 8.6 How Does Continental Extension Occur? 236
8.7 What Features Characterize the Interiors
and Margins of Continents? 238
7.1 What Is Deformation and How Is It Expressed
in Landscapes? 194 8.8 How Do Marine Evaporite Deposits Form? 240

7.2 How Are Fractures Expressed in Landscapes? 196 8.9 How Do Reefs and Coral Atolls Form? 242

7.3 How Are Folds Expressed in Landscapes? 198 8.10 What Are Tectonic Terranes? 244

7.4 What Is an Earthquake? 200 8.11 How Did the Continents Join and Split Apart? 246

7.5 How Does Faulting Cause Earthquakes? 202 8.12 CONNECTIONS: How Do Oil and Natural Gas Form? 248

7.6 How Do Earthquake Waves Travel? 204 8.13 INVESTIGATION: Where Will Mountains and
Basins Form in This Region? 250
7.7 How Do We Determine the Location
and Size of an Earthquake? 206
7.8 Where Do Most Earthquakes Occur? 208
7.9 What Causes Earthquakes Along Plate
Boundaries and Within Plates? 210
7.10 How Do Earthquakes Cause Damage? 212
7.11 How Does a Tsunami Form and Cause
Destruction? 214
x
 10.6 What Types of Soils Are Most Influenced
C H AP T E R 9 : by Their Climate? 294
S C ULPT I N G LA N DS CA PE S 252 10.7 What Other Factors Control the Formation
and Distribution of Soils? 296
9.1 What Can We Observe in Landscapes? 254 10.8 What Are the Causes and Impacts of Soil Erosion? 298
9.2 What Physical Processes Affect Earth 10.9 What Controls the Stability of Slopes? 300
Materials Near the Surface? 256 10.10 How Do Slopes Fail? 302
9.3 How Do Chemical Processes Affect 10.11 How Does Material on Slopes Fall and Slide? 304
Earth Materials Near the Surface? 258
10.12 How Does Material Flow Down Slopes? 306
9.4 How Does the Type of Earth Material Influence
10.13 Where Do Slope Failures Occur in the U.S.? 308
Weathering? 260
10.14 CONNECTIONS: How Do We Assess the Risk
9.5 How Do Climate, Slope, Vegetation, and Time
for Problem Soils and Future Slope Failures? 310
Influence Weathering? 262
10.15 INVESTIGATION: Which Areas Have the
9.6 How Is Weathering Expressed? 264
Highest Risk of Slope Failure or Problem Soils? 312
9.7 How Are Landscapes Eroded? 266
9.8 How Do Landscapes Record Transport and
Deposition by Gravity, Streams, Ice, and Waves? 268
9.9 How Do Landscapes Record Transport
and Deposition by Wind? 270
9.10 How Do Arches and Natural Bridges Form? 272
9.11 How Do Caves Form? 274
9.12 What Is Karst Topography? 276
9.13 CONNECTIONS: What Formed Diverse
Landscapes of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado? 278
9.14 INVESTIGATION: How Did These Landscapes
Form? 280

CHAPT E R 11:
GLACIE RS, C OASTS, A ND
C HANGING SE A LE VE L S 3 14

11.1 What Are Glaciers? 316

11.2 How Do Glaciers Form, Move, and Vanish? 318
11.3 How Do Glaciers Erode, Transport, and Deposit? 320
C H AP T E R 10 : 11.4 What Are the Landforms of Alpine Glaciation? 322
S OI L AN D U N STAB LE S LOPE S 282 11.5 What Are the Landforms of Continental
Glaciation? 324
10.1 What Is Soil? 284 11.6 What Features Are Peripheral to Glaciers? 326
10.2 How Important Are Water and Organics in Soil? 286 11.7 What Happened During Past Ice Ages? 328
10.3 How Does Soil Form? 288 11.8 What Starts and Stops Glaciations? 330
10.4 How Do Terrain, Parent Material, Vegetation, 11.9 What Processes Occur Along Coasts? 332
and Time Affect Soil Formation? 290 11.10 What Causes High Tides and Low Tides? 334
10.5 What Are the Major Types of Soil? 292 11.11 How Do Waves Form and Propagate? 336
xi
 11.12 How Is Material Eroded, Transported, 12.14 What Problems Are Associated
and Deposited Along Coasts? 338 with Groundwater Pumping? 380
11.13 What Landforms Occur Along Coasts? 340 12.15 How Can Water Become Contaminated? 382
11.14 What Are Some Challenges of Living 12.16 How Does Groundwater Contamination Move
Along Coasts? 342 and How Do We Clean It Up? 384
11.15 What Happens When Sea Level Changes? 344 12.17 CONNECTIONS: What Is Going On
11.16 What Causes Changes in Sea Level? 346 with the Ogallala Aquifer? 386
11.17 CONNECTIONS: What Coastal Damage Was 12.18 INVESTIGATION: Who Polluted Surface Water
Caused by These Recent Atlantic Hurricanes? 348 and Groundwater in This Place? 388
11.18 INVESTIGATION: What Is Happening Along
the Coast of This Island? 350

CHAPT E R 13 :
C H AP T E R 12 : E NE RGY AND MATTE R I N THE
ST R E A M S , LA KES , A N D AT MOSPHE RE 3 90
G R OU N DWATER 352
13.1 What Is the Atmosphere? 392
12.1 Where Does Water Occur on Our Planet? 354 13.2 What Is Energy and How Is It Transmitted? 394
12.2 How Do We Use Fresh Water? 356 13.3 What Are Heat and Temperature? 396
12.3 What Is a Drainage Network? 358 13.4 What Is Latent Heat? 398
12.4 How Do Streams Transport Sediment 13.5 What Is Electromagnetic Radiation? 400
and Erode Their Channels? 360 13.6 What Causes Changes in Insolation? 402
12.5 How Do Stream Systems Change Downstream 13.7 Why Do We Have Seasons? 404
or Over Short Time Frames? 362
13.8 What Controls When and Where
12.6 Why Do Streams Have Curves? 364 the Sun Rises and Sets? 406
12.7 What Features Characterize Steep Streams? 366 13.9 How Does Insolation Interact
12.8 What Features Characterize Low-Gradient with the Atmosphere? 408
Streams and Deltas? 368 13.10 What Is Ozone and Why Is It So Important? 410
12.9 What Features Are Associated with Streams? 370 13.11 How Much Insolation Reaches the Surface? 412
12.10 What Is and What Is Not a Flood? 372 13.12 How Does Earth Maintain an Energy Balance? 414
12.11 Where Is Groundwater Found? 374 13.13 How Do Insolation and Outgoing
12.12 How and Where Does Groundwater Flow? 376 Radiation Vary Spatially? 416
12.13 What Is the Relationship Between Surface 13.14 Why Do Temperatures Vary Between Oceans
Water and Groundwater? 378 and Continents? 418
xii
13.15 CONNECTIONS: How Are Variations in Insolation
Expressed Between the North and South Poles? 420 CHAPT E R 15:
13.16 INVESTIGATION: How Do We Evaluate Sites
AT MOSPHE RIC MOI STU R E 448
for Solar-Energy Generation? 422
15.1 How Does Water Occur in the Atmosphere? 450
15.2 What Is Humidity? 452
15.3 How Do Specific Humidity and Dew Point Vary
from Place to Place and Seasonally? 454
15.4 What Happens When Air Rises or Sinks? 456
15.5 How Does the Surface Affect the Rising of Air? 458
15.6 What Mechanisms Can Force Air to Rise? 460
15.7 What Do Clouds Tell Us About Weather? 462
15.8 What Conditions Produce Fog? 464
15.9 How Does Precipitation Form? 466
15.10 How Do Sleet and Freezing Rain Form? 468
15.11 What Is the Distribution of Precipitation? 470
15.12 CONNECTIONS: What Caused the Recent
C H AP T E R 14: Great Plains Drought? 472
AT MOS PH ERIC M OTION 424
15.13 INVESTIGATION: How Do Global Patterns
of Humidity, Water Vapor, and Precipitation
14.1 How Do Gases Respond to Changes Compare? 474
in Temperature and Pressure? 426
14.2 What Causes Winds? 428
14.3 What Causes Some Local and Regional Winds? 430
14.4 What Are Some Significant Regional Winds? 432
14.5 How Do Variations in Insolation Cause Global
Patterns of Air Pressure and Circulation? 434
14.6 How Does Air Circulate in the Tropics? 436
14.7 How Does Air Circulate in High Latitudes? 438 CHAPT E R 16:
14.8 How Does Surface Air Circulate WE AT HE R AND STOR M S 476
in Mid-Latitudes? 440
14.9 How Does Air Circulate Aloft 16.1 Why Does Weather Change? 478
Over the Mid-Latitudes? 442
16.2 What Are Fronts? 480
14.10 CONNECTIONS: What Causes Monsoons? 444
16.3 Where Do Mid-Latitude Cyclones Form
14.11 INVESTIGATION: What Occurs During and Cross North America? 482
Seasonal Circulation Shifts? 446
16.4 What Conditions Produce Thunderstorms? 484
16.5 Where Are Thunderstorms Most Common? 486
16.6 What Causes Hail? 488
16.7 What Causes Lightning and Thunder? 490
16.8 What Is a Tornado? 492
16.9 Where and When Do Tornadoes Strike? 494
16.10 What Are Some Other Types of Wind Storms? 496
16.11 What Is a Tropical Cyclone? 498
xiii
 16.12 What Affects the Strength of a Tropical Cyclone? 500
CHAPT E R 18:
16.13 CONNECTIONS: What Happened
During Hurricane Sandy? 502
CLIMAT E S AROUN D THE WO R L D 53 2
16.14 INVESTIGATION: Where Would You Expect
Severe Weather? 504 18.1 How Do We Classify Climates? 534
18.2 What Are the Most Common Climate Types? 536
18.3 What Is the Setting of Tropical Climates? 538
18.4 What Conditions Cause Arid Climates? 540
18.5 What Causes Warm Temperate Climates? 542
18.6 What Are the Settings
of Mid-Latitude Climates? 544
18.7 What Causes Subarctic and Polar Climates? 546
18.8 What Is the Role of Carbon in the Climate? 548
C H AP T E R 17 : 18.9 What Is the Evidence for Climate Change? 550
OC E A N S A N D TH EIR IN T E RACT IONS 18.10 What Factors Influence Climate Change? 552
W I T H OT H ER EA RTH SYST E MS 506 18.11 What Are the Consequences
of Climate Change? 554
17.1 What Causes Ocean Currents? 508 18.12 How Do We Use Computers
17.2 What Is the Global Pattern of Surface Currents? 510 to Study Climate Change? 556
17.3 How Do Sea-Surface Temperatures Vary 18.13 CONNECTIONS: What Are Non-Fossil Fuel
from Place to Place and Season to Season? 512 Sources of Energy? 558
17.4 What Causes Water to Rise or Sink? 514 18.14 INVESTIGATION: What Kinds of Climate
17.5 What Are the Global Patterns and Weather Would Occur in This Place? 560
of Temperature and Salinity? 516
17.6 What Processes Affect Ocean Temperature
and Salinity in Tropical and Polar Regions? 518
17.7 How Are the Atmosphere, Oceans, and
Cryosphere Coupled? 520
17.8 What Connects Equatorial Atmospheric
and Oceanic Circulation? 522
17.9 What Are the Phases of ENSO? 524
17.10 What Are the Effects of ENSO? 526
17.11 CONNECTIONS: What Types of Life Reside
in the Oceans? 528
17.12 INVESTIGATION: What Oceanic and Atmospheric
Patterns Are Predicted for a Newly Discovered
Planet? 530

