Etextbook 978 1133104681 Inquiry Into Physics

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Brief Contents
Prologue: Getting Started 2 7.2 Electric Force and Coulomb’s Law 263
Why Learn Physics? 3 7.3 Electric Currents—Superconductivity 271
What Is Physics? 4 7.4 Electric Circuits and Ohm’s Law 274
How Is Physics Done? 5 7.5 Power and Energy in Electric Currents 280
How Does One Learn Physics? 6 7.6 AC and DC 283
Physical Quantities and Measurement 9 CHAPTER 8
CHAPTER 1 Electromagnetism and EM Waves 292
The Study of Motion 12 8.1 Magnetism 293
1.1 Fundamental Physical Quantities 13 8.2 Interactions between Electricity
1.2 Speed and Velocity 18 and Magnetism 297
1.3 Acceleration 26 8.3 Principles of Electromagnetism 304
1.4 Simple Types of Motion 31 8.4 Applications to Sound Reproduction 306
8.5 Electromagnetic Waves 310
CHAPTER 2 8.6 Blackbody Radiation 318
8.7 EM Waves and Earth’s Atmosphere 325
Newton’s Laws 46
2.1 Force 47 CHAPTER 9
2.2 Newton’s First Law of Motion 51
2.3 Mass 55
Optics 336
2.4 Newton’s Second Law of Motion 57 9.1 Light Waves 336
2.5 The International System of Units (SI) 60 9.2 Mirrors: Plane and Not So Simple 345
2.6 Examples: Different Forces, Different Motions 60 9.3 Refraction 353
2.7 Newton’s Third Law of Motion 67 9.4 Lenses and Images 359
2.8 The Law of Universal Gravitation 70 9.5 The Human Eye 370
2.9 Tides 77 9.6 Dispersion and Color 373
9.7 Atmospheric Optics: Rainbows, Halos, and Blue Skies 375
CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER 10
Energy and Conservation Laws 86
3.1 Conservation Laws 87
Atomic Physics 390
3.2 Linear Momentum 88 10.1 The Quantum Hypothesis 390
3.3 Work: The Key to Energy 94 10.2 The Photoelectric Effect and Photons 394
3.4 Energy 99 10.3 Atomic Spectra 398
3.5 The Conservation of Energy 104 10.4 The Bohr Model of the Atom 400
3.6 Collisions: An Energy Point of View 111 10.5 Quantum Mechanics 405
3.7 Power 115 10.6 Atomic Structure 409
3.8 Rotation and Angular Momentum 118 10.7 X-Ray Spectra 417
10.8 Lasers 418
CHAPTER 4
CHAPTER 11
Physics of Matter 128
4.1 Matter: Phases, Forms, and Forces 128 Nuclear Physics 430
4.2 Pressure 138 11.1 The Nucleus 430
4.3 Density 143 11.2 Radioactivity 434
4.4 Fluid Pressure and Gravity 147 11.3 Half-Life 440
4.5 Archimedes’ Principle 153 11.4 Artificial Nuclear Reactions 445
4.6 Pascal’s Principle 161 11.5 Nuclear Binding Energy 446
4.7 Bernoulli’s Principle 162 11.6 Nuclear Fission 449
11.7 Nuclear Fusion 454
CHAPTER 5
Temperature and Heat 172 CHAPTER 12
5.1 Temperature 173 Special Relativity and Elementary Particles 468
5.2 Thermal Expansion 178 12.1 Special Relativity: The Physics of High Velocity 469
5.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics 184 12.2 Forces and Particles 476
5.4 Heat Transfer 188 12.3 Conservation Laws, Revisited 483
5.5 Specific Heat Capacity 193 12.4 Quarks: Order Out of Chaos 492
5.6 Phase Transitions 198 12.5 The Standard Model and GUTs 498
5.7 Heat Engines and The Second Law of Thermodynamics 204
CHAPTER 6 Epilogue 512

Waves and Sound 218
6.1 Waves—Types and Properties 219 Appendixes
6.2 Aspects of Wave Propagation 227 A Winners of the Nobel Prize in Physics A-1
6.3 Sound 237 B Math Review B-1
6.4 Production of Sound 242 C Answers C-1
6.5 Propagation of Sound 245
6.6 Perception of Sound 248 Glossary G-1
CHAPTER 7
Index I-1
Electricity 260
7.1 Electric Charge 261
Brief Contents v
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Contents
Preface ix CHAPTER 3
Prologue: Getting Started 2 Energy and Conservation Laws 86

Forensic Physics 86
Why Learn Physics? 3
What Is Physics? 4 3.1 Conservation Laws 87
How Is Physics Done? 5 3.2 Linear Momentum 88
How Does One Learn Physics? 6 3.3 Work: The Key to Energy 94
Physical Quantities and Measurement 9 3.4 Energy 99
■ Physics Potpourri: The Metric System: “For All People, 3.5 The Conservation of Energy 104
for All Time.” 11 3.6 Collisions: An Energy Point of View 111
■ Physics Potpourri: Energy Conservation,
Consumption, and Crisis 112
CHAPTER 1
3.7 Power 115
The Study of Motion 12 3.8 Rotation and Angular Momentum 118
Drag Racing 12 ■ Physics Potpourri: Starquakes: A Glitch in Time 120
1.1 Fundamental Physical Quantities 13 ■ Physics Family Album 123
■ Physics Potpourri: Time Out! 16 Summary 124 • Important Equations 124 • Mapping
1.2 Speed and Velocity 18 It Out! 124 • Questions 124 • Problems 125 •
Vector Addition 23 Challenges 127
1.3 Acceleration 26 CHAPTER 4
Centripetal Acceleration 28
1.4 Simple Types of Motion 31 Physics of Matter 128
Zero Velocity 31 Airships 128
Constant Velocity 31 4.1 Matter: Phases, Forms, and Forces 128
Constant Acceleration 33 Behavior of Atoms and Molecules 133
Aristotle 38 ■ Physics Potpourri: What’s in a Name? 136
■ Physics Family Album 38 4.2 Pressure 138
Aristotle 38
4.3 Density 143
Galileo 39
Summary 40 • Important Equations 41 • Mapping It 4.4 Fluid Pressure and Gravity 147
Out! 41 • Questions 42 • Problems 42 • Challenges 45 Fluid Pressure in the Atmosphere 150
4.5 Archimedes’ Principle 153
■ Physics Potpourri: Superfluids—Friction-free Flow 156
CHAPTER 2
4.6 Pascal’s Principle 161
Newton’s Laws 46 4.7 Bernoulli’s Principle 162
New Horizons—Old Physics 46 ■ Physics Family Album 165
2.1 Force 47 Fluids 165
2.2 Newton’s First Law of Motion 51 Summary 167 • Important Equations 167 • Mapping
■ Physics Potpourri: Friction: A Sticky Subject 52 It Out! 167 • Questions 168 • Problems 169 •
Challenges 171
2.3 Mass 55
2.4 Newton’s Second Law of Motion 57 CHAPTER 5
2.5 The International System of Units (SI) 60
Temperature and Heat 172
2.6 Examples: Different Forces, Different Motions 60
Hurricanes 172
Simple Harmonic Motion 62
Falling Body with Air Resistance 64 5.1 Temperature 173
■ Physics Potpourri: To Breathe or Not to Breathe,
2.7 Newton’s Third Law of Motion 67
That Is the Question 176
2.8 The Law of Universal Gravitation 70
5.2 Thermal Expansion 178
Orbits 73
Liquids 181
Gravitational Field 74
Gases 182
■ Physics Potpourri: Hooke-d! 76
5.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics 184
2.9 Tides 77
■ Physics Family Album 80
5.4 Heat Transfer 188
Summary 80 • Important Equations 82 • Mapping It Conduction 188
Out! 82 • Questions 83 • Problems 84 • Challenges 85 Convection 189
vi Contents
Radiation 190 7.6 AC and DC 283
Combinations 191 ■ Physics Family Album 285
5.5 Specific Heat Capacity 193 Summary 287 • Important Equations 287 • Mapping
■ Physics Potpourri: Energy Flow in Stars 194 It Out! 288 • Questions 288 • Problems 289 •
5.6 Phase Transitions 198 Challenges 291
Humidity 201
CHAPTER 8
5.7 Heat Engines and The Second Law
of Thermodynamics 204 Electromagnetism and
Heat Movers 207 EM Waves 292
Usable Energy 209 Metal Detectors 292
8.1 Magnetism 293
Heat 211
Summary 213 • Important Equations 213 • Mapping 8.2 Interactions between Electricity
It Out! 213 • Questions 214 • Problems 215 • and Magnetism 297
Challenges 217 8.3 Principles of Electromagnetism 304
8.4 Applications to Sound Reproduction 306
CHAPTER 6 Digital Sound 309
Waves and Sound 218 8.5 Electromagnetic Waves 310
Sound Medicine 218 Radio Waves 312
6.1 Waves—Types and Properties 219 Microwaves 313
Infrared 314
6.2 Aspects of Wave Propagation 227
Reflection 228 Visible Light 314
■ Physics Potpourri: The Hubble Relation—Expanding Ultraviolet Radiation 315
Our Horizons 230 X-Rays 315
Doppler Effect 230 ■ Physics Potpourri: N Rays: “C’est une erreur.” 316
Bow Waves and Shock Waves 233 Gamma Rays 317
Diffraction 233 8.6 Blackbody Radiation 318
Interference 235 Temperature Measurement 320
6.3 Sound 237 Detection of Warm Objects 321
Sound Applications 239 ■ Physics Potpourri: Cosmic Background Radiation
■ Physics Potpourri: Putting Sound to Work 240 (CBR)—A Relic of the Big Bang 322
6.4 Production of Sound 242 8.7 EM Waves and Earth’s Atmosphere 325
6.5 Propagation of Sound 245 Ozone Layer 325
6.6 Perception of Sound 248 Greenhouse Effect 326
Pitch 248 The Ionosphere 327
Loudness 248 Astronomy 327
Tone Quality 251 ■ Physics Family Album 329
■ Physics Family Album 254 Summary 332 • Important Equations 332 • Mapping
Sound 254 It Out! 332 • Questions 333 • Problems 334 •
Summary 255 • Important Equations 256 • Mapping Challenges 335
It Out! 256 • Questions 256 • Problems 257 •
Challenges 259 CHAPTER 9
CHAPTER 7 Optics 336