xiv
C H AP T E R 19 : CHAPT E R 20:
OU R S OLA R SYSTEM 562 OUR UNIVE RSE 582

19.1 How Do We Explore Other Planets and Moons? 564 20.1 How Do We Observe the Universe? 584
19.2 Why Is Each Planet and Moon Different? 566 20.2 What Is Our Framework for Observing
19.3 What Can We Observe on the Inner Planets? 568 the Universe? 586
19.4 What Is On the Surface of Our Moon? 570 20.3 How Does Temperature Influence the Type
of Light an Object Emits? 588
19.5 What Is Observed on Jupiter and Its Moons? 572
20.4 How Do We Use Spectra to Study the Universe? 590
19.6 What Is Observed on Saturn and Its Moons? 574
20.5 What Controls the Motions of Objects? 592
19.7 What Do We Observe on the Outer Planets
and Their Moons? 576 20.6 How Do We Measure Distance, Motion,
and Mass of Astronomical Objects? 594
19.8 CONNECTIONS: What Have We Learned
About Mars? 578 20.7 What Processes and Features
Characterize Stars? 596
19.9 INVESTIGATION: How and When Did Geologic
Features on This Alien World Form? 580 20.8 How Do Low-Mass Stars Change Over Time? 598
20.9 How Do High-Mass Stars Change Over Time? 600
20.10 What Objects Represent Remnants of Stars? 602
20.11 What Are Galaxies, Including the Milky Way? 604
20.12 CONNECTIONS: How Did the Universe Form,
and How Is It Changing Through Time? 606
20.13 INVESTIGATION: What Are These Astronomical
Objects, and How Did They Form? 608

Glossary G-1
Credits C-1
Index I-1
Seasons Night Sky Star Maps end of book

xv
 PREFACE

TELLING THE STORY . . .

WE WROTE EXPLORING EARTH SCIENCE so that students could include so much material that students have difficulty distinguishing
learn from the book on their own, freeing up instructors to teach the what is important from what is not, (2) instructors needed to lecture so
class in any way they want. I (Steve Reynolds) first identified the need that students would know what is important, and (3) many students have
for this type of book while I was a National Association of Geosci- difficulty learning independently from the textbook.
ence Teachers’ (NAGT) distinguished speaker. As part of my NAGT
activities, I traveled around the country conducting workshops on how In most cases, textbooks drive the curriculum, so my coauthor (Julia
to infuse active learning and scientific inquiry into introductory college Johnson) and I decided that we should write a textbook that (1) con-
science courses, including those with upwards of 200 students. In the tains only important material, (2) indicates clearly to the student what
first part of the workshop, I asked the faculty participants to list the is important and what they need to know, and (3) is designed and
main goals of an introductory science course, especially for nonmajors. written in such a way that students can learn from the book on their
At every school I visited, the main goals were similar to those listed own. This type of book would give instructors freedom to teach in
below: a way that is more consistent with their goals, including using local
examples to illustrate concepts and their relevance. Instructors would
∙ to engage students in the process of scientific inquiry so that they also be able to spend more class time teaching students to observe and
learn what science is and how it is conducted, interpret landscapes, tectonics, and atmospheric or astronomic phe-
∙ to teach students how to observe and interpret landscapes and nomena, and to participate in the process of scientific inquiry, which
other aspects of their physical environment, represents the top goal for many instructors.
∙ to enable students to learn and apply important concepts of
science, COGNITIVE AND SCIENCE-
∙ to help students understand the relevance of science to their
lives, and
EDUCATION RESEARCH
To design a book that supports instructor goals, we delved into cognitive
∙ to enable students to use their new knowledge, skills, and ways
and science-education research, especially research on how our brains
of thinking to become more informed citizens. First Pages
process different types of information, what obstacles limit student learn-
I then asked faculty members to rank these goals and estimate how much ing from textbooks, and how students use visuals versus text while study-
time they spent on each goal in class. At this point, many instructors rec- ing. We also conducted our own research on how students interact with
ognized that their activities
270 in class were not consistent with their own textbooks, what students see when they observe photographs showing
landscape features, and how they interpret different types of scientific
9.9 How Do Landscapes Record Transport
goals. Most instructors were spending nearly all of class time teaching
content. Although this was one of their main goals, it commonly was illustrations, including maps, cross sections, and block diagrams that
illustrate evolution of environments. Exploring Earth Science is the result
not their top goal.
and Deposition by Wind? of our literature search and of our own science-education and cognitive
Next, I asked instructors to think about why their activities were not con- research. As you examine Exploring Earth Science, you will notice that it
WIND TRANSPORTS AND DEPOSITS SEDIMENT, but it is different from the other agents of transport because
sistent with their goals. Inevitably, the answer was that most instructors is stylistically
it derives its transporting energy from the atmosphere, not directly different
from gravity, so it from mostmaterial
can carry other textbooks, which will likely elicit
uphill. Wind
spend nearly all ofisclass time covering content because (1) textbooks a few questions.
limited to carrying material that is sand sized or smaller, and it produces a number of distinctive landforms, includ-
ing sand dunes of various sizes and shapes. It also transports and deposits glacially derived silt, producing additional
distinctive landforms. Ancient wind deposits and directions are preserved in many layers of sandstone.

How Does Wind Transport Sediment?

Wind is generated by differences in air pressure and at times is strong enough to transport material, but only relatively small
and lightweight fragments, like sand and clay. Transport of these materials by the wind is most efficient in dry climates,
where there is limited vegetation to bind materials together and hold them on the ground.

1. Wind is capable of transporting sand and finer sediment, as well as lightweight plant fragments and other materials lying on the surface. It
generally moves material in one of three ways and can deposit sediment in various settings, some of which are shown in the photographs below.

5. Wind can pick up and

2. Most materials on carry finer material, such
Earth’s surface are not as dust, silt, and salt. This
moved by the wind be- mode of transport is called
cause they are too firmly suspension, and wind can
attached to the land (such keep some particles in the
as rock outcrops), are too air for weeks, transporting
large or heavy to be them long distances.
moved, or are both. 09.09.a1

3. If wind velocity is great enough, it can roll or slide grains 4. Very strong winds can lift sand grains, carry them short distances, and drop them.
of sand and silt and other loose materials across the ground. This process is akin to bouncing a grain along the surface and is called saltation.

09.09.a5 Kanab Canyon, UT

xvi Shape of Sand Dunes and Cross Beds
09.09.a2 Namibia, Africa
 HOW DOES THIS BOOK SUPPORT STUDENT CURIOSITY AND INQUIRY?
CHAPTER
10
Soil and Unstable Slopes
WEATHERING PRODUCES SOIL, one of our most precious resources. Different types of soils form in different geo-
graphic settings, especially as a function of climate, starting material, and how long soil formation has been occurring.
Soils and other materials can become unstable on slopes, and such slope instability is called mass wasting — the move-
ment of material downslope in response to gravity. Mass wasting can be slow and barely perceptible, or it can be cata-
strophic, involving thick, fast-moving slurries of mud and debris. What factors determine if a slope is stable, and how
do slopes fail? In this chapter, we explore the formation of soils, the process of mass wasting, and the importance of
both phenomena to our lives.
The Cordillera de la Costa is a steep 2 km-high mountain
range that runs along the coast of Venezuela, separating the
capital city of Caracas from the sea. This image, looking south,
has topography overlain with a satellite image taken in 2000.
The white areas are clouds and the purple areas are cities. The
Caribbean Sea is in the foreground. The map below shows the
location of Venezuela on the northern coast of South America.
10.00.a2
The mountain slopes are too steep for buildings, so people
built the coastal cities on the less steep fan-shaped areas at the
foot of each valley. These flatter areas are alluvial fans com-
posed of mountain-derived sediment that has been transported
down the canyons and deposited along the mountain front.
What are some potential hazards of living next to steep moun-
tain slopes, especially in a city built on an active alluvial fan?
282
Untitled-6 282
Exploring Earth Science promotes inquiry and science as an active pro-
cess. It encourages student curiosity and aims to activate existing stu-
dent knowledge by posing the title of every two-page spread and every
subsection as a question. In addition, questions are dispersed through-
out the book. Integrated into the book are opportunities for students to
observe patterns, features, and examples before the underlying concepts
are explained. That is, we employ a learning-cycle approach where stu-
dent exploration precedes the introduction of new terms and the applica-
tion of knowledge to a new situation. For example, chapter 10 on slope
stability begins with a three-dimensional image of northern Venezuela,
pictured above, and asks readers to observe where people are living in
this area and what natural processes might have formed these sites.
Wherever possible, we introduce terms after students have an opportu-
nity to observe the feature or concept that is being named. This approach
is consistent with several educational philosophies, including a learning
cycle and just-in-time teaching. Research on learning cycles shows that
students are more likely to retain a term if they already have a mental
First Pages First Pages
Soil and Unstable Slopes 283
TOPIC S IN T H IS CH APT E R
10.1 What Is Soil? 284 10.9 What Controls the Stability of Slopes? 300
10.2 How Important Are Water and Organics in Soil? 286 10.10 How Do Slopes Fail? 302
10.3 How Does Soil Form? 288 10.11 How Does Material on Slopes Fall and Slide? 304
10.4 How Do Terrain, Parent Material, Vegetation, 10.12 How Does Material Flow Down Slopes? 306
and Time Affect Soil Formation? 290 10.13 Where Do Slope Failures Occur in the U.S.? 308
10.5 What Are the Major Types of Soil? 292 10.14 CONNECTIONS: How Do We Assess the Risk
10.6 What Types of Soils Are Most Influenced for Problem Soils and Future Slope Failures? 310
by Their Climate? 294 10.15 INVESTIGATION: Which Areas Have the Highest
Risk of Slope Failure or Problem Soils? 312
In December 1999, torrential rains in the mountains caused landslides and 10.7 What Other Factors Control the Formation
mobilized soil and other loose material as turbulent, flowing masses of and Distribution of Soils? 296
muddy debris (flash floods) that buried parts of the coastal cities. Some 10.8 What Are the Causes and Impacts
light-colored landslide scars are visible on the hillsides in this image.
of Soil Erosion? 298
How does soil and other loose material form on hillslopes? What factors
determine whether a slope is stable or is prone to landslides and other
1999 Venezuelan Disaster
A
types of downhill movement? debris flow is a turbulent slurry of water and
Huge boulders smashed through the lower two floors of this
building in Caraballeda and ripped away part of the right side (▼). debris, including mud, sand, gravel, pebbles,
10.00.a1
The mud and water that transported these boulders are no boulders, vegetation, and even cars, houses,
longer present, but the boulders remain as a testament to the and other small structures. Debris flows can move at
strength of the event. speeds up to 80 km/hr (50 mph), but most are slower.
In December 1999, two storms dumped as much as
1.1 m (42 in.) of rain on the coastal mountains of
Venezuela. The rain loosened soil on the steep hill-
sides, causing many landslides and debris flows that
coalesced in the steep canyons and raced downhill
toward the cities built on the alluvial fans.
In Caraballeda, the debris flows carried boulders
up to 10 m (33 ft) in diameter and weighing 300 to
400 tons each. The debris flows and flash floods raced
across the city, flattening cars and smashing houses,
buildings, and bridges. They left behind a jumble of
boulders and other debris along the path of destruction
through the city.
After the event, USGS geoscientists went into the
area to investigate what had happened and why. They
documented the types of material that were carried by
the debris flows, mapped the extent of the flows, and
10.00.a3 Caraballeda, Venezuela
measured boulders (▼) to investigate processes that
occurred during the event. When the scientists exam-
ined what lay beneath the foundations of destroyed
houses, they discovered that much of the city had been
built on older debris flows. These deposits should
have provided a warning of what was to come.
10.00.a5 Caraballeda, Venezuela
The city of Caraballeda, built on one such alluvial fan, was especially hard ⊳ This aerial photograph of
hit in 1999 by debris flows and flash floods that tore a swath of destruction Caraballeda, looking south up
through the town. Landslides, debris flows, and flooding killed more than the canyon, shows the damage
19,000 people and caused up to $30 billion in damage in the region. The in the center of the city caused
damage is visible as the light-colored strip through the center of town. by the debris flows and flash
floods. Many houses were
How can loss of life and destruction of property by debris flows and landslides completely demolished by the
10.0
be avoided or at least minimized? fast-moving, boulder-rich mud.
10.00.a4 Caraballeda, Venezuela
10/10/17 08:03 PM Untitled-6 283 10/10/17 08:03 PM
image of the thing being named (Lawson, 2003). For example, this book
presents students with maps showing the spatial distribution of earth-
quakes, volcanoes, and mountain ranges and asks them to observe the
patterns and think about what might be causing the patterns. Only then
does the textbook introduce the concept of tectonic plates.
Also, the figure-based approach in this book allows terms to be intro-
duced in their context rather than as a definition that is detached from
a visual representation of the term. We introduce new terms in italics
rather than in boldface, because boldfaced terms on a textbook page
cause students to immediately focus mostly on the terms, rather than
build an understanding of the concepts. The italics, however, let a stu-
dent know when they have encountered an important term during their
reading. The book includes a glossary for those students who wish to
look up the definition of a term to refresh their memory. To expand
comprehension of the definition, each entry in the glossary references
the pages where the term is defined in the context of a figure.
xvii
 WHY ARE THE PAGES DOMINATED BY ILLUSTRATIONS?
Earth science is a visual science. Earth science textbooks contain a
variety of photographs, maps, cross sections, block diagrams, and other
types of illustrations. These diagrams help portray the spatial distribu-
tion and geometry of features in the landscape, atmosphere, oceans,
and universe in ways words cannot. In earth sciences, a picture really is
worth a thousand words.
Exploring Earth Science contains a wealth of figures to take advantage
of the visual nature of earth science and the efficiency of figures in
conveying earth science concepts. This book contains few large blocks
of text — most text is in smaller blocks that are specifically linked to
illustrations. Examples of our integrated figure-text approach are shown
throughout the book. In this approach, each short block of text is one or
more complete sentences that succinctly describe a feature, process, or
both of these. Most of these text blocks are connected to their illustra-
tions with leader lines so that readers know exactly which feature or part
of the diagram is being referenced in the text block. A reader does not
have to search for the part of the figure that corresponds to a text pas-
sage, as occurs when a student reads a traditional textbook with large
blocks of text referencing a figure that may appear on a different page.
Most short blocks are numbered to guide students to read the blocks in
a specific order.
This approach is especially well suited to covering earth science top-
ics because it allows the text to have a precise linkage to the features
and geographic location of the aspect being described. A text block
discussing the Intertropical Convergence Zone can have a leader that
specifically points to the location of this feature. A cross section of
New experiences from the environment enter the
brain via the senses. Images, for example, come in
through the eyes, and sounds enter the ears.
xviii
atmospheric circulation, such as those related to El Niño conditions,
can be accompanied by short text blocks that describe each part of the
system and that are linked by leaders directly to specific locations on
the figure. This allows the reader to concentrate on the concepts being
presented, not deciding what part of the figure is being discussed.
The approach in Exploring Earth Science is consistent with the findings
of cognitive scientists, who conclude that our minds have two different
processing systems, one for processing pictorial information (images)
and one for processing verbal information (speech and written words),
as illustrated below. Images enter our consciousness through our eyes,
and text can enter either through our eyes, such as when we read, or
through our ears, as occurs during a lecture. Research into learning
and cognition shows that having text enter via our ears, while our eyes
examine an image, is among the best ways to learn. Cognitive scientists
also speak about two types of memory: working memory holds informa-
tion and actively processes it, whereas long-term memory stores infor-
mation until we need it (Baddeley, 2007). Both the verbal and pictorial
processing systems have a limited amount of working memory, and
our minds have to use much of our mental processing space to recon-
cile the pictorial and verbal types of information in working memory.
For information that has both pictorial and verbal components, as most
earth-science information does, the amount of knowledge we retain
depends on reconciling these two types of information, on transfer-
ring information from working memory to long-term memory, and on
linking the new information with our existing mental framework. For
this reason, this book integrates text and figures, as in the example
shown here.
Input from the senses is filtered and transferred into
two different types of working memory, a visual area for
images and a phonetic area for words. Each
type of working memory has a very limited
capacity to hold new information.
Information from working memory is
processed further and transferred into
long-term memory. Ideally, new infor-
mation is linked to existing knowledge
in long-term memory to build a more
complete understanding.
When information from long-term
memory is needed, it is retrieved into
working memory, where it can be pro-
cessed to make decisions.
 WHY ARE THERE SO MANY FIGURES?

This textbook contains more than 2,500 figures, which is two to three detached from the figure. We avoid the redundancy effect by including
times the number in most earth science textbooks. One reason for this only text that is integrated with the figure.
is that the book is designed to provide a concrete example of each pro-
cess, environment, or feature being illustrated. Research shows that The style of illustrations in Exploring Earth Science was designed to be
many college students require concrete examples before they can begin more inviting to today’s visually oriented students who are used to photo-
to build abstract concepts (Lawson, 1980). Also, many students have realistic, computer-rendered images in movies, videos, and computer
limited travel experience, so photographs and other figures allow them games. For this reason, many of the figures were created by world-class
to observe places, environments, and processes they have not been able scientific illustrators and artists who have worked on award-winning
to observe firsthand. The numerous photographs, from geographically textbooks, on Hollywood movies, on television shows, for National
diverse places, help bring the sense of place into the student’s reading. Geographic, and in the computer-graphics and gaming industry. In most
The inclusion of an illustration for each text block reinforces the notion cases, the figures incorporate real data, such as satellite images, aerial
that the point being discussed is important. In many cases, as in the photographs, weather and climatological data, and locations of earth-
example below, conceptualized figures are integrated with photographs quakes and volcanoes. Our own research shows that many students do
and text so that students can build a more coherent view of the environ- not understand cross sections and other subsurface diagrams, so nearly
ment or process. every cross section in this book has a three-dimensional aspect, and many
maps are presented in a perspective view that incorporates topography.
Exploring Earth Science focuses on the most important earth science Research findings by us and other researchers (Roth and Bowen, 1999)
concepts and makes a deliberate attempt to eliminate text that is not indicate that including people and human-related items in photographs
essential for student learning of these concepts. Inclusion of informa- and figures attracts undue attention, thereby distracting students from the
tion that is not essential tends to distract and confuse students rather features being illustrated. As a result, our photographs have nondistract-
than illuminate the concept; thus, you will see fewer words. Cognitive ing indicators of scale, like dull coins and plain marking pens. Figures
and science-education research has identified a redundancy effect, where and photographs do not include people or human-related items unless we
information that restates and expands upon a more succinct description are trying to (1) illustrate how geoscientists study earth science processes
actually results in a decrease in student learning (Mayer, 2001). Spe- and features (2) reinforce the relevance of the processes on humans, or
cifically, students learn less if a long figure caption restates information (3) help students appreciate that geoscience can be done by diverse types
contained elsewhere on the page, such as in a long block of text that is of people, potentially including them, as depicted in our photographs.
First Pages First Pages