Doggone It! 336
Electricity 260
9.1 Light Waves 336
iProducts: iPods, iPhones, and iPads 260
Reflection 337
7.1 Electric Charge 261 Diffraction 339
7.2 Electric Force and Coulomb’s Law 263 Interference 340
■ Physics Potpourri: Electrifying Sights and Sounds:
Polarization 342
A Thunderstorm Primer 268
9.2 Mirrors: Plane and Not So Simple 345
7.3 Electric Currents—Superconductivity 271
“One-Way Mirror” 346
Resistance 272
Curved Mirrors 347
Superconductivity 273
Astronomical Telescope Mirrors 349
7.4 Electric Circuits and Ohm’s Law 274
Series and Parallel Circuits 276 9.3 Refraction 353
■ Physics Potpourri: Electricity and the Total Internal Reflection 356
Human Body 278 9.4 Lenses and Images 359
7.5 Power and Energy in Electric Currents 280 ■ Physics Potpourri: Fresnel, Pharos,
and Physics 360
Contents vii
Image Formation 363 Atomic Bombs 450
Magnification 366 Nuclear Power Plants 451
Aberrations 367 11.7 Nuclear Fusion 454
■ Physics Potpourri: The Camera Obscura: Fusion in Stars 455
A Room with a View 368 ■ Physics Potpourri: Big Bang Nucleosynthesis 456
9.5 The Human Eye 370 Thermonuclear Weapons 458
Eye Surgery 373 Controlled Fusion 458
9.6 Dispersion and Color 373 Cold Fusion 460
9.7 Atmospheric Optics: Rainbows, Halos,
and Blue Skies 375 Summary 464 • Important Equations 464 • Mapping
Rainbows 375 It Out! 464 • Questions 464 • Problems 466 •
Halos 378 Challenges 467
Blue Skies 379
CHAPTER 12
Summary 384 • Important Equations 384 • Mapping Special Relativity and Elementary
It Out! 384 • Questions 385 • Problems 387 • Particles 468
Challenges 388 Antimatter: Available at a Medical Facility near You 468
CHAPTER 10 12.1 Special Relativity: The Physics of High Velocity 469
Postulates of Special Relativity 469
Atomic Physics 390 Predictions of Special Relativity 470
Something Old, Something New 390 12.2 Forces and Particles 476
10.1 The Quantum Hypothesis 390 The Four Forces: Natural Interactions among Particles 476
Blackbody Radiation 391 Classification Schemes for Particles 478
10.2 The Photoelectric Effect and Photons 394 Spin 479
10.3 Atomic Spectra 398 Elementary Particle Lexicon 481
■ Physics Potpourri: Cosmic Chemistry, “. . . To Dream 12.3 Conservation Laws, Revisited 483
of Such a Thing.” 400 New Conservation Laws 484
10.4 The Bohr Model of the Atom 400 Conservation of Baryon and Lepton Numbers 484
■ Physics Potpourri: Symmetry and Conservation
10.5 Quantum Mechanics 405
Laws 486
10.6 Atomic Structure 409
Conservation of Strangeness 488
10.7 X-Ray Spectra 417 ■ Physics Potpourri: Does Nature Distinguish
10.8 Lasers 418 Left from Right? 490
■ Physics Potpourri: Holograms—3-D Images, 12.4 Quarks: Order Out of Chaos 492
No Glasses Required 420 Quarks 494
12.5 The Standard Model and GUTs 498
Summary 425 • Important Equations 426 • Mapping
Charm, Truth, and Beauty 500
The Electroweak Interaction and GUTs 503
Challenges 429
CHAPTER 11 Summary 507 • Important Equations 508 • Mapping
Nuclear Physics 430 Challenges 511
Radioactive Sentinel 430
11.1 The Nucleus 430 Epilogue 512
11.2 Radioactivity 434 General Relativity 514
Alpha Decay 435 Cosmology 519
Beta Decay 436
Gamma Decay 437 Appendixes
Radioactivity and Energy 438 A Winners of the Nobel Prize in Physics A-1
Applications 438 B Math Review B-1
11.3 Half-Life 440 C Answers C-1
Dating 443 Glossary G-1
■ Physics Potpourri: Radiation: A Killer Turned
Index I-1
Lifesaver 444
Table of Conversion Factors and
11.4 Artificial Nuclear Reactions 445
Other Information Inside back cover
11.5 Nuclear Binding Energy 446
Periodic Table Inside back cover
11.6 Nuclear Fission 449
viii Contents
Preface
Welcome to the 7th edition of Inquiry Into Physics. In this edi- fusion, have shaped the political landscape of the world and
tion, we continue our emphasis on the inquiry approach to are likely to continue to do so in the future. A look back at the
learning physics. We ask readers to try things, discover rela- women and men who made many of these important discov-
tionships between physical quantities on their own, and look eries connects us with our past and gives us deeper insight into
for answers in the world around them rather than seek them the pathways that can lead to scientific understanding. These
only in books or on the Internet. As authors, we hope to serve aspects and others are blended throughout the text in an effort
as guides on a tour of the realm of the physical universe. It is to provide you with a sense of the unity both within the disci-
our fervent desire that you, our companions, not simply pline of physics and between the subject and its human prac-
remain on the tour bus the entire time, looking at the mar- titioners. The tools we use to present these facets of physics are
velous sights outside and listening comfortably to our enter- basic ones: the written word; visualizations and models in the
taining patter. Instead, we urge, perhaps even prod, you to get form of hundreds of photos, diagrams, and graphs; and sim-
out of the bus from time to time and walk about in this world, ple mathematics to show how the conceptual side of physics is
to examine things in a direct, hands-on fashion, and to be dar- inextricably woven together with its quantitative side. By these
ing and experiment on the various systems and structures that means, we hope that you will complete your introductory
surround you. Along the journey, give free reign to the innate study of physics having achieved a greater appreciation not
curiosity that we all possess from birth. Don’t be afraid to ask only for what we know about the physical universe but also
questions as we move from place to place in our travels. Keep how we came to know it.
in mind that learning is a more exciting, complete, longer
remembered, and enjoyable process when you are fully
engaged in it and not merely a passive recipient of facts and What’s New?
statistics offered by your instructors or other sources. Each chapter has been thoroughly reviewed, and many sec-
tions have been rewritten to improve the clarity and accuracy
of the prose. The text has been updated and in some cases
Our Intended Audience expanded to reflect the latest scientific discoveries and
This book is designed primarily for students who are taking an achievements in the fields of physics and astronomy, and new
introductory physics course, perhaps for the first time, to sat- material has been added to reflect current affairs and increas-
isfy collegiate requirements or who wish to satisfy their curios- ingly popular applications of physics principles in 21st-
ity and thirst for understanding about the structure and range century life. The art program has been substantially improved
of interactions that characterize our physical universe. It offers throughout the book to offer more contemporary and relevant
a broad survey of the fundamental definitions, laws, and prin- photos and figures to illustrate the connections between fun-
ciples of the discipline of physics, as well as a large sampling damental physical concepts and the modern world. An
of applications of these concepts in virtually every aspect expanded set of end-of-chapter (EOC) exercises, including
of human experience and even beyond. Inquiry Into Physics nearly 50 new questions and problems, has been provided, and
should be considered as a guidebook for a fascinating journey more than half the Explore It Yourself (EIY) application boxes
of exploration into those things that comprise our universe, have been modified to provide clearer instructions and out-
from the smallest subatomic particles to the largest galaxies, as comes.
well as the interactions that can occur between those things, Some specific changes on a chapter-by-chapter basis
from energy-releasing reactions among atomic nuclei to gut- include the following:
wrenching collisions between automobiles to gravitational
Chapter 1. Updated Physics Potpourri on time reflecting
interactions among stars and whole galaxies that result in cat-
current GPS technology. Three new EOC exercises added.
astrophic disruptions over time scales that dwarf modern
humankind’s 200,000-year history on Earth. In ways both Chapter 2. Improved discussion of static friction and
large and small, physics principles and applications touch our revised EIY box to accompany the new presentation.
lives literally from moment to moment: in the pumping action Three new EOC exercises added.
of the heart and the flow of blood in our arteries and veins, in Chapter 3. New chapter opener on forensic physics.
the electrical impulses that enervate our muscles and organs, Updated Physics Potpourris on energy conservation and
and in the processes that drive our senses of sight and sound consumption and neutron star physics that reflect the lat-
that permit us to see and hear the goings-on in the world est data and models for each. Four new EOC exercises
around us. have been added.
Physics also satisfies our intellectual curiosity by revealing Chapter 4. Updated Physics Potpourris on element
Nature’s secrets about things both mundane and exotic. Dis- nomenclature and superfluids to include the latest discov-
coveries in physics, like the processes of nuclear fission and eries and naming conventions for the heaviest elements
Preface ix
and an emphasis on the “creep” effect in liquid helium-4. Physics in Action. Opening each chapter, these examples
Six new EOC exercises have been added. of physics as it plays out in everyday life serve to motivate
Chapter 5. Improved and expanded discussion of the per- the reader to immediately engage with the material by
fect gas law. New treatment of entropy and energy quality. showing how a common device or issue of current inter-
Four new EOC exercises have been added. est and importance connects to the concepts developed in
the chapter.
Chapter 6. Revised discussion of the Doppler effect with
enhanced art. Two new EOC exercises have been added. Examples. Worked exercises illustrating the roles of
physics principles and simple mathematics in real-world
Chapter 7. Revised and updated chapter opener on iProd-
situations are regularly presented as models for problem
ucts. Updated and improved instructions and outcomes
solving.
for nearly all the EIY boxes. Updated section on super-
conductivity to reflect recent developments in materials Explore It Yourself activities. These hands-on experi-
science. Refreshed Summary section. Three new EOC ments and exercises give students the chance to see and do
exercises have been added. physics without the need for specialized equipment or
highly sophisticated techniques. These investigations are
Chapter 8. Updated material on the Large Hadron Col-
generally strategically placed before the relevant text dis-
lider (LHC). Expanded discussion of uses of UV radiation
cussion, inviting the reader to directly experience the
in forensic physics. Explicit use of the Stefan–Boltzmann
upcoming concepts and to begin to formulate their own
law for blackbody radiation. Three new EOC exercises
understanding of them. Where appropriate, answers to
have been added.
these activities appear in an appendix.
Chapter 9. Revised discussion of refraction to properly
Learning Checks. Simple self-quizzes, designed to test the
account for phase relationships between the primary and
reader’s basic comprehension of the material on a section-
secondary (scattered) waves. New discussion of LASEK
by-section basis, are included throughout each chapter.
eye surgery. Three new EOC exercises have been added.
Physics Potpourris. These self-contained essays explore
Chapter 10. Improved discussion of energy and angular
selected topics drawn from astronomy, the history of sci-
momentum quantization in atomic systems. Expanded
ence, biophysics, and other areas and are provided to
treatment of the Pauli exclusion principle. Six new EOC
deepen and enrich the student’s understanding of physics
exercises have been added.
and its applications. Here the word potpourri (pro-
Chapter 11. New discussion of inverse beta decay. New nounced “po-pu-ree”) means a miscellaneous collection,
example highlighting the atomic mass unit in calcula- but two other metaphors based on its other meanings
tions. New discussion of neutron bombs and the 2011 might be helpful in expressing the purpose of these fea-
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in Japan. New equa- tures in the book: an aromatic blend that arouses a sense
tions describing radioactive decay in the Important Equa- of mystery and intrigue, or a fine stew consisting of a mix-
tions section. Nine new EOC exercises have been added. ture of hearty ingredients and tangy spices personally
Chapter 12. Updated tables of subatomic particle proper- selected by a chef.
ties. Updated information on top quark experiments Concept Maps. Based on principles developed from edu-
using the LHC. Two new EOC exercises have been added. cational research, these visual displays offer an alternative
representation of the relationships between important
chapter concepts.
What’s the Plan? Physics Family Album. The final content section of each
The traditional organization of topics followed in many intro- chapter presents a look at the historical development and
ductory physics courses has been retained for this new edition. the human side of physics by describing aspects of the
Once again, we have eschewed the use of shorter, more nar- lives and work of some of the key men and women
rowly focused chapters and have continued with longer ones responsible for the discovery and expression of the laws
that offer the opportunity to present the overarching concep- and concepts presented in the chapter.
tual unity and continuity of the broad subdisciplines that
Summary. This is a brief, bulleted review of the key points
make up our subject (kinematics and dynamics, energy, ther-
in the chapter and a quick, helpful list of the major con-
modynamics, optics, atomic and nuclear physics, etc.). Each of
cepts to master when preparing for tests and quizzes.
the 12 numbered chapters is built around the following com-
mon features: Important Equations. An annotated list of the critical
equations included or developed in the chapter is pre-
Topic Trails. Unlike standard chapter outlines or topic sented for quick reference when problem solving.
lists, these flowchart-like diagrams show how the sections
Mapping It Out! These exercises, some intended for
in the various chapters are interconnected and reinforce
group collaboration, are included to help students use
one another as well as link with other related or depend-
concept-mapping techniques to organize, unify, and
ent topics elsewhere in the book.
improve their understanding of important concepts and
relationships introduced in each chapter.
x Preface
Questions. These end-of-chapter queries check students’ The YouBook, an interactive eBook, lets you tailor the textbook
basic understanding of the material and their ability to to fit your course and connect with your students by removing
extend that understanding to new and different situa- and rearranging chapters so assigned readings match your syl-
tions. A special icon () is used to distinguish the first labus exactly. Powerful editing tools let you change as much as
type of question from the second for ease of identification you’d like—or leave it just as it is. Highlight key passages, add
and selection. sticky notes, share them with your students, or keep them per-
Problems. These end-of-chapter exercises offer students sonal. Edit the narrative with text boxes or strike out text. With
opportunities to hone their critical thinking skills using logic a handy link tool, you can drop an icon at any point that links
and simple mathematics to solve problems based on realistic to your own notes, audio files, video lectures, or other files on
applications of the physics developed in each chapter. your Web site or anywhere on the Web. A widget lets you eas-
ily find and embed videos from YouTube. A discussion board
Challenges. More advanced questions and problems
allows students and instructors to chat with others in the class.
designed to test a reader’s mastery of the material at a
Students go beyond just reading the textbook with animations
deeper level are included at the close of each chapter for
that play at the point of learning and their own highlighting,
the benefit of highly motivated students. Many of these
note, and bookmark tools.
exercises can be used as starting points for small group or
whole class discussions.
Conveniently located in the appendices and endsheets of PowerLecture Instructor’s CD with
the book are several additional resources that are helpful in ExamView®
problem solving or in gaining further appreciation of the scope ISBN-13: 978-1-133-11273-0
of physics applications in the 21st century. These include: This digital library and presentation tool includes:
■ Selected Applications of physics concepts and ■ PowerPoint® lecture slides that instructors can
principles; customize by importing their own lecture slides
■ Tables of Conversion Factors and other information or other materials.
(for example, tables of metric prefixes, physical ■ Image libraries that contain digital files for figures,
constants, and other often-used data); photographs, and numbered tables from the text. Use
■ Periodic Table of the Elements; these files to print transparencies, create your own
■ Winners of the Nobel Prize in Physics; PowerPoint slides, and supplement your lectures.
■ Math Review; and ■ Digital files of the complete Instructor’s Solutions
■ Answers to the odd-numbered Problems and Manual revised by Thomas Sieland of Embry-Riddle
Challenges and to the Explore It Yourself activities Aeronautical University. These files provide accurate
(where appropriate). solutions and helpful information for instructors.
Features include:
There is more than enough material in the text than can usu-
ally be covered in a typical one-semester course. However, ■ Chapter Outline and Overview
about 30 of the more specialized sections may be omitted with ■ Learning Objectives
minimal impact on the later topics. Specifically, these include ■ Teaching Suggestions and Lecture Hints
the Physics Potpourris and the Physics Family Albums and ■ Common Misconceptions
sections 2.9, 4.6, 4.7, 5.2, 5.5, 5.7, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 8.4, 8.7, 9.5, 10.7, ■ Consider This (interesting points and additional
10.8, and 12.5. The Topics Trails at the beginning of each experiments)
chapter show more detail concerning the interdependence of ■ Answers to Mapping It Out, Questions, Even-
the various sections of the book. Numbered Problems, and Challenges
■ ExamView testing software that enables you to
create, deliver, and customize tests using the more
What Else Is There? than 1,800 test bank questions written specifically
What else is there? You’ve got it all. for this text. New questions and revisions are
Enhanced WebAssign® with Cengage YouBook provided by Thomas Sieland of Embry- Riddle
ISBN-13: 978-1-133-52516-5 Aeronautical University.
Exclusively from Cengage Learning, Enhanced WebAssign
offers an extensive online program for Physics to encourage
the practice that’s critical for concept mastery. The meticu- Instructor Companion Site
lously crafted pedagogy and exercises in our proven texts Supporting materials are available to qualified adopters. Please
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Preface xi
Visit CengageBrain.com about current trends in the publishing industry, particularly as
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flashcards, glossaries, and sug- for his support in identifying a wonderful cover image that
gested readings or to purchase Cengage products, please visit continues the dynamic, physics-filled series of images that
www.cengagebrain.com. At the CengageBrain.com home have graced prior editions of the book. As she did in the 6th
page, search for this textbook’s ISBN (from the back cover of edition, Brandi Kirksey, our development editor, provided pri-
your book). This will take you to the product page where mary oversight for this revision and offered valuable support
these resources can be found. (Instructors can log in at login. at any number of critical decision points during the develop-
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tant, deserves kudos for his careful and effective handling of
several of the ancillaries for the book, including the Instruc-
CengageBrain.com App tor’s Manual. As content project manager, Jessica Rasile, was
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anywhere using the CengageBrain.com application day details of the copyediting and page proofing, including
developed specifically for the Apple iPhone® and coordinating the numerous file transfers with Charu Khanna,
iPod touch®, which allows students to access free the project manager at our publishing and printing partner,
study materials—book-specific quizzes, flashcards, related Macmillan Publishing Solutions in India. Finally, deep appre-
Cengage Learning materials and more—so they can study the ciation is expressed to Sara Golden, our photo researcher with
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personalized version of this textbook to meet your course and accurate in its exposition. Each new edition offers the
needs. Match your learning materials to your syllabus and cre- authors a chance to combine a deep love and appreciation of
ate the perfect learning solution—your customized text will physics with an equally deep love and commitment to effective
contain the same thought-provoking, scientifically sound con- teaching practice. The fact that so many of you have taught
tent, superior authorship, and stunning art that you’ve come and learned the basics of the world of physics through the fruit
to expect from Cengage Learning, Brooks/Cole texts, yet in a of this fusion of professional passions for so long is both hum-
more flexible format. bling and gratifying. Thank you.
Visit www.cengage.com/custom to start building your Preparing this edition without the benefit of the advice,
book today! counsel and abiding friendship of my long-time co-author,
Vern Ostdiek, has been a special challenge, not simply because
of the additional work and responsibility that Vern’s absence
Who’s Responsible? produced, but because of the loss of his keen eye, clear head,
The production of this newest edition of Inquiry Into Physics and firm voice in support of relevant physics correctly pre-
involved the collaboration of many talented professionals at sented, elegantly exemplified and simply expressed. I hope I
Brooks/Cole|Cengage Learning. First, thanks goes to Charlie have fairly and adequately represented Vern’s philosophy and
Hartford, our publisher, for having confidence in and advocat- passion in this latest edition of Inquiry Into Physics.
ing for this project. Thanks are also due to our senior develop-
ment editor, Peter McGahey, who provided crucial advice Don Bord
xii Preface
Dedication
This book is dedicated to the memory of Vern Ostdiek—friend, colleague,
and co-author—whose passion for physics and for teaching infuses every page.
Vern J. Ostdiek
1953–2008
PROLOGUE: GETTING STARTED
In 1999, Time magazine, known for naming an annual “person of the year,” set out to
choose its “person of the century.” A daunting task it was, considering the events of the
Pictorial Press Ltd/Alamy.
turbulent 20th century and the inevitable criticism that would come from those favoring
someone not named. Would it be a world leader who shaped significant spans of the cen-
tury—for good or bad—such as Franklin D. Roosevelt (a runner-up for person of the
century) or Joseph Stalin (1939 and 1942 person of the year)? Perhaps a military figure
such as Dwight D. Eisenhower (1944 person of the year) or a spiritual leader such as Pope
“In a century that will be remembered foremost for its John Paul II (1994 person of the year)? Would it be a champion of peace or justice such
science and technology—in particular for our ability to as Mahatma Gandhi (the other runner-up) or Martin Luther King, Jr. (1963 person of the
understand and then harness the forces of the atom and year)? In the end, the selection was someone with enormous name recognition, but whose
universe—one person clearly stands out as both the work most people would confess ignorance about: the physicist Albert Einstein.
greatest mind and paramount icon of our age: The Einstein was chosen because he symbolized the great strides made during the 1900s in
kindly, absent-minded professor whose wild halo of hair, deciphering and harnessing fundamental aspects of the material universe. But his style,
piercing eyes, engaging humanity, and extraordinary his manner, and his allure had something to do with it as well. At times, he dominated
brilliance made his face a symbol and his name a physics with spectacular results, in a way that is reminiscent of certain “athletes of the
synonym for genius, Albert Einstein.” (Time magazine.) 20th century” (Ali, Gretzky, Jordan, Montana, Navratilova, Aaron . . .). Like them, only his
last name is needed to identify him. In 1905, while working as a civil servant far removed
from the great centers of physics research, Einstein had three scientific papers—on three
different subjects—published in a German physics journal. They were so extraordinary
that any one of them would likely have led to his receiving a Nobel Prize in physics—then,
as now, the highest award in the field.
Had Time magazine been in business during previous centuries, the editors might
well have honored other physicists in the same way, perhaps Galileo or Newton for the
17th century or Maxwell for the 19th. Such is the high regard that Western civilization
has for the field of physics and those who excel in it. Partly, it is the impact their discov-
eries often have on our lives, by way of technological gadgets or civilization-threatening
weaponry. But often it is the intellectual resonance we have with the revolutionary
insights they give us about the universe (it is Earth that moves around the Sun, it is mat-
ter being converted into energy that makes the Sun shine . . .).
Welcome to the world of physics. You are embarking on an introduction to a field that
continues to fascinate people in all walks of life. Tell a friend or family member that you
are now studying physics. That will quite likely impress them in a way that most other
subjects would not. Whether it should do so is an interesting question. We hope that when
you finish this endeavor, you will answer yes.
2 Prologue Getting Started