274 Sculpting Landscapes 275

9.11 How Do Caves Form? What Features Are Associated with Caves?
Caves are beautiful and interesting places to explore. Some contain twisty, narrow passages connecting open chambers.
WATER IS AN ACTIVE CHEMICAL AGENT and can dissolve rock and other materials. Weathering near the sur- Others are immense tunnels full of cave formations. Caves can be decorated with intricate features formed by
face and groundwater at depth can work together to completely dissolve limestone and other soluble rocks, leaving dissolution and precipitation of calcite and several other minerals.
openings in places where the rocks have been removed. Such dissolution of limestone forms most caves, but caves
1. Most caves form by dissolution of limestone. Certain features on the land surface can indicate that 6. Dissolution of limestone along
form in many other ways. Once a cave is formed, dripping and flowing water can deposit a variety of beautiful and there is a cave at depth. These include the presence of limestone, sinkholes, and other features of fractures and bedding planes,
fascinating cave formations. karst topography. Collapse of part of the roof can open the cave to the surface, forming a skylight along with formation of sinkholes
that lets light into the cave. and skylights, disrupts
streams and other
How Do Limestone Caves Form? 2. Caves contain many features
formed by minerals precipitated
drainages. Streams
may disappear into
Water near the surface or at depth as groundwater can dissolve limestone and other carbonate rocks, to form large caves, from dripping or flowing water.
the ground, adding
especially if the water is acidic. Cave systems generally form in limestone and other carbonate rocks because most other Water flowing down the walls or
more water to the
rock types do not easily dissolve. A few other rocks, such as gypsum or rock salt, dissolve too easily — they completely along the floor can precipitate
cave system.
travertine (a banded form of
disappear and cannot maintain caves. The figure below illustrates how limestone caves form. calcium carbonate) in thin
layers that build up to create
1. Limestone is primarily made of calcite 2. Groundwater dissolves limestone and other formations called flowstone (▼). 5. In humid
(calcium carbonate), a relatively soluble carbonate rocks, often starting along fractures and environments,
mineral that dissolves in acidic water. boundaries between layers, and then progressively 09.11.c2 Carlsbad Caverns NP, NM weathering at the
Rainwater is typically slightly acidic due to widening them over time. Open spaces become surface commonly
dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur larger and more continuous, allowing more water to produces reddish,
dioxide (SO2), and organic material. Water flow through and accelerating the dissolution and clay-rich soil. The
reacts with calcite in limestone, dissolving widening. If the openings become continuous, they soil, along with
it. This dissolution can be aided by acidic may accommodate underground pools or under- pieces of limestone,
water coming from deeper in the Earth, ground streams. can be washed into
by microbes, and by acids that crevices and
microbes produce. 4. If the roof of the cave collapses, the cave can be sinkholes, where it
exposed to the air. This can further dry out the cave. forms a reddish
Such a roof collapse commonly forms a pit-like matrix around
depression, called a sinkhole, on the surface. limestone fragments.
3. Most caves form below the 09.11.c3 Kartchner Caverns SP, AZ
water table (the upper limit of 5. Limestone caves range in size from miniscule to
groundwater), but some form from huge. The Mammoth Cave system of Kentucky is the
downward-flowing water above the longest cave in the world, with an explored length of
water table. In either case, dissolution over 640 km
(400 mi) long 3. Probably the most recognized 09.11.c1
over millions of years can form a
and some part features of caves are stalactites and
network of interconnected caves and
still unexplored. stalagmites, which are formed when 4. As mineral-rich water drips from
tunnels in the limestone. If the water
Carlsbad calcium-rich water dripping from the the roof and flows from the walls, it
table falls, groundwater drains out of
Caverns in New roof evaporates and leaves calcium leaves behind coatings, ribbons (⊲),
the tunnels and dries out part of the 09.11.a1
Mexico is also carbonate behind. Stalactites hang and straw-like tubes. The water can
cave system.
huge and tight from the roof. Stalagmites form accumulate in underground pools on
spacious (⊲). when water drips to the floor, the floor of the cave, precipitating
building mounds upward. The two rims of cream-colored travertine
can join, forming a column. along their edges.
09.11.a2 Carlsbad Caverns NP, NM 09.11.c4 Kartchner Caverns SP, AZ
What Are Some Other Types of Caves?
Most but not all caves
09.11.b1 Hawaii Volcanoes NP, HI 09.11.b2 Hueco Tanks SP, TX
Almost any rock Carlsbad Caverns

A
developed in limestone. type can host a
Caves in volcanic regions are cave, as long as it bout 260 million years ago, Carlsbad, dripped and trickled into the partially dry cave,
commonly lava tubes, which is strong enough New Mexico, was an area covered by a where it deposited calcium carbonate to make
were originally subsurface to support a roof shallow inland sea. A huge reef, lush the cave’s famous formations. Before You Leave This Page
channels of flowing lava over the open with sea life, thrived in this warm-water tropical
within a partially solidified space. Granite and environment. Eventually, the sea retreated, leav- Summarize the character and
lava flow. When the lava similar igneous ing the reef buried under other rock layers. formation of caves and sinkholes.
drained out of the tube, it left rocks (⊳), which are While buried, the limestone was dissolved by
behind a long and locally not very soluble, Briefly summarize how stalactites,
water rich in sulfuric acid generated from hydro-
branching cave. Such caves can form caves, stalagmites, and flowstone form.
tend to have a curved, especially where gen sulfide that leaked upward from deeper
accumulations of petroleum. Later, erosion of Describe features on the surface that
9.11

tube-like appearance with physical and chemical weathering has enlarged areas along fractures,
walls that have been like in the example shown here. Many non-limestone caves are along overlying layers uplifted the once-buried and might indicate an area may contain
smoothed and grooved (⊲) a contact between a stronger rock above, which holds up the roof, groundwater-filled limestone cave and eventu- caves at depth.
by the flowing lava. and a weaker rock below, to form the opening. ally exposed it at the surface. Groundwater
09.11.t1 Carlsbad Caverns NP, NM

xix
Untitled-7 274 10/10/17 08:04 PM Untitled-7 275 10/10/17 08:04 PM
 WHY DOES THE BOOK CONSIST OF TWO-PAGE SPREADS?

This book consists of two-page spreads, most of which are further sub- Each spread has a unique number, such as 17.9 for the ninth topical two-
divided into sections. Research has shown that because of our limited page spread in chapter 17. These numbers help instructors and students
amount of working memory, much new information is lost if it is not keep track of where they are and what is being covered. Each two-page
incorporated into long-term memory. Many students keep reading and spread, except for those that begin and end a chapter, contains a Before
highlighting their way through a textbook without stopping to integrate You Leave This Page checklist that indicates what is important and what
the new information into their mental framework. New information is expected of students before they move on. This list contains learning
simply displaces existing information in working memory before it is objectives for the spread and provides a clear way for the instructor to
learned and retained. This concept of cognitive load (Sweller, 1994) indicate to the student what is important. The items on these lists are
has profound implications for student learning during lectures and while compiled into a master What-to-Know List provided to the instructor,
reading textbooks. Two-page spreads and sections help prevent cogni- who then deletes or adds entries to suit the instructor’s learning goals
tive overload by providing natural breaks that allow students to stop and and distributes the list to students before the students begin reading the
consolidate the new information before moving on. book. In this way, the What-to-Know List guides the students’ studying.
First Pages First Pages

524 Oceans and Their Interactions with Other Earth Systems 525

17.9 What Are the Phases of ENSO? Cold Phase of

ENSO (La Niña)
1. In many ways, the cold phase of ENSO
(La Niña) displays conditions opposite to an
2. During a cold phase of ENSO (La Niña), Walker cell circulation
strengthens over the equatorial Pacific. This increases winds aloft and
causes near-surface easterly trade winds to strengthen, driving
El Niño, hence the opposing name. warmer surface waters westward toward Australasia and Indonesia.
THE ATMOSPHERE-OCEAN SYSTEM in the equatorial Pacific is constantly changing. Although each year has its own
unique characteristics, certain atmosphere-ocean patterns repeat, displaying a limited number of modes. We can use 3. Enhanced easterly trade winds bring
8. The region of equatorial more moisture to the equatorial parts of
surface-water temperatures in the eastern equatorial Pacific to designate conditions as one of three phases of the El Niño- rainfall associated with the the Andes and to nearby areas of the
Southern Oscillation (ENSO) system — neutral (or “normal”), warm (El Niño), and cold (La Niña). warm pool expands and Amazon basin. Orographic effects cause
the amount of rainfall heavy precipitation on the Amazon (east)
What Are Atmosphere-Ocean Conditions During the Three Phases of ENSO? increases. side of the mountain range (not shown).

El Niño and La Niña phases represent the end-members of ENSO, but sometimes the region does not display the character of 4. Partially depleted of moisture and
7. In the western Pacific, driven by stronger trade winds, dry air
either phase. Instead, conditions are deemed to be neither and are therefore assigned to the neutral phase of ENSO. To strong easterlies push warm descends westward off the Andes and
understand the extremes (El Niño and La Niña), we begin with the neutral situation. waters to the west where onto the coast. The flow of dry air,
they accumulate against the combined with the descending limb of
continent, forming a warmer the Walker cell, produces clear skies and
Neutral Phase 1. Warm, unstable, rising air over 2. Walker cell circulation in 3. Cool, descending air over the eastern
and more expansive warm
the western equatorial Pacific warm the equatorial troposphere equatorial Pacific produces dominantly high dry conditions along the coast.
of ENSO pool produces low atmospheric brings cool, dry air eastward atmospheric pressure at the surface and
pool. In response, the
thermocline of the western 5. As surface waters push westward and
pressures near the surface. along the tropopause. stable conditions in the atmosphere. 17.09.a3
equatorial Pacific is pushed the Humboldt Current turns west, deep
9. The warm, moist air
much deeper, further waters rise (strong upwelling). The
above the warm pool 4. Easterly trade winds flow over the Andes
increasing the slope of the 6. The upwelling near South America raises the thermocline and resulting cool SST and descending dry,
rises under the influence mountain range and then continue to the
thermocline to the west. causes it to slope steeper to the west. Cold water is now closer stable air conspire to produce excessive
of low pressures, produc- west across the ocean, pushing west against
ing intense tropical to the surface, producing favorable conditions for cold-water fish. drought in coastal regions of Peru.
the surface waters along the coast of South
rainfalls that maintain the America. The easterlies continue propelling
less saline, less dense the warm water westward toward Australia
fresh water on the surface and southeast Asia, allowing the waters to How Are ENSO Phases Expressed in Sea-Surface Temperatures?
of the warm pool. warm even more as they are heated by
insolation along the equator.
As the Pacific region shifts between the warm (El Niño), cold (La Niña), and neutral phases, sea-surface temperatures (SST),
8. Warm waters blown to atmospheric pressures, and winds interact all over the equatorial Pacific. These variations are recorded by numerous types of
the west not only depress 5. Westward displacement of surface waters, historical data, especially in SST. The globes below show SST for the western Pacific (near Asia) and eastern Pacific (near
the thermocline to about and offshore winds, induces upwelling of
150 m below the surface, cold, deep ocean waters just off the coast of
the Americas) for each phase of ENSO — neutral, warm, and cold. The colors represent whether SST are warmer than normal
but also physically raise the western South America. Abundant insolation (red and orange), colder than normal (blue), or about average (light).
height of the western under clear skies warms these rising waters
equatorial Pacific compared 17.09.a1 somewhat, so there is no density-caused
to the eastern Pacific. return of surface waters to depth.
Neutral Phase of ENSO Warm Phase of ENSO (El Niño) Cold Phase of ENSO (La Niña)
7. In the western Pacific, surface waters are warm (over 28°C) and less saline 6. The thermocline slopes to the west, being over three times
because of abundant precipitation over the ocean and stream runoff from heavy deeper in the western Pacific than in the eastern Pacific. This
precipitation that falls on land. The warm surface waters (the warm pool) overlie condition can only be maintained by a series of feedbacks,
cooler, deeper ocean water — a stable situation. including the strength of the trade winds.

Warm Phase of 9. During a warm phase (El Niño), the 10. El Niño conditions are also characterized by weakened Walker cell
ENSO (El Niño) warm pool and associated convective circulation over the equatorial Pacific. This is expressed by decreased
rainfall move toward the central Pacific. winds aloft and by a reduction in the strength and geographic range of
the easterly trade winds near the surface. 17.09.b1-2 17.09.b3-4 17.09.b5-6

14. For Australia, Indonesia, and 11. Upon reaching South America, During the neutral phase of ENSO, SST along During the warm phase of ENSO, a belt of much During the cold phase of ENSO (a La Niña),
the westernmost Pacific, El Niño the cool air descends over equato- the equator in the Pacific are about average, warmer than normal water appears along the a belt of colder than normal water occurs
brings higher atmospheric rial parts of the Andes, increasing with no obvious warmer or colder than equator in the eastern Pacific, west of South along the equator west of South America,
pressures, reduced rainfall, and atmospheric pressure, limiting normal waters near the Western Pacific Warm America. This warm water is the signature of an El hence the name “cold phase.” The western
westerly winds. The warm pool convectional uplift, and reducing Pool (left globe) or South America (right Niño, causing the decrease in cold-water fishes. Pacific (left globe), however, now has
and associated convective associated rainfall in Colombia and globe). An area of warmer than normal SST SST in the western Pacific are a little cooler than waters that are warmer than normal. These
rainfalls move toward the parts of the Amazon. occurs southwest of North America, but this average, but an El Niño is most strongly warm waters are quite widespread in this
central Pacific, allowing cooler is not obviously related to ENSO. expressed in the eastern Pacific (right globe). region, extending from Japan to Australia.
surface waters in the far west. 12. Weakening of the trade winds
reduces coastal upwelling of cold
13. Changes in the strength of the water, which, combined with the Before You Leave This Page
winds, in temperatures, and in the eastern displacement of the
movements of near-surface descending air, promotes a more Sketch and explain atmosphere-ocean conditions for each of the three typical phases of ENSO, noting typical vertical and horizontal air

waters cause the thermocline to
become somewhat shallower in
the west and deeper in the east,
but it still slopes to the west.
17.9
southerly location of the ITCZ in the
circulation, sea-surface temperatures, relative position of the thermocline, and locations of areas of excess rain and drought.
Southern summer and increased
17.09.a2 precipitation in the normally dry Summarize how each of the three phases of ENSO (neutral, warm, and cold) are expressed in SST of the equatorial Pacific Ocean.
coastal regions of Peru and Ecuador.

Untitled-8 524 10/10/17 08:06 PM Untitled-8 525 10/10/17 08:06 PM

Two-page spreads and integrated Before You Leave This Page lists offer ∙ Two-page spreads allow busy students to read or study a com-
the following advantages to the student: plete topic in a short interval of study time, such as the breaks
between classes.
∙ Information is presented in relatively small and coherent chunks
∙ All test questions and assessment materials are tightly articulated
that allow a student to focus on one important aspect or earth
with the Before You Leave This Page lists so that exams and
system at a time.
quizzes cover precisely the same material that was assigned to
∙ Students know when they are done with this particular topic and students via the What-to-Know list.
can self-assess their understanding with the Before You Leave
This Page list.
xx
The two-page spread approach also has huge advantages for the instruc-
tor. Before writing this book, the authors wrote most of the items for
the Before You Leave This Page lists. We then used this list to decide
what figures were needed, what topics would be discussed, and in what
order. In other words, the textbook was written from the learning objec-
tives. The Before You Leave This Page lists provide a straightforward
way for an instructor to tell students what information is important.
Because we provide the instructor with a master What-to-Know list,
an instructor can selectively assign or eliminate content by providing
students with an edited What-to-Know list. Alternatively, an instructor
can give students a list of assigned two-page spreads or sections within
two-page spreads. In this way, the instructor can identify content for
which students are responsible, even if the material is not covered
in class. Two-page spreads provide the instructor with unparalleled
flexibility in deciding what to assign and what not to cover. It allows
this book to be easily used for one-semester and two-semester courses.
This textbook, which is purposely designed to allow students to learn
on their own, in combination with the components of McGraw-Hill’s
online learning system (Connect, SmartBook, LearnSmart), allows an
instructor to offload much student learning to out-of-class times. An
instructor can rely on the book to teach students content that the instruc-
tor does not wish to cover in class, opening up class time for teaching
the most important aspects or those with local relevance, for modelling
scientific reasoning, or for having students solve earth-science prob-
lems. The book and online materials easily provide the necessary com-
ponents to allow an instructor to use a flipped-class approach, to teach
a hybrid class, or for a fully online course. We do all of these.

CONCEPT SKETCHES
Most items on the Before You Leave This Page list
are by design suitable for student construction of
concept sketches. Concept sketches are sketches
that are annotated with complete sentences that
identify features, describe how the features form,
characterize the main processes, and summa-
rize histories (Johnson and Reynolds, 2005). An
example of a concept sketch is shown to the right.

Concept sketches are an excellent way to actively

engage students in class and to assess their under-
standing of e­ arth science features, processes, and
history. Concept sketches are well suited to the
visual nature of earth science, especially cross
sections, maps, and block diagrams. Earth scien-
tists are natural sketchers using field notebooks,
blackboards, publications, and even napkins, because sketches are an important way to record observations and thoughts, organize knowledge, and
try to visualize tectonic processes, the subsurface geometry of rock units, the evolution of landscapes, circulation in the atmosphere and oceans, and
motions of astronomical objects. Our research data show that a student who can draw, label, and explain a concept sketch generally has a good under-
standing of that concept. In our classes, exams are two concept sketches out of a list of 10 to 12 possible questions provided to students ahead of time.