Why Learn Physics?
The answer is easy for those majoring in physics, engineering, or other sciences: physics
will provide them with important tools for their academic and professional lives. The
technology that our modern society relies on comes from applying the discoveries of
physics and other sciences. From designing safe, efficient passenger jets to producing
sophisticated, inexpensive computers and cell phones, engineers apply physics every day.
Landing astronauts on the Moon and returning them safely to Earth, one of the greatest
feats of the 20th century, is a good example of physics applied on many levels (see ● Fig-
ure P.1). The machines involved—from powerful rockets to on-board computers—were
designed, developed, and tested by people who knew a lot about physics. The planning of
the orbits and the timing of the rocket firings to change orbits involved scientists with a
keen understanding of basic physics such as gravity and the “laws of motion.” Often, the
payoff is not so tangible or immediate as a successful Moon landing. Behind great techno-
logical advances are years or even decades of basic research into the properties of matter.
For instance, take a portable CD player (see ● Figure P.2). A laser reads data off a
spinning disc, integrated circuit chips inside “translate” the digital data into electrical sig-
nals, tiny magnets in the headphones help convert those signals into sound, and a
liquid crystal display provides information for the user. If you could send this device back
in time to when your grandparents were children, it would astound the greatest physicists
and electrical engineers of the day. But even at that time, scientists were studying the
properties of semiconductors (the raw material for lasers and integrated circuit chips)
and liquid crystals.
For you and others like you taking perhaps just one physics course in your life, the use-
fulness of physics is probably not a big reason for studying it. We will see that with even
NASA
one course, you can use physics to determine, for example, how large a raft has to be to
support you or whether using a toaster and a hair dryer at the same time will trip a cir- ● Figure P.1 It took a lot of physics to get
cuit breaker. But you are not going to make a living with your understanding of physics, astronaut Neil Armstrong to the Moon.
nor will you be using it (knowingly) every day. So why should you study physics? There
are both aesthetic and practical reasons for learning physics. Seeing the order that exists
in Nature and understanding that it follows from a relatively small number of “rules” can
be fascinating—similar to learning the inspirations behind a musician’s or an artist’s
work. Learning how common devices operate gives you a better understanding of how to
use them and may reduce any frustration you have with them. An elementary knowledge
of physics also helps you make more informed decisions regarding important issues fac-
Why Learn Physics? 3

ing you, your community, your nation, and the world. As you progress through this book,
keep track of news events through the media of your choice. You may be surprised at just
how often physics is in the news—directly or indirectly.
Clynt Garnham Technology/Alamy.

If you start this excursion into the world of physics with a sense of curiosity and a thirst
for knowledge, you won’t be disappointed. And you will have the two most important char-
acteristics needed to make the endeavor both easy and successful. Learning how sunlight
and raindrops combine to make a rainbow will deepen your appreciation of its beauty.
Knowing about centripetal force will help you understand why ice or gravel on a curved
road is dangerous. Learning the basics of nuclear physics will help you understand the dan-
● Figure P.2 Portable CD player: one product of
ger of radon gas and the promise of nuclear fusion. Knowing the principles behind stereo
decades of research in physics. speakers, aircraft altimeters, refrigerators, lasers, microwave ovens, guitars, and Polaroid
sunglasses will give you a better appreciation of how these devices do what they do.
Throughout this book, we encourage the reader to be inquisitive. Just memorizing def-
initions and equations doesn’t lead you to a real understanding of a subject, any more than
memorizing a manual on playing soccer means you can jump into a game and do well. You
have to practice, try things, think of situations and how events would evolve, and so on. So
it is with physics. Being able to recite Newton’s third law of motion is good, but under-
standing what it means and how it works in the real world is what’s really important.
Often, we pose questions or ask the reader to try something, so that when you realize
what the answer or outcome is you will have truly learned something. You might think of
it as “learning by inquiry.” The Explore It Yourself activities are particularly designed for
this purpose. Many of the questions at the ends of the chapters are inquiry-based. Once
you get used to this method of learning, you will find that you will master the material
faster and more deeply than before.
What Is Physics?
Because physics is one of the basic sciences, it is important to first have an idea of just what
science is. Science is the process of seeking and applying knowledge about our universe.
Science also refers to the body of knowledge about the universe that has been amassed by
humankind. Pursuing knowledge for its own sake is pure or basic science; developing ways
to use this knowledge is applied science. Astronomy is mostly a pure science, whereas engi-
neering fields are applied science. The material we present in this book is a combination of
fundamental concepts that we believe are important to know for their own sake and of
examples of the many ways that these concepts are applied in the world around us.
There are other ways to classify the different areas of science besides pure and applied.
There are physical sciences (physics and geology are just two examples), life sciences
(biology and medicine), and behavioral sciences (psychology and sociology). As with
most such schemes, there are overlaps: the subfield of biophysics is a good example.
Physics is not as easy to define as some areas of science such as biology, the study of
living organisms. If you ask a dozen physicists to define the term, you are not likely to get
two answers exactly alike. One suitable definition is that physics is the study of the fun-
damental structures and interactions in the physical universe. In this book, you will find
much about the structures of things such as atoms and nuclei, along with close looks at
how things interact by way of gravity, electricity, magnetism, and so on. Within physics,
there is a wide range of divisions. ● Table P.1 lists some of the common areas based on
one measure of research activity. There is a lot of overlap between the divisions, and some
of them are clearly allied with other sciences like biology and chemistry.
The field of physics is divided differently when the basics are being taught to begin-
ners. The topics presented to students in their first exposure to physics are usually ordered
according to their historical development (study of motion first, elementary particles and
cosmology last). This ordering also approximates the ranking of areas by our everyday
experience with them. We’ve all watched people in motion and things collide, but few
people encounter the idea of quarks before taking a physics class—even though we and
all of the objects we deal with are mainly composed of quarks.
The vast majority of students who take an introductory course in physics are not
majoring in it. Most of those who do earn a degree in physics find employment in business,

● Table P.1 Some commonly identified divisions of physics, ranked roughly
by number of doctorates earned each year. (Based on information
from the American Institute of Physics.)
Area Topics of Investigation
1. Condensed Matter structures and properties of solids and liquids
2. Astronomy and Astrophysics stars, galaxies, evolution of the universe
3. Particles and Fields fundamental particles and fields, high-energy
accelerators
4. Nuclear Physics nuclei, nuclear matter, quarks and gluons
5. Atomic and Molecular atoms, molecules
6. Optics and Photonics light, laser technology
7. Biophysics physics of biological phenomena
8. Materials Science applications of condensed-matter physics
9. Plasma and Fusion Physics plasmas, fusion research
10. Atmospheric and Space Physics meteorology, Sun, planets
industry, government, or education. The latest data compiled by the American Institute
of Physics indicate that the majority of individuals with bachelor’s and master’s degrees
are employed in the first two areas, whereas those with doctorates were mainly found in
the last two. In addition to the expected occupations like researcher and teacher, people
with physics degrees also have job titles like engineer, manager, computer scientist, and
technician. Often, physicists are hired not so much for their knowledge of physics as for
their experience with problem solving and advanced technology.
How Is Physics Done?