REFERENCES CITED
Baddeley, A. D. 2007. Working memory, thought, and action. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 400 p.
Johnson, J. K., and Reynolds, S. J. 2005. Concept sketches—Using student- and instructor-generated annotated sketches for learning, teaching, and
assessment in geology courses. Journal of Geoscience Education, v. 53, pp. 85–95.
Lawson, A. E. 1980. Relationships among level of intellectual development, cognitive styles, and grades in a college biology course. Science Educa-
tion, v. 64, pp. 95–102.
Lawson, A. 2003. The neurological basis of learning, development & discovery: Implications for science & mathematics instruction. Dordrecht, The
Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 283 p.
Mayer, R. E. 2001. Multimedia learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 210 p.
Roth, W. M., and Bowen, G. M. 1999. Complexities of graphical representations during lectures: A phenomenological approach. Learning and
Instruction, v. 9, pp. 235–255.
Sweller, J. 1994. Cognitive Load Theory, learning difficulty, and instructional design. Learning and Instruction, v. 4, pp. 295–312.
xxi
 HOW IS THIS BOOK ORGANIZED?
Two-page spreads are organized into 20 chapters that are arranged into
five major parts: (1) introduction to earth systems, earth materials, and
geologic time; (2) tectonic processes and features; (3) ­landscapes; (4)
the atmosphere and oceans; and (5) the solar system and universe. The
first chapter provides an overview of earth science, how we represent
location and geologic features, the scientific approach, and an intro-
duction to earth systems — a unifying theme interwoven throughout the
rest of the book. Chapter 2 introduces minerals and mineral resources,
providing an example of our approach in this book of presenting infor-
mation about mineral, energy, and water resources in the chapter that is
most pertinent to each topic. Chapter 3 follows with an introduction to
earth materials and to the processes that form the main families of rocks.
Part one of the book ends with Chapter 4, which presents the impor-
tant concepts about determining sequences of events, ages of rocks, and
other aspects of geologic time.
The second part of the book covers various aspects of tectonics. Chapter
5 begins with having students observe large-scale features on land and
the seafloor, as well as patterns of earthquakes and volcanoes, as a lead-
in to tectonic plates. Integrated into the chapter are two-page spreads
on continental drift, paleomagnetism, continental and oceanic hot spots,
and evolution of the modern oceans and continents. This is followed by
Chapter 6, which explores volcanism, volcanoes, and other igneous pro-
cesses and features. Chapter 7 begins with general principles of defor-
mation and geologic structures, emphasizing how these are expressed in
landscapes. The second half of Chapter 7 takes these principles of defor-
mation and applies them to earthquakes, including their causes, settings,
and resulting damage. Chapter 8, the final chapter in the second part of
the book, explores explanations for mountains and other regions of high
elevations, the formation of continents, and features along continental
margins. It also explores the origin of local mountains and basins, a topic
unique to this textbook, and provides an introduction to oil and natural
gas, including shale gas and oil.
The third part of the book focuses on the broad field of
geomorphology — the form and evolution of landscapes. It begins with
Chapter 9, a visually oriented introduction to processes that sculpt land-
scapes and redistribute earth materials. This chapter presents a brief intro-
duction to weathering, erosion, and transport. Wind erosion, transport,
deposition, and resulting landforms are integrated into ­Chapter 9, rather
than being a separate, sparse-content chapter that forcibly brings in non-
wind topics, as is done in other textbooks. This chapter also illustrates the
formation of arches, natural bridges, karst topography, and caves, all of
which are topics of interest to many students.
The remaining chapters in the third part of the book cover different
aspects of geomorphology. Chapter 10 treats the formation, descrip-
tion, and classification of soils, followed by a figure-based presentation
of mass wasting and slope stability. Chapter 11 integrates information
about glaciers, coasts, and changing sea level, to highlight the interactions
xxii
among different earth systems. It introduces glacial movement, landforms,
and deposits, along with the causes of glaciation. This chapter then moves
to coastal processes, landforms, and hazards, and it ends with the conse-
quences of changing sea level on landforms and humans, emphasizing
the role of glaciers in raising and lowering sea level. Chapter 12, the final
chapter in this third part, is about various topics involving water, includ-
ing the hydrologic cycle, water use, streams, stream processes, different
types of streams, and flooding. The second half of the chapter explores
the relationship between surface water and groundwater, including the
important topics of contamination and overpumping of groundwater.
The fourth part of the book is about the atmosphere and oceans. It begins
with Chapter 13, an introduction to energy, matter, and the atmosphere,
providing a solid background for later chapters. C ­ hapter 14 follows this
up with coverage about the processes and manifestations of atmospheric
motion. It features separate two-page spreads on circulation in the trop-
ics, high latitudes, and mid-latitudes, allowing students to concentrate on
one part of the system at a time, leading to a synthesis of lower-level and
upper-level winds. Chapter 14 also covers air pressure, the Coriolis effect,
and seasonal and regional winds. These topics lead naturally into Chapter
15, which is an introduction to atmospheric moisture, including clouds
and various forms of precipitation. Within the chapter are globes and
other maps presenting global, regional, and seasonal patterns of humidity
and precipitation. Chapter 16 follows this with a visual, map-oriented dis-
cussion of weather and storms, including cyclones, tornadoes, and other
severe weather. The next chapter (Chapter 17) is devoted to the oceans
and their interactions with the atmosphere and cryosphere. It features sec-
tions on ocean currents, sea-surface temperatures, ocean salinity, and a
thorough treatment of ENSO. The chapters in this part build into Chapter
18, which presents various aspects of climate, including the controls on
climate and climate classification. Chapter 18 features a two-page spread
on each of the main climate groups, illustrated with a rich blend of globes,
process-oriented figures, climographs, and photographs. These spreads
are built around the globes, each of which portray a few related climate
types, enabling students to concentrate on the distribution and controls of
each climate type. The climate chapter also has a data-oriented presenta-
tion on the important topic of climate change, especially the data for cli-
mate change, the controlling factors, and predicted consequences. It ends
with a two-page spread on alternative (non – fossil fuel) energy sources.
The fifth and final group of chapters focuses on the solar system and the
rest of the universe. Chapter 19 presents a highly visual introduction to
various objects in the solar system and how we study and investigate them.
It is followed by Chapter 20, the final chapter in the book, which explores
the rest of the universe. It begins with a treatment of how we observe the
universe and our framework for referencing these observations. It intro-
duces forces, motions, and light, presenting the laws of motion of Newton
and Kepler. The chapter successively explores stars, stellar evolution, stel-
lar remnants, and galaxies, ending with a discussion of cosmology and the
early history of the universe.
TWO-PAGE SPREADS Connections Two-Page Spread
Most of the book consists of two-page spreads, each of which is about
The next-to-last two-page spread in each chapter is a Connections
one or more closely related topics. Each chapter has four main types of
spread designed to help students connect and integrate the various con-
two-page spreads: opening, topical, connections, and investigation.
cepts from the chapter and to show how these concepts can be applied
to an actual location. Connections are about real places that illustrate the
concepts and features covered in the chapter, often explicitly illustrating
how we investigate an earth science problem and how these problems
Opening Two-Page Spread have relevance to society.

Opening spreads introduce the chapter, engaging the student by high- First Pages First Pages

lighting some interesting and relevant aspects and posing questions to CONNECTIONS Atmospheric Motion 445

activate prior knowledge and curiosity. What Causes Monsoons?

14.10
What Other Regions Experience Monsoon Circulations?
A COMMON MISCONCEPTION is that the word “monsoon” refers to a type of rainfall, but the word actually refers West Africa 14.10.b1 14.10.b2
July — A shift in wind direction in July brings moist
to winds that reverse directions depending on the season. One of these seasonal wind directions typically brings dry January — In January, ocean air from several directions onto the very hot
conditions and the other brings wet conditions. Monsoons impact a majority of the world’s population. near-surface winds in West land where air has risen. This change in wind
Africa largely flow from the direction causes enormous differences in precipita-

First Pages First Pages

What Are the Features of the Asian Monsoon? northeast, bringing in dry
air from inland areas,
tion, as shown by the graph below for Dakar,
Senegal. Along with the increase in precipitation
One way to characterize a monsoon is to compare maps showing wind directions for different times of the year. Such including the Sahara comes an increase in the amount of vegetation. In
Desert, and carrying it Dakar and much of
maps can then be compared to rainfall records to determine which seasonal wind directions bring dry conditions and 14.10.b3
southwest to coastal areas the region, precipi-
which ones bring wet conditions. The maps below show climatological wind conditions, averaged over three decades, for and farther offshore. Such tation is nearly
CHAPTER two different months — January and July. Arrows show wind directions, and shading represents pressure at sea level, with offshore flows generally nonexistent in

14
Atmospheric Motion 425 light gray being high and dark gray being low. Examine the patterns of circulation for each month and then compare the result in dry weather. January and
patterns between the months. adjacent months.

Atmospheric Motion TO P I CS I N T HI S CHAP T E R

14.10.a1 14.10.a2 Winter Summer

1045

1045
14.10.b4 14.10.b5
MOTION OF THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE controls climate, rainfall, and weather patterns, all of which greatly affect 14.1 How Do Gases Respond to Changes 14.5 How Do Variations in Insolation Cause Global
60˚ N 60˚ N Northern July — The wind shifts by July (winter) as the
land surface cools, creating higher pressure
our lives. It is driven largely by differences in insolation, with influences from other factors, including topography, land- in Temperature and Pressure? 426 Patterns of Air Pressure and Circulation? 434 Australia

SEA LEVEL PRESSURE (mb)

over the land. This causes a large drop in

SEA LEVEL PRESSURE (mb)

sea interfaces, and especially rotation of the planet. These factors control motion at local scales, like between a mountain

1027.5
14.2 What Causes Winds? 428 14.6 How Does Air Circulate in the Tropics? 436 January — In precipitation, as shown by the graph below

1027.5
Seoul January (the for Katherine, Australia. The monsoon flow
and valley, at larger scales encompassing major storm systems, and at global scales, determining the prevailing wind 14.3 What Causes Some Local and Regional Winds? 430 14.7 How Does Air Circulate in High Latitudes? 438 Seoul
southern summer), in July
directions for the entire planet. All of these local-to-global circulations are governed by similar physical principles. 14.4 What Are Some Significant Regional Winds? 432 14.8 How Does Surface Air Circulate in Mid-Latitudes? 440 winds over northern results in
30˚ N 30˚ N
14.9 How Does Air Circulate Aloft Over Kolkata Australia bring little rain.

1012.5
Kolkata

1012.5
the Mid-Latitudes? 442 moist air from the
ocean onto the
Large-scale patterns of atmospheric circulation are shown here for the Northern
14.10 CONNECTIONS: What Causes Monsoons? 444 heated land
Hemisphere. Examine all the components on this figure and think about what you know 14.11 INVESTIGATION: What Occurs During Seasonal surface.

995

995
about each. Do you recognize some of the features and names? Two features on this Circulation Shifts? 446 14.10.b6
EQ Equator Equator
figure are identified with the term “jet stream.” You may have heard this term watching EQ 14.10.b7 14.10.b8
the nightly weather report or from a captain on a cross-country airline flight. JANUARY SLP JULY SLP Southwestern U.S. July — During the late summer months, heating of the
land surface and the resulting low pressure causes a
Jet streams are fast-flowing currents of air high in the troposphere, near the altitude at 0˚ 1500 km 60˚ E 120˚ E 0˚ 1500 km 60˚ E 120˚ E January — Southwestern North
What is a jet stream and what effect does it have on weather and flying? shift in winds. Winds from the south bring moist air
which large airplanes fly. The Polar Front Jet Stream occurs at high latitudes, along the America, most of which is
1. January — This map shows typical wind conditions for Asia during 2. July — This map shows that wind conditions for the same region northward from the Gulf of Mexico and Gulf of
edges of a circulating mass of cold air called the Polar Cell. The Northern Hemisphere desert, has a less dramatic, but
January. In the center of the map, winds define a region where flow is during July are totally different than they are for January. Circulation California, and summer thunderstorms form when this
Prominent labels of H and L represent areas with relatively version is shown here, but a similar jet stream occurs in the Southern Hemisphere. still important monsoon effect.
clockwise and outward, centered on the light-colored area of high that marked the high pressure is gone, replaced by an area of inward air interacts with the heated land. These summer
higher and lower air pressure, respectively. Two more jet streams, called Subtropical Jet Streams, occur in the subtropics on In the winter months, winds
pressure. This high-pressure area, the Siberian High, forms from cold, and counterclockwise flow over Tibet (north of Kolkata). In the Northern thunderstorms cause precipitation to peak in August,
either side of the equator, at about 30° N and 30° S. blow from various directions,
sinking air over Siberia. This circulation brings very dry air (from the cold Hemisphere, this pattern of circulation is diagnostic of a low-pressure as shown by the graph below for Tempe, Arizona.
What is air pressure and why do some areas have higher or and winter precipitation in this
interior of the continent) from the north over southern Asia and from the area, which in this case is caused by warm, rising air that accompanies Note the different scale needed to show the relatively
lower pressure than other areas? Do jet streams always stay in the same position, and how region is from brief incursions
northwest across eastern Asia. We would predict from these wind patterns warming of the Asian landmass. This low is called the Tibetan Low. small amounts of precipitation in this desert area
do they affect our weather? of cold, wet air (i.e., cold fronts)
that little precipitation would occur in much of Asia at this time. This circulation brings very humid air from the southwest over southern versus the previous ones. Nearly as much precipita-
from the northwest.
and southeastern Asia. How do you think this circulation affects rainfall? tion falls in the winter from the cold fronts.
Distinctive wind patterns, shown by white arrows, are Near-surface winds interact with upward- and downward- 14.10.b9
associated with the areas of high and low pressure. The flowing air higher in the atmosphere, together forming
Seasonal Variation in Precipitation Effect of the Monsoon on Vegetation
winds are flowing outward and in a clockwise
direction from the high, but inward and in a
huge tube-shaped air circuits called circulation cells.
The most prominent of these are Hadley Cells, 3. Observe these graphs showing average monthly precipitation
The Effect of Monsoons on Cultures