So how does one “do” physics or science in general? How did humankind come by this
mountain of scientific knowledge that has been amassed over the ages? A blueprint exists
for scientific investigation that makes an interesting starting point for answering these
questions. It is at best an oversimplification of how scientists operate. Perhaps we should
regard it as a game plan that is frequently modified when the action starts. It is called the
scientific method. One version of it goes something like this: careful observation of a phe-
nomenon induces an investigator to question its cause. A hypothesis is formed that pur-
ports to explain the observation. The scientist devises an experiment that will test this
hypothesis, hoping to show that it is correct—at least in one case—or that it is incorrect.
The outcome of the experiment often raises more questions that lead to a modification of
the hypothesis and further experimentation. Eventually, an accepted hypothesis that has
been verified by different experiments can be elevated to a theory or a law. The term that
is used—theory or law—is not particularly important in physics: physicists hold Newton’s
second law of motion and Einstein’s special theory of relativity in roughly the same regard
in terms of their validity and importance.
One nice thing about the scientific method is that it is a logical procedure that is prac-
ticed by nearly everyone from time to time (see ● Figure P.3). Let’s say that you get into
your car and find that it won’t start (observation). You speculate that maybe the battery
is dead (hypothesis). To see if this is true, you turn on the radio or the lights to see if they
work (experiment). If they don’t, you may look for someone to give you a jump start.
If they do, you probably guess that something else, such as the starter, is causing the
problem. Clearly, a good mechanic must be proficient at this way of investigating things.
A health-care professional making a medical diagnosis uses similar procedures.
Does the outline of the scientific method appear in some “how-to” manual for scien-
tific discovery? Are scientists required to take an oath to follow it faithfully every day at
work? Of course not. But the individual elements of the method are essential tools of the
scientist. They are useful to students as well. In the Explore It Yourself activities found
throughout this book, we ask you to try things (experiment) and then draw conclusions
based on the outcomes. Understanding how Nature works based on what you do and
observe is a great way to learn.
How Is Physics Done? 5

● Figure P.3 The basics of the scientific method,
iStockphoto.com
with an example. Observation Car won’t start
istockphoto.com
Hypothesis Battery is dead
Don Nichols/
Experiment See if the radio works
istockphoto.com
charles taylor/
Outcome Yes. Battery No. Battery may
Filipp Bezlutskiy/
istockphoto.com
OK be dead
One of the architects of the scientific method was Galileo Galilei (1564–1642). He
thought a great deal about how science should be done and applied his ideas to his study of
motion. Galileo believed that science had to have a strong logical basis that included precise
definitions of terms and a mathematical structure with which to express relationships. He
introduced the use of controlled experiments, which he applied with great success in his
studies of how objects fall. By ingenious experimental design, he overcame the limitations
of the crude timing devices that existed in his era and measured the acceleration of falling
bodies. Galileo was a shrewd observer of natural phenomena from the swinging of a pen-
dulum to the orbiting of the moons of Jupiter. By drawing logical conclusions from what
he saw, he demonstrated that rules could be used to predict and explain natural phenom-
ena that had long seemed mysterious or magical. We will take a closer look at Galileo’s work
and life in Chapter 1.
The scientific method is important, particularly in the day-to-day process of filling in
the details about a phenomenon being studied. But it is not the whole story. Even a brief
look at the history of physics reveals that there is no simple recipe that scientists have fol-
lowed to lead them to breakthroughs. Some great discoveries were made by traditional
physicists working in labs, proceeding in a “scientific method” kind of way. Occasionally,
unplanned events come into play, such as accidents (Galvani discovered electric currents
while performing biology experiments) or luck (Becquerel stumbled on nuclear radiation
because of a string of cloudy days in Paris). Sometimes “thought experiments” were
required because the technology of the time didn’t allow “real” experiments. Newton pre-
dicted artificial satellites, and Einstein unlocked relativity this way. Often, it was hobby-
ists, not professional scientists, who made significant discoveries; the statesman Benjamin
Franklin and schoolteacher Georg Simon Ohm are examples. Sometimes, it is scientists
correctly interpreting the results of others who failed to “connect the dots” themselves
(Lise Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch identified nuclear fission that way).
The point is that there are no “hard and fast” rules for making scientific discoveries,
and this is no less true in physics than it is in chemistry, biology, or any other scientific
discipline. One of the best ways to learn about the nature of scientific discovery is to study
the past. Throughout this book, the Physics Family Album sections, along with a few of
the Physics Potpourris, give you some idea of the variety of ways that discoveries have
been made and glimpses of the personalities of the discoverers.
How Does One Learn Physics?

The goal of learning physics and any other science is to gain a better understanding of the
universe and the things in it. We generally focus attention on only a small segment of
the universe at one time, so that the structural complexities and interactions within it are
manageable. We call this a system. Some examples of systems that we will talk about are
the nucleus of an atom, the atom itself, a collection of atoms inside a laser, air circulating
in a room, a rock moving near Earth’s surface, and Earth with satellites in orbit around it
(see ● Figure P.4).

● Figure P.4 Combination of six figures
representing different systems we will be examining.
The scale of the different parts varies greatly, from
smaller than can be seen with a microscope to
thousands of miles.
The kinds of things a person might want to know about a system include: (1) its struc-
ture or configuration, (2) what is going on in it and why, and (3) what will happen in it in
the future. The first step is often relatively easy—identifying the objects in the system.
Protons, electrons, chromium atoms, heated air, a rock, and the Moon are some of the
things in the systems mentioned above. Often, the items in a physical system are already
familiar to us. But a host of other intangible things in a system must also be identified and
labeled before real physics can begin. We must define things like the speed of the rock, the
density of the air, the energy of the atoms in the laser tube, and the angular momentum of
a satellite to understand what is going on in a system and what its future evolution will be.
We will call these things and others like them physical quantities. Most will be unfamiliar
to you unless you have studied physics before. Together with the named objects, they form
what can be called the vocabulary of physics. There are hundreds of physical quantities in
regular use in the various fields of physics, but for our purposes in this book, we will need
only a relatively small fraction of these.
Physics seeks to discover the basic ways in which things interact. Laws and principles
express relationships that exist between physical quantities. For example, the law of fluid
pressure expresses how the pressure at some location in a fluid depends on the weight of the
fluid above. This law can be used to find the water pressure on a submerged submarine or
the air pressure on a person’s chest. These “rules” are used to understand the interactions in
a system and to predict how the system will change with time in the future. The laws and
principles themselves were formed after repeated, careful observations of countless systems
by scientists throughout history. They withstood the test of time and repeated experimen-
tation before being elevated to this status. You might regard physics as the continued search
for, and the application of, basic rules that govern the interactions in the universe.
How Does One Learn Physics? 7

The process of learning physics has two main thrusts: the need to develop an under-
standing of the different physical quantities used in each area (establish a vocabulary),
and the need to grasp the significance of the laws and principles that express the rela-
tionships among these physical quantities. Let us caution you again: memorizing the
definitions and laws is only a first step—that alone won’t do it. See, do, think, interact,
visualize. Get involved in the physical world. That’s how you learn physics. This book
includes dozens of Explore It Yourself activities and worked-out examples based on real-
world situations to help you in this process.
Another tool we use to help you visualize the relationships in physics is the concept
map. Concept maps were developed in the 1960s and are used in a wide range of fields in
a variety of ways. A concept map presents an overview of issues, examples, concepts, and
skills in the form of a set of interconnected propositions. Two or more concepts joined by
linking words or phrases make a proposition. The meaning of any particular concept is
the sum of all the links that contain the concept. To “read” a concept map, start at the top
with the most general concepts, and work your way down to the more specific items and
examples at the bottom. Concept Map P.1 is one example. It is used to show some of the
connections between the general concept, science, and one branch of physics, biophysics.
This particular concept map could easily be expanded by, for example, showing all of the
behavioral sciences or all of the branches of physics.
In this book, each chapter contains concept maps designed as summaries to help you
organize the ideas, facts, and applications of physics. You should understand that there are
many possible maps that could be constructed from a given set of concepts. The maps
drawn in this book represent one way of organizing and understanding a particular set of
concepts.
You will have opportunities at the end of each chapter to develop lists of important
concepts and construct from them your own concept maps. Most people find it easier to
understand relationships if they are displayed visually. You should find that the process of
completing a concept map yourself gives you deeper insights into the ideas that are
involved.
One of the main reasons physics has been so successful is that it harnesses the power
of mathematics in useful ways. Many of the most important relationships involving phys-
ical quantities are best expressed mathematically. Predictions about the future conditions
in a system usually involve math. The successes of Einstein, Newton, and others largely
Concept Map P.1
Science
includes
Physical Life Behavioral

Sciences Sciences Sciences
one of which is one of which is
Physics Biology
one branch is contributes to
Biophysics

came about because they used mathematics to predict or explain things that no one could
before (moving clocks appear to run slow, tides are caused by the Moon’s gravity). An
essential part of learning physics is developing an understanding of, and an appreciation
for, this powerful side of physics.
The good news for beginners is that the simplest of mathematics—what most of us
learned before age 16 or so—is all that is needed for this purpose. So hand in hand with
the conceptual side of physics, we give you a taste of the mathematical side through
worked-out examples and end-of-chapter problems. Over the years, we have found that
even the most math-wary students often become very comfortable with this aspect of the
material. An added benefit of your excursion into the world of physics is that you are
likely to emerge with a better feel for the usefulness of simple mathematics.
Physical Quantities and Measurement

To be useful in physics, physical quantities must satisfy some conditions. A physical quan-
tity must be unambiguous, its meaning clear and universally accepted. Understanding the
meaning of a term involves more than just memorizing the words in its definition. To
understand a concept, you must go beyond words. For example, the simple definition
“energy is a measure of the capacity to do work” does not really convey our complete con-
ceptual understanding of energy. Many physical quantities (speed, pressure, power, den-
sity, even energy) can be defined by an equation. Mathematical statements tend to be
more precise than ones in words, making the meanings of these terms clearer.
Observation yields qualitative information about a system. Measurement yields quan-
titative information, which is central in any science that strives for exactness. Conse-
quently, physical quantities must be measurable, directly or indirectly. One must be able
to assign a numerical value that represents the amount of a quantity that is present. It is
easy to visualize a measurement of distance, area, or even speed, but other quantities, like
pressure, voltage, energy, or power, are a bit more abstract. Each of these can still be mea-
sured in prescribed ways, however. They would be useless if this were not so.
The basic act of measuring is one of comparison. To measure the height of a person,
for instance, one would compare the distance from the floor to the top of the person’s
head against some chosen standard length such as a foot or a meter (● Figure P.5). The
height of the person is the number of units 1 foot or 1 meter long (including fractions)
that have to be put together to equal that distance. The unit of measure is the standard
used in the measurement—the foot or meter in this case. A complete measurement of a
physical quantity, then, consists of a number and a unit of measure. For example, a per-
son’s height might be expressed as
height 5.75 feet or h 5.75 ft
Here h represents the quantity (height) and ft the unit of measure (feet). The same
height in meters is
h 1.75 m
So when we introduce a physical quantity into our physics vocabulary—another
“tool,” so to speak—we must specify more than just a verbal definition. We should also
give a mathematical definition (if possible), relate it to other familiar physical quantities,
and include the appropriate units of measure.
In the world today, there are two common systems of measure. The United States uses
the English system, and the rest of the world, for the most part, uses the metric system.
An attempt has been made in the United States to switch completely to the metric system,
but so far it has not succeeded. The metric system has been used by scientists for quite
some time, and we will use it a great deal in this book. It is a convenient system to use
because the different units for each physical quantity are related by powers of 10. For
example, a kilometer equals 1,000 meters, and a millimeter equals 0.001 meter. The pre-
1
fix itself designates the power of 10. Kilo- means 1,000, centi- means 0.01 or 100 , and milli-
1
means 0.001 or 1000. A kilometer, then, is 1,000 meters. ● Table P.2 illustrates the common
Physical Quantities and Measurement 9

● Figure P.5 Measurement is an act of comparison.
A person’s height is measured by comparison with the
length of a chosen standard. In this case, height equals
five 1-foot lengths plus a segment 0.75 feet long. The
same person’s height is also equal to 1 meter plus
0.75 meter.
Thinkstock/Comstock/Thinkstock.
metric prefixes. You may not know what an ampere is, but you should see immediately
that a milliampere is one thousandth of an ampere.
The Physics Potpourri The Metric System: “For All People, for All Time” gives a brief
look at the origins of the metric system. More than 20 of these special features appear
throughout the book. They are intended to give you a deeper, richer view of selected top-
ics in the history and applications of physics.
Having to use two systems of units is like living near the border between two countries
and having to deal with two systems of currency. Most people who grew up in the United
States have a better feel for the size of English-system units such as feet, miles per hour,
and pounds than for metric-system units such as meters, kilometers per hour, and new-
tons. Often, the examples in this book will use units from both systems so that you can
compare them and develop a sense of the sizes of the metric units. A table relating the
units in the two systems is included in the inside back cover. Fortunately, we won’t have
to deal with two systems of units after we reach electricity (Chapter 7).
A prologue is an introductory development. This prologue is an introduction to the
field of physics, our approach to teaching it, and how to get started learning it. The
groundwork has been laid, and we are now ready to proceed.
● Table P.2 Common Metric Prefixes and Their Equivalents

1 centimeter 0.01 meters 1 meter 100 centimeters
1 millimeter 0.001 meters 1 meter 1,000 millimeters
1 kilometer 1,000 meters 1 meter 0.001 kilometers
EXAMPLES
189 centimeters 1.89 meters 72.39 meters 7,239 centimeters
25 millimeters 0.025 meters 0.24 meters 240 millimeters
7.68 kilometers 7,680 meters 23.4 meters 0.0234 kilometers
(There is a more complete list of metric prefixes on the inside back cover.)

Physics Potpourri
The Metric System: “For All People,
for All Time.”
The French Revolution, beginning with the storming of the Bastille on
14 July 1789, gave birth not only to a new republic but also to a
new system of weights and measures. Eighteenth-century France’s
system of weights and measures had fallen into a chaotic state, with
unit names that were confusing or superfluous and standards that dif-
fered from one region to another. Seizing on the opportunity pre-
sented to them by the political and social turmoil accompanying the
revolution, scientists and merchants, under the leadership of Charles-
Maurice de Talleyrand, presented a plan to the French National
© Vern Ostdiek
Assembly in 1790 to unify the system. The plan proposed two
changes: (1) the establishment of a decimal system of measurement
and (2) the adoption of a “natural” scale of length. Neither of these
two notions was new to scholars of this period. The first had been ● Figure P.7 Many countries have issued stamps commemorating the metric system.
discussed as early as 1585 by Simon Stevin, a hydraulic engineer These two, from Australia, highlight conversions between the metric and English units for
in Holland, in a pamphlet called De Thiende (i.e., The Tenth Part). length and volume.
The second notion was introduced in 1670 by Abbé Gabriel
Mouton, who proposed that a standard of length be defined in terms
of a fraction of the length of the meridian arc extending from the
North Pole to the equator. were frequently arrested as spies, often had their equipment confis-
The plan was finally adopted into law on 7 April 1795. The new cated, and were generally harassed at every turn. Finally in 1798,
legislation defined the meter as the measure of length equal to 1 ten- with the job done and the length of the centimeter accurately known,
millionth of the meridian arc passing through Paris from the North Lefèvre-Gineau and Fabbroni set about their work. They, too,
Pole to the equator encountered difficulties, largely having to do with reaching and
and the gram as the maintaining the required measurement temperature, but they com-
mass of pure water pleted their task in only one year.
contained in a cube Beginning in 1798, an international committee with representa-
1/100th of a meter tives from nine nations undertook to carry out the calculations
(a centimeter) on a required to produce the standards needed to define and extend the
side at the temperature new system of weights and measures. It submitted its report to the
of melting ice. It also French legislature for ratification on 27 June 1799, and the bill
made this system oblig- passed on 10 December of that year. That document is the first offi-
atory in France. cial text in which the metric system is mentioned. According to this
The tasks of actually law, the definitive standards of length and mass to be used in com-
determining the sizes mercial and scientific interactions throughout France were “the meter
of these newly defined and kilogram of platinum deposited with the legislative body” (see
units were assigned to ● Figure P.6).
Jean-Baptiste Delambre Since then, the definitions of the standards of length and mass
Courtesy National Institute of Standards and Technology
and Pierre Méchain, have undergone several revisions, and other units of measure have
who were to survey the been incorporated. Nevertheless, the basic tenets of the metric sys-
length of the meridian tem survive: simplicity and convenience stemming from its use of a
arc through Paris, and decimal system of measure, and uniformity and reproducibility deriv-
to Louis Lefèvre-Gineau ing from its reliance on a set of standards. Since its adoption in
and Giovanni Fab- Europe, first in France, then in Holland (1816) and Greece (1836),
broni, who were to the use of the metric system has proliferated so that no nation is
determine the absolute without knowledge of it (● Figure P.7). The metric system has
weight of water. As it become, in the motto adopted by its founders, a system “for all
turned out, these mea- people, for all time.”
surements were not The United States is one of only a few countries that have not
made without difficulty officially adopted the metric system for their manufacturing and com-
● Figure P.6 The international 1 kg standard of and, sometimes, dan- mercial activities, despite its arguable merits. What are your opin-
mass, a platinum–iridium cylinder. ger. For example, dur- ions and views on this matter? What do you believe would be the
ing the period between benefits of converting our economy to the metric system? What do
1792 and 1798, Delambre and Méchain made measurements you see as the downsides to such a transformation? Check out some
along the meridian between Dunkirk, France, and Barcelona, Spain, on-line resources for further information on this subject and to see
amid the riot and turmoil still present in many parts of Europe. They what the experts have to say on this issue.
Juli/Shutterstock.com
Physics Potpourri 11
Physical Quantities,
Metric System
(Prologue)
1.1 1.2
Fundamental Speed and Velocity
Physical Quantities
Mass,
Electric Charge
(Chapters 2, 7)
1T HE STUDY OF MOTION
Drag Racing
Acceleration, pure and simple. That’s the point of drag racing. Increase the speed of
the dragster as quickly as possible so it will travel the one-quarter of a mile (about 400
Leo Mason sports photos/Alamy
meters) faster than your opponent. The elite machines have engines that are much more
powerful than those on the largest airplanes in World War II (about 6,000 horse-
power). From a standing start, they reach speeds of more than 300 mph in times
shorter than it took you to read this sentence. And they subject their drivers to average
accelerations over four times that of gravity. At the end of their brief run, another criti-
cal feat must be accomplished: they have to be brought to a stop safely. How do you
Drag racer at the starting line.
slow a vehicle that is going much faster than a passenger jet when it lands? You
deploy a parachute.
Imagine driving such a machine: five seconds of forward acceleration pressing you
to the back of your seat, followed by many more seconds of acceleration in the oppo-
site direction—backward—that strains the straps holding you in. And for much of that
time you are going hundreds of miles per hour. The faint of heart need not apply for
this job.
This chapter is an introduction to the study of motion. One key concept in this area
of physics is acceleration, which is used to describe changes in motion. Drag racing
is one of the most dramatic examples of human beings deliberately accelerating them-
selves. The large attendance at these events suggests that many people are thrilled to
watch it happen.
Two types of acceleration are involved in drag racing: speeding up and slow-
ing down. Is there another type of acceleration? Can a car accelerate without
changing its speed? Read on to find out.
In this first chapter, we build on the groundwork for the study of physics that was begun
in the Prologue. Most of this chapter is an introduction to the branch of physics called
mechanics—the study of motion and its causes. The main topic of this chapter is motion
and how it is described using the concepts of speed, velocity, and acceleration—--
something called kinematics. Both examples and graphs are used to illustrate and define
these three concepts. An important example treated in detail is the motion of a body
undergoing free fall. We conclude with a brief account of the work of two men who
made important contributions to the development of mechanics.
12 Chapter 1 The Study of Motion