M
4. These satellite images show increased vegetation due to
counterclockwise direction from the low. These one of which occurs on either side of the amounts for two very different parts of Asia: Kolkata, one of the monsoon-related rains along the western coast of India. The left onsoons greatly influence the lives ways not fathomable to most North Americans
directions would be reversed for highs and equator. largest metropolitan areas of India, and Seoul, the capital of South
lows in the Southern Hemisphere.
image is during the dry season, when wind patterns bring in dry air. of people living in regions with sea- or Europeans. The influence on agriculture,
Korea. For both cities, notice prominent precipitation peaks that The right image is from the end of the monsoon. Note the increase in sonal shifts in wind. The main including the cultivation of rice, and on flood-
What controls the existence and location of
occur during the summer — the wet season. The increase in plant cover (green areas) during the monsoon-caused rainy season.
Why do wind patterns develop around areas circulation cells, and how do the Hadley effects of a monsoon are seasonal variations in ing and other natural hazards is obvious, but
precipitation during the wet season results from the flow of moist
of high and low pressures, why do these Cells influence global weather and climate? 14.10.a5 Western India 14.10.a6 Western India precipitation, which in turn affect water sup- the monsoon also appears in literature, art,
air from oceans onto land, toward the Tibetan Low. The dry season, Before You Leave This Page
patterns spiral, and why are some spirals plies, amount of vegetation, and overall liva- music, architecture, and nearly every other
during the winter months, reflects the flow of dry air from the land,
clockwise and others counterclockwise? bility for some normally dry landscapes. Many aspect of culture. Ceremonies commonly mark
flowing outward from the Siberian High.
14.10.a4 cultures plan their activities around these sea- the anticipated start of the monsoon. In years Explain what causes a monsoon,
Motion in the atmosphere affects us in 14.10.a3 using examples from Asia, West
many ways. It controls short-term sonal changes, conserving water during the dry when the monsoon rains arrive later than
North of the equator, prevailing winds (shown Africa, northern Australia, and
weather and long-term climate, season and taking advantage of the plentiful usual, people become very concerned that har-
with large gray arrows) have gently curved southwestern North America.

14.10
shapes. For most of human history, transporta- including typical average, maximum, water during the wet season. vests will suffer. The date of the onset of the
tion routes depended on local and regional and minimum temperatures. The The monsoon pervades the psyches of peo- monsoon rains varies by location, but generally Describe some of the effects of
atmospheric circulation. These winds were large-scale patterns of air circulation, ple in southern and southeastern Asia, espe- proceeds from south to north with the onset in shifting monsoonal winds.
named “trade winds” because of their impor- along with effects of local winds, cially the region from India to Vietnam, in April and May.
tance in dictating the patterns of world cause some areas to be deserts and
commerce. The trade winds circulate from others to be rain forests, and cause 444
Spain southwestward, causing Christopher winds to change direction with the
Columbus to land in the Bahamas rather than seasons and from night to day.
the present U.S. Regional air circulation affects the
amount and timing of rainfall for a Untitled-9 444 10/10/17 08:08 PM Untitled-9 445 10/10/17 08:08 PM
What causes winds blowing toward the region, which in turn controls the
equator to be deflected to the west? types of soils, vegetation, agriculture,
and animals situated in an area.
Winds determine which areas of the
Prevailing winds from the north and south U.S. are more conducive to wind-
converge near the equator. This zone of conver- power generation than others. The
gence, called the Intertropical Convergence Zone result of these global, regional, and
14.0

(ITCZ), is a locus of humid air and stormy weather. local atmospheric motions is a world in

Investigation Two-Page Spread

which the tropics are not too hot, the
What causes winds to converge near the equator, and polar areas are not too cold, and no
14.00.a1
why does this convergence cause unsettled weather? areas have too little moisture for life.

424

Untitled-9 424 10/10/17 08:07 PM Untitled-9 425 10/10/17 08:07 PM

Each chapter ends with an Investigation spread that is an exercise in

which students apply the knowledge, skills, and approaches learned in
Topical Two-Page Spread the chapter. These exercises mostly involve virtual places that students
explore and investigate to make observations and interpretations and
Topical spreads comprise most of the book. They convey the content, to answer a series of relevant questions. Some involve actual global
help organize knowledge, describe and illustrate processes, and provide data. Investigations are modeled after the types of problems geoscien-
a spatial context. The first topical spread in a chapter usually includes tists investigate, and they use the same kinds of data and illustrations
some aspects that are familiar to most students, as a bridge or scaffold encountered in the chapter. The Investigation includes a list of goals for
into the rest of the chapter. Most chapters have at least one two-page the exercises and step-by-step instructions, including calculations and
spread illustrating how earth science processes impact society and com- methods for constructing maps, graphs, and other figures. These inves-
monly another two-page spread that specifically describes how earth tigations can be completed by students in class, as part of a laboratory
scientists study typical problems. exercise, as worksheet-based homework, or as online activities.
First Pages First Pages First Pages First Pages