1.3 1.4
Acceleration Simple Types
of Motion
Newton’s Laws, Forces and Types

Accelerated Motion + of Motion
(Chapter 2–Epilogue) (Chapter 2)
1.1 Fundamental Physical Quantities

Our main task here is to take a closer look at motion—what it is, how one quantifies it,
what the simplest kinds of motion are, and so on. Fortunately for beginners, most of the
concepts and terms are familiar because motion is such an important part of our every-
day world. We have a sense of how fast 60 miles per hour (or 97 kilometers per hour) is
and how to compute speed if we know the distance traveled and the time elapsed. The
unit of measure pretty much tells us how to do that: “miles per hour” means divide the
distance in miles by the time in hours. But there are some important subtleties that must
be examined, and our basic ideas about velocity and acceleration need to be expanded.
The ways that we will express relationships throughout the text, oftentimes involving
things not so familiar as motion, will be presented. This is also a perfect time to take a
closer look at those “physical quantities” introduced in the Prologue.
In physics, there are three basic aspects of the material universe that we must describe
and quantify in various ways: space, time, and matter. All physical quantities used in this
textbook involve measurements (or combinations of measurements) of space, time, and
the properties of matter. The units of measure of all of these quantities can be traced back
to the units of measure of distance, time, and two properties of matter called mass and
charge. We will not deal with charge until Chapter 7.
Distance, time, and mass—known as fundamental physical quantities—are such
basic concepts that it is difficult to define them, particularly time. Distance represents a
measure of space in one dimension. Length, width, and height are examples of distance
measurements. The following table lists the common distance units of measure, in both
the metric system and the English system, and their abbreviations. (You might want to
review the basics of the metric system presented in the Prologue.) This same format will
be used for all physical quantities that have several common units.
Physical Quantity Metric Units English Units

Distance d (or l, w, h) meter (m) foot (ft)
millimeter (mm) inch (in.)
kilometer (km) mile (mi)
centimeter (cm)
1.1 Fundamental Physical Quantities 13

Why are there so many different units in each system? Generally, it is easier to use a
19 mm
unit that fits the scale of the system being considered. The meter is good for measuring
the size of a house, the millimeter for measuring the size of a coin, and the kilometer for
measuring the distance between cities. Eighty kilometers is the same as 80,000 meters, but
the former measurement is easier to conceptualize and to use in calculations. Similarly, it
might be correct to say that a coin is 0.000019 kilometers in diameter, but 19 millimeters
is a more convenient measure (see ● Figure 1.1).
The sizes of all of the distance units, including the English units, are defined in rela-
tion to the meter. In this book, we will use meters most often in our examples. You should
try to get used to distance measurements expressed in meters and have an idea, for exam-
ple, of how long 25 and 0.2 meters are. ● Table 1.1 shows some representative distances
0.000019 km expressed in both metric and English units.*
It is a rather simple matter to convert a distance expressed in, say, meters to a distance
● Figure 1.1 The two measurements represent the expressed in another unit. For example, you might solve a problem and find that the
same distance, but the one in millimeters is more answer is, “The sailboat travels 23 meters in 10 seconds.” Just how far is 23 meters? Think
convenient to use and visualize. of any numerical measurement as a number multiplied by a unit of measure. In this case,
23 meters equals 23 times 1 meter. Then the 1 meter can be replaced by the corresponding
number of feet—a conversion factor found in the back inside cover.
23 meters 23 1 meter
But 1 meter 3.28 feet; therefore:
23 meters 23 1 meter 23 3.28 feet
23 meters 75.4 feet
Two other physical quantities that are closely related to distance are area and volume.
Area commonly refers to the size of a surface, such as the floor in a room or the outer skin
of a basketball. The concept of area can apply to surfaces that are not flat and to “empty,”
two-dimensional spaces such as holes and open windows (see ● Figure 1.2). Area is a
much more general idea than “length times width,” an equation you may have learned
that applies only to rectangles. The area of something is just the number of squares 1 inch
1 ft by 1 inch (or 1 meter by 1 meter, or 1 mile by 1 mile, etc.) that would have to be added or
placed together to cover it.
In a similar manner, the volume of a solid is the number of cubes 1 inch or 1 cen-
timeter on a side needed to fill the space it occupies. For common geometric shapes such
1.96 ft
as a rectangular box or a sphere, there are simple equations to compute the volume. We
use volume measures nearly every time we buy food in a supermarket.

Area (A) square meter (m2) square foot (ft2)
square centimeter (cm2) square inch (in.2)
square kilometer (km2) square mile (mi2)
hectare acre
0.79 ft
● Figure 1.2 Every surface, whether it is flat or
curved, has an area. The area of this rectangle and the ● Table 1.1 Some Representative Sizes and Distances
area of the surface of the basketball are equal. Size/Distance Metric English
Size of a nucleus 1 1014
m 4 1013 in.
Size of an atom 1 1010 m 4 109 in.
Size of a red blood cell 8 106 m 3 104 in.
Typical height of a person 1.75 m 5.75 ft
Tallest building 828 m 2,716 ft
Diameter of Earth 1.27 107 m 7,920 miles
Earth–Sun distance 1.5 1011 m 9.3 107 miles
Size of our galaxy 9 1020 m 6 1017 miles
* We will use scientific notation occasionally. See Appendix B for a review.

Volume (V) cubic meter (m3) cubic foot (ft3)
cubic centimeter (cm3 or cc) cubic inch (in.3)
liter (L) quart, pint, cup
milliliter (mL) teaspoon, tablespoon
Area and volume are examples of physical quantities that are based on other physical
quantities—in this case, just distance. Their units of measure are called derived units
because they are derived from more basic units (1 square meter 1 meter 1 meter
1 meter2). Until we reach Chapter 7, all of the physical quantities will have units that are
derived from units of distance, time, mass, or a combination of these.
The measure of time is based on periodic phenomena—processes that repeat over and
over at a regular rate. The rotation of Earth was originally used to establish the universal
unit of time, the second. The time it takes for one rotation was set equal to 86,400 seconds
(24 60 60). Both the metric system and the English system use the same units
for time.

Time (t) second (s) second (s)
minute (min) minute (min)
hour (h) hour (h)
Explore It Yourself 1.1

For this, you need a pendulum—something dangling on the end of a string about 1 to 2 feet (or
1
2 meter) long. A shoe hanging from its shoelace or keys tied to a thread work. You also need a
timer—a digital watch that displays seconds is OK, or use the “stopwatch” feature on your cell
phone.
1. Set the pendulum swinging back and forth, and time how long it takes for it to do 10 full
cycles (left to right then back to left is one cycle). Divide that time by 10 to get the time for
one cycle. This should be around 1 to 2 seconds.
2. Now set it swinging again, and this time count how many full cycles happen in 10 seconds.
(You can estimate fractions, like 7.5 cycles.) Divide this number by 10 to get the number of
cycles that occur per second.
3. See if you can figure out the approximate mathematical relationship between the two
numbers.
4. Make the string twice as long or half as long and repeat. What differences do you see in
these new data relative to the previous set?
NIKSPHOTO dot COM/Shutterstock.com
Clocks measure time by using some process that repeats. Many mechanical clocks use
a swinging pendulum. The time it takes to swing back and forth is always the same. This
is used to control the speed of a mechanism that turns the hands on the clock face (see
● Figure 1.3). Mechanical wristwatches and stopwatches use an oscillating balance wheel
for the same purpose. Quartz electric clocks and digital watches use regular vibrations of University of Michigan-Dearborn
an electrically stimulated crystal made of quartz.

The first step in designing a clock is to determine exactly how much time it takes for
one cycle of the oscillation. If it were 2 seconds for a pendulum, for example, the clock
would then be designed so that the second hand would rotate once during 30 oscillations.
The period of oscillation in that case is 2 seconds.
● Figure 1.3 The regular swinging of the
definition
pendulum—by its repetitive motion—controls the

Period The time for one complete cycle of a process that repeats. It is
speed of this clock.
abbreviated T, and the units are seconds, minutes, and so forth.

Physics Potpourri
Time Out!
Although the notion of time may be hard to define, the process of
timekeeping is straightforward, requiring only a system for accu-
rately counting the cycles of regularly occurring events. The opera-
tive word here is regularly: to keep time or to measure a time inter-
val, we need something that cycles or swings or oscillates at a
constant rate. Up until 1956, the fundamental clock used to tell time
was the Earth–Sun system, and the fundamental unit of time, the sec-
ond, was defined as 1/86,400 of a mean solar day. A mean solar
day is the average interval between successive crossings of your
local meridian by the Sun. Unfortunately, the rate of rotation of Earth
is not strictly constant, and a mean solar day varies in length over
long time spans because of a gradual slowdown in Earth’s rotation
rate brought about by friction between its oceans and its crust. In
addition, short-term variations in the rate of Earth’s spin, some of
which are seasonal, alter the length of a mean solar day.
For these reasons, in the late 1950s, a still more uniform cycle
within the Earth–Sun system was sought, and the second was rede-
Pixellover RM 10/Alamy
fined as 1/31,556,925.9747 of the length of the year beginning in
January 1900. This ephemeris second is based on the motion of Earth
around the Sun, which is governed (as we shall see in Chapter 2)
by Newton’s laws of motion. As a result, its evaluation requires astro-
nomical observation and calculation and is not easily obtained with
high accuracy except after many years of careful work. Thus, although ● Figure 1.4 GPS navigation system display on a cell phone.
ephemeris time appears to be extremely uniform, it suffers from not
being able to be found quickly and accurately.
If all this discussion seems a bit complicated, that’s understandable.
In 1967, a new atomic second was defined that has become the
The topic of time and its determination is one that physicists and philoso-
basis for International Atomic Time (TAI). In this case, 1 second
phers have struggled with for centuries. The point to be emphasized is
equals the interval of time containing 9,192,631,770 oscillations of
that as more sophisticated experiments have been devised to probe
light waves given off by isolated cesium atoms (see Chapter 10 for
Nature’s secrets, the need for ever more reliable and stable clocks has
a discussion of atoms and their light-emitting properties). With mod-
grown. The development of atomic clocks is the latest attempt to meet
ern cesium clocks, such as those in use at the National Institute of
the requirements of scientists and engineers in this regard, and their use
Standards and Technology (NIST), it is possible to establish the
has now spilled over into our everyday lives. The adoption of UTC is
length of a second to an accuracy of less than one part in 1015;
an example. Another is the global positioning system (GPS). This sys-
such clocks neither gain nor lose a second in 60 million years. In
tem currently consists of an array of 31 active satellites, about 8 of
February 2010, a NIST-built quantum logic clock using individual
which are always visible from any point on the globe. Each satellite cir-
trapped ions of aluminum reached a level of precision that varies by
cles Earth every 12 hours and carries as many as 4 cesium and rubid-
less than 1 second over an astounding 1 billion years.
ium atomic clocks to generate the accurate time signals used in making
Time measurement is so accurate that the length of the standard
precise position measurements. Small handheld GPS receivers costing
meter is set by how long it takes light to travel that distance—
less than $100 are available that provide horizontal and vertical posi-
3.33564095 billionths of a second.
tional accuracies to better than 20 m and timing accuracies on the
The introduction of atomic time leaves us with a problem. Our
order of 15 109s or less. Originally developed for military missions,
daily lives are generally governed by day–night cycles—that is, by
the civilian use of GPS today extends to commercial ship and aircraft
the Earth–Sun clock, not by phenomena associated with cesium
navigation; nationwide truck and freight-car tracking; “precision” farm-
atoms. As Earth continues to spin down, the length of a mean solar
ing, land surveying, and geological studies; and worldwide digital
day (and hence the mean solar second) will continue to grow larger
communication networks (including some that control banking functions
relative to the atomic second. As time goes on, Earth–Sun clocks will
at local ATMs). GPS receivers have even been integrated with data-
gradually fall further and further behind atomic clocks. This is clearly
bases of maps and street directories and installed in autos to assist driv-
not a desirable situation.
ers in reaching their destinations. GPS technology is now routinely
In the early 1970s, the French Bureau International de l’Heure,
available as part of personal cell phone service (● Figure 1.4). But
the world’s official timekeepers, introduced Coordinated Universal
regardless of how it is measured or used by humankind, one fact about
Time (UTC). Under this system, the length or duration of the second
time remains true: tempus fugit, “time flies.”
is dictated by atomic time, but the time commonly reported by time
What personal use have you made of this innovation? Even if you
services is required to remain within 0.9 seconds of mean solar time.
do not employ GPS data directly in your daily life, the odds are that
In this system, a leap second is added or subtracted as needed to
you benefit from them in countless ways in terms of the goods and
compensate for changes in the rate of Earth’s rotation relative to
services you regularly purchase and enjoy. To learn just how reliant
atomic time. Recent criticism of the leap second has led to calls to
our society has become on this system, check out the World Wide
abandon it, but defenders argue that doing so will disrupt satellite
Web using any of the common search engines. The range of appli-
communications and cost millions in computer upgrades.
cation of the GPS is truly astounding!

But there is another way to look at this. The clock designer must determine how many
cycles must take place before 1 second (or 1 minute or 1 hour) elapses. In our example,
one-half of a cycle takes place during each second. This is called the frequency of the
oscillation.
definition
Frequency The number of cycles of a periodic process that occur per unit time.
It is abbreviated f and has units s1 or hertz (Hz).
The standard unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz), which equals 1 cycle per second.
1 Hz 1/s 1 s1
The frequency of AM radio stations is expressed in kilohertz (kHz) and those of FM sta-
tions in megahertz (MHz). Mega- is the metric prefix signifying 1 million. So, 91.5 MHz
equals 91,500,000 Hz. Another metric prefix, giga-, is also commonly used with hertz. For
example, the “speed” of a computer’s processor—actually, the frequency of the electrical
signal it uses—might be 2 gigahertz, which is 2 billion (2,000,000,000) hertz.
The relationship between the period of a cyclic phenomenon and its frequency is sim-
ple: the period equals 1 divided by the frequency, and vice versa.
1
period
frequency
1
T
f
Also,
1
f
T
A mechanical stopwatch uses a balance wheel that rotates back and forth 10 times in Example 1.1
2 seconds. What is the frequency of the balance wheel?
frequency number of cycles per time
10 cycles
f
2s
5 Hz
What is the period of the balance wheel?
period time for one cycle
1 divided by the frequency
1
T
5 Hz
0.2 s
The balance wheel oscillates 300 times each minute.
The third basic physical quantity is mass. The mass of an object is basically a measure
of how much matter it contains. (This statement illustrates the sort of circular definition
that arises when one tries to define fundamental concepts.) We know intuitively that a
large body such as a locomotive has a large mass because it is composed of a great deal of
material. Mass is also a measure of what we sometimes refer to in everyday speech as

inertia. The larger the mass of an object, the greater its inertia and the more difficult it is
to speed up or slow down.
Mass m kilogram (kg) slug
gram (g)
Mass is not in common use in the English system; note the unfamiliar unit, the slug.
Weight, a quantity that is related to, but is not the same as mass, is used instead. We can
contrast the two ideas: when you try to lift a shopping cart, you are experiencing its
weight. When you try to speed it up or slow it down, you are experiencing its mass (see
● Figure 1.5). We will take another look at mass and weight in Chapter 2 to better clarify
their relationship.
● Figure 1.5 (a) When lifting something, you must

overcome its weight. (b) When changing its speed, you
experience its mass.
(a) (b)
Learning Check
Simple quizzes such as this one are included at the end of most (c) distance, time, and speed
sections. Though not designed to be a thorough examination of (d) distance, area, and volume
the prior material, if you have trouble answering these questions, 2. (True or False.) When the period of a pendulum is less
it probably means you should go back and reread the section. than 1 second, the frequency is always greater than
Answers are given at the end of each Learning Check. 1 hertz.
1. Three of the fundamental physical quantities in physics 3. One kilogram is the same as grams.
are
(a) distance, time, and weight ANSWERS: 1. (b) 2. True 3. 1,000
(b) distance, time, and mass
nikkytok/Shutterstock.com
1.2 Speed and Velocity

A key concept to use when quantifying motion is speed.
definition
Speed Rate of movement. Time rate of change of distance from a reference

point. The distance traveled divided by the time elapsed.

Speed (v) meter per second (m/s) foot per second (ft/s)
kilometer per hour (km/h) mile per hour (mph)
A couple of aspects of speed are worth highlighting. First, speed is relative. A person
running on the deck of a ship cruising at 20 mph might have a speed of 8 mph relative to
the ship, but the speed relative to the water or a nearby pier would be 28 mph (if headed

20 mph ● Figure 1.6 Speed is relative. The speed of a
person running on a ship is 8 mph relative to the deck.
8 mph If the ship’s speed is 20 mph, the person’s speed
relative to a stationary observer on the pier is either
28 mph (if the runner is headed toward the front of the
ship) or 12 mph (if she is headed toward the rear).
toward the front of the ship). If we use the ship as the reference point, the speed is 8 mph.
With the water or a pier as the reference point, the speed is 28 mph (● Figure 1.6). If you
are traveling at 55 mph on a highway and a car passes you going 60 mph, its speed is
5 mph relative to your car. Most of the time speed is measured relative to Earth’s surface;
this will be the case in this book, unless stated otherwise.
Second, it is important to distinguish between average speed and instantaneous speed.
An object’s average speed is the total distance it travels during some period of time
divided by the time that elapses:
total distance
average speed
total elapsed time
If a 1,500-mile airline flight lasts 3 hours, the airplane’s average speed is 500 mph. Of
course, the airplane’s speed changes during the 3 hours, so its speed is not 500 mph at
each instant. (You can average 75% on four exams without actually getting 75% on each
or even any one test.) Similarly, a sprinter who runs the 100-meter dash in 10 seconds has
an average speed of 10 m/s but is not traveling with that speed at each moment of the
race. This gives rise to the concept of instantaneous speed—the speed that an object has
at an instant in time. A car’s speedometer actually gives instantaneous speed. When it
shows 55 mph, it means that, if the car traveled with exactly that speed for 1 hour, it
would go 55 miles. How can one determine the instantaneous speed of something that is
not equipped with a speedometer? Instantaneous speed can’t be measured exactly using
the basic meaning of speed (distance traveled divided by the time it takes) because an
“instant” implies that zero time elapses. But we can get a good estimate of an object’s
instantaneous speed by timing how long it takes to travel a very short distance:
very short distance
instantaneous speed
very short time
For example, given sophisticated equipment, we might measure how long it takes a car
to travel 1 meter. If that time is found to be 0.05 seconds (not an “instant” but a very short
time), a good estimate of the car’s instantaneous speed is
1m
instantaneous speed 20 m>s 44.8 mph
0.05 s
In drag racing (see p. 12), the maximum instantaneous speed of a dragster is estimated by
timing how long it takes to travel the final 60 feet (about 18 meters) of the quarter-mile
race. This is typically less than 0.15 seconds, yielding an instantaneous speed of about
269 mph (120 m/s).
GPS receivers used by pilots, drivers, hikers, and others employ radio signals from
satellites to determine location. They can compute the device’s approximate instanta-
neous speed by computing how far it travels in a short time and then dividing by that
time. One common GPS receiver updates its position every second, so it can estimate
instantaneous speed using 1 second as its “short time.” A typical bicycle speedometer