436 Atmospheric Motion 437

I N V E S T I G AT I O N Atmospheric Motion 447

14.6 How Does Air Circulate in the Tropics?
TROPICAL CIRCULATION is driven by the intense solar heating of land and seas near the equator. The heated air
rises and spreads out from the equator, setting up huge, recirculating cells of flowing air. The rising air results in a belt
of tropical low pressure, and where the air descends back toward the surface is a belt of subtropical high pressure. What
determines where the rising and sinking occur, and how does the Coriolis effect influence this flow?
14.06.a2 Kakadu World Heritage Site, Australia
General Circulation in the Tropics
1. Examine the large figure below and note the main features. What do you observe, and can
you explain most of these features using concepts you learned from previous parts of the
chapter? Tropical areas are known for their lush vegetation ( ⊲), which in turn is due largely to
relatively abundant and consistent insolation, warm temperatures, and abundant rainfall. After
thinking about these aspects, read the rest of the text.
2. At the surface, winds generally converge on
the equator from the north and south. The
south-flowing winds in the Northern Hemisphere
are apparently deflected to the right relative to
their original path, blowing from the northeast.
These winds are called the northeast trade
winds because they guided sailing ships from
the so-called Old World (Europe and Africa)
to the New World (the Americas).
3. A belt of high pressure occurs
near 30° N and 30° S, where air
descends to the surface of the
Earth. This air originally rose in
the low pressure located near
the equator, as a result of
excess heating.
4. The rising and
descending air, and the
related high- and low-
pressure areas, are linked
together in a huge cell of
convecting air — the
Hadley cell. One Hadley
cell occurs north of the
equator and another just
south of the equator.
5. Note that the Hadley
cell extends to approxi-
mately 30° north and
south of the equator, so it
generally encompasses
all the tropics and some
distance beyond.
14.06.a1 6. In the Southern Hemisphere, winds blowing toward the
Formation of Hadley Cells
7. Insolation, on average, is most
intense near the equator, in the
tropics. The position of the overhead
Sun migrates between the Tropic of
Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn from
season to season. The Sun-heated air
rises from the tropics, forming a belt
of low pressure at the surface. As the
warm, moist air rises, the air cools
somewhat, forming clouds; this
accounts for the typical cloudiness
and haziness of many tropical areas.
Condensation of drops further heats 14.06.a3
the air, aiding its rise.
Influence of the Coriolis Effect
11. As the air flows toward the
equator in each hemisphere from the
subtropical high to the ITCZ, the
Coriolis effect pulls it to the right (in
the Northern Hemisphere) or left
(in the Southern Hemisphere) of
its intended path, as shown by
the arrows on the left side of this
diagram. The Coriolis effect is
weak near the equator, however,
so the deflection is only slight.
The result is surface air flowing
from northeast to southwest in the
Northern-Hemisphere tropics (the
northeast trade winds) and from
southeast to northwest in the
Southern-Hemisphere tropics (the
southeast trade winds).
Seasonal Variations in the Position of the Intertropical Convergence Zone
15. As the overhead Sun shifts north and
south within the tropics from season to
season, the ITCZ shifts, too. In the
northern summer, it shifts to the north.
The typical June position of the ITCZ is the
reddish line on the figure below, and the
December position is the blue line.
Typical Position
of ITCZ in July
TROPIC OF CANCER
EQUATOR
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
10. Once near the surface, the air flows back toward the equator to replace the air that
rose. This return flow causes the trade winds aloft. The flow from the two hemispheres
converges at the ITCZ.
14.06.a4
16. The ITCZ generally extends
poleward over large landmasses
in the hemisphere that is experi-
encing summer. This larger shift
over the land than over the
oceans is because of the more
intense heating of land surfaces.
8. After rising, this air spreads out poleward
14.11 What Occurs During Seasonal Circulation Shifts?
as it approaches the upper boundary of the
troposphere (the tropopause). GLOBAL ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION responds directly to insolation. As the Sun’s direct rays migrate Air Pressure
seasonally, belts of winds, such as the westerlies, migrate too. In this investigation, you will examine the general These two globes show average air pressure
9. Once the upper-level flow reaches
about 30° N and 30° S latitude, it sinks, circulation of the atmosphere, as expressed by data on air pressure, wind velocity, and cloud cover for two months over the Atlantic and adjacent land areas
during the months of January and July.
both because it begins to cool aloft and with very different seasons — January and July. Lighter gray indicates relatively high pres-
due to forces arising from the Earth’s
rotation. This sinking air dynamically sures, whereas darker gray indicates low
pressures. The lines encircling the globe are
compresses itself and the surrounding
Goals of This Exercise: the equator and 30° and 60° (N and S)
air, producing the subtropical high-
pressure systems. latitudes.
• Identify major patterns in air pressure, wind velocity, and cloud cover for each season.
Observe the main patterns on these two
• From these data, identify the major features of the global atmospheric circulation in each season.
globes, noting the positions of high pressure
• Assess and explain the degree of seasonal movement of these circulation features. and low pressure and how the positions,
shapes, and strengths change between the
two seasons. Then, complete the steps
When examining broad-scale patterns of the Earth, Observe the entire scene, noting which areas on described in the procedures section.
12. In the Northern Hemisphere, as the air flows such as global circulation patterns, a useful land have the most vegetation and which ones
poleward after rising at the ITCZ, the weak Coriolis 14.11.a2 14.11.a3
strategy is to focus on one part of the system have the least. Compare these vegetation
effect also pulls the air slightly to the right of its at a time. Another often-recommended patterns with large-scale patterns of atmo-
intended path. The result is that some of the upper- strategy is to begin with relatively simple spheric circulation and air pressure, like
level air moves from southwest to northeast at the top parts of a system before moving to more subtropical highs and the Intertropical
of the Northern Hemisphere Hadley cell. complex ones. For this investigation, Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
you will infer global patterns of air Wind Velocity
13. In the Southern Hemisphere, the Coriolis effect
circulation by focusing on the Atlantic
deflects the upper-level winds to the left of their Consider what directions of prevailing These globes show average wind velocities
Ocean and adjacent lands (⊲).
intended path, causing a northwest-to-southeast flow winds would occur in different belts of for January and July. The arrows show the
at the top of the Southern Hemisphere Hadley cell. This globe is centered on the central latitude. For example, where in this directions, while the shading represents the
Atlantic, and its top is slightly tilted globe are the two belts of trade winds speed, with darker being faster. In this
14. As the seasons progress, the set of Hadley cells toward you to better show the (one north and one south of the exercise, the directions are more important
and the ITCZ migrate — to the Northern Hemisphere in Northern Hemisphere. As a result of equator)? How about the mid-latitude than the speeds, but both tell part of the
Northern-Hemisphere summer and to the Southern this tilt, Antarctica is barely visible at belts of westerlies in each hemisphere? story.
Hemisphere in Southern-Hemisphere summer. If the the bottom of the globe. The colors on Consider how these winds might blow
land, derived from satellite data, depict moisture-rich air from the ocean onto Observe the large-scale patterns, identifying
trade-wind flow crosses the equator, the Coriolis deflection
rocks and sand in tan and brown. land. After you have thought about these those patterns that are related to global
begins to occur in the opposite direction, and the winds can
Vegetation is in various shades of green, aspects, read the procedures below and circulation (i.e., westerlies) versus those that
reverse direction (not shown).
with the darkest green indicating the examine the globes and text on the next are related to more regional features, such
thickest vegetation (usually forests). Shallow page, which highlight average air pressure, as the Bermuda-Azores High and the
waters in the Caribbean region (on the left side wind velocity, and cloud cover for two Icelandic Low. Note also the position of
of the globe) are light blue. 14.11.a1 months — January and July. where winds converge (ITCZ) along the
equator and how this position changes 14.11.a5
17. Unlike the ITCZ, the subtropical high pressure doesn’t exist 14.11.a4
between the two months.
in a continuous belt around the Earth. The ocean-covered
surfaces support high pressure better than land surfaces
Procedures
because land heats up too much at these latitudes, especially Complete the following steps on a worksheet provided by your instructor or as an online activity.
in summer. The heated air over the land rises, counteracting the
tendency for sinking air in the Hadley cell. So the subtropical A. Study the two globes showing air pressure (on the next page), and note areas with high and low pressure. First, locate
high pressure tends to be more vigorous over the oceans. a belt of low pressure near the equator and adjacent belts of subtropical highs on either side. Next, locate the Icelandic Cloud Cover
Low and a high-area pressure to the south (called the Bermuda-Azores High), located in the Atlantic Ocean between
The clouds that form, move above Earth’s
Africa and North America. Determine for which season each is strongest or if there is not much difference between the surface, and disappear can be detected and
Before You Leave This Page seasons. Mark and label the approximate locations of these features on the globe on the worksheet. tracked with satellites, shown here for January
and July of a recent year. On these globes,
B. Next, examine the two globes that show wind velocity. In the appropriate place on the worksheet, draw a few arrows to light colors that obscure the land and ocean
Sketch, label, and explain the main represent the main wind patterns for different regions in each month. Label the two belts of westerlies and the two belts indicate more abundant clouds (and often
patterns of air circulation and air precipitation), whereas the land shows through
of trade winds. If the horse latitudes are visible for any hemisphere and season, label them as well. Mark any somewhat
pressure over the tropics and in areas that average fewer clouds.
subtropics. circular patterns of regional winds and indicate what pressure feature is associated with each.
Observe the large-scale patterns, noting which
Sketch and explain air circulation C. Examine the two globes that show the average cloud cover for each month. From these patterns, label areas that you
areas are cloudiest and which ones generally
in the Hadley cells. interpret to have high rainfall in the tropics due to proximity to the ITCZ or low rainfall due to position in a subtropical high. have clear skies. Relate these patterns of
Examine how the cloud patterns correspond to the amount of vegetation, pressure, and winds.
clouds to the following: amount of vegetation
14.6

14.11

equator are deflected to the left (west), resulting in winds blowing Locate and describe the
on the land, air pressure for that month, and
from the southeast, forming the southeast trade winds. Typical Position of ITCZ in January Intertropical Convergence Zone D. Sketch and explain how the different features of circulation and air pressure change between the two months. Answer all average wind directions. Answer all questions
and its seasonal shifts. the questions on the worksheet or online. on the worksheet or online. 14.11.a6 14.11.a7
14.06.a5

446

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Untitled-9 446 10/10/17 08:08 PM Untitled-9 447 10/10/17 08:09 PM

xxiii

NEW IN THE SECOND EDITION
The second edition of Exploring Geology represents a significant revi-
sion, with every chapter receiving additions and improvements, includ-
ing 188 new photographs. Some changes will be obvious, while others
are more subtle but nevertheless substantial. The style, approach, and
sequence of chapters is unchanged, but every chapter received new pho-
tographs, many revised figures, major to minor editing of text blocks,
and, in some cases, reorganization. We revised many text blocks to
improve clarity and conciseness, or to present recent discoveries and
events. Most chapters contain the same number and order of two-page
spreads, but one chapter gained two two-page spreads and another had
two spreads completely revised. Many sections of two-page spreads
were revised in content and layout, such as by the addition of a pho-
tograph not in the previous edition. Nearly all changes were made in
response to comments by reviewers and students. The most important
revisions are listed below:
∙ This edition features completely different fonts from the previ-
ous edition. The new fonts were chosen partly to improve the
readability on portable electronic devices, while retaining fidel-
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a process that required opening, editing, and commonly resizing
every illustration that had text, as in the axes of graphs. In addi-
tion, all labels were incorporated into the actual artwork, rather
than overlaying them on the artwork using the page-layout
program, as was done for many figures in the previous edi-
tion. This involved adding labels to hundreds of illustrations,
but it has the benefit of having every label as an integral part
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∙ This edition contains 188 new photographs, with a deliber-
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features, whether on land, in the atmosphere, and in the water.
Most of these new photographs represent upgrades of existing
photographs from the previous edition, but a number are new
photographs in the layout. Also, for this edition, we individu-
ally reprocessed nearly all photographs that were derived from
scanned slides, using technology and techniques that were not
available when the original scanned versions were generated and
processed. This reprocessing involved opening up the original
high-resolution scans or digital photograph and using mod-
ern image-processing software to correct brightness, contrast,
and color balance, and to remove visual noise. The resulting
improvements will be noticeable for many images in the printed
book, but they are more conspicuous in the digital e-book and
especially in the high-resolution images we provide instructors
for use in classrooms.
∙ This edition contains many new and replaced figures and even
more that were lightly revised, such as replacing fonts. Figures
from the first edition were replaced with new versions to update
xxiv
information so that it is more recent, to improve student under-
standing of certain complex topics, and for improved appear-
ance. All fonts were replaced in every figure that has text.
∙ This edition contains two new two-page spreads on sedimen-
tary environments and a new section on impact craters. We also
thoroughly revised the coverage of climate change, more promi-
nently featuring recent climate change at the start of the discus-
sion. This is followed by a new section that discusses the types
of climate proxies, using a more geologic, photograph-based
approach in place of the previous collection of small graphs of
proxies. In the next spread, which covers factors that could cause
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start the discussion focussed on factors involved in recent
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time scales.
∙ Many two-page spreads have been extensively revised with
improved layout, illustrations, and text. In addition to the new
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minor data points.
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∙ Every box with the learning objectives was changed from
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You Leave This Page.” This is more concise, and opened up
room on nearly every two-page spread.
CHAPTER 1 received a moderate revision, mostly involving nine new
photographs (five replacing existing ones) and the reprocessing of most
other photographs. The investigation received four additional photo-
graphs to depict important features students need to consider in their
deliberations. The chapter also has one revised illustration that now
incorporates an actual photograph of Pluto.
CHAPTER 2 received a light revision, with eight new photographs,
mostly of rocks and mineral resources. Some other photographs were
processed from the original scans. Fonts were replaced throughout,
resulting in many small changes in wording and layout, as occurred in
every chapter.
CHAPTER 3 was heavily revised, featuring 36 new photographs and
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mentary environments on land, near shorelines, and in the ocean. Two
new page-spanning illustrations and 14 additional photos accompany
this new material. Two of the new photographs are from the Francis-
can of California, and are accompanied by a new, brief introduction to
melange. Other new photographs are mostly from Florida, Texas, and
New Mexico.
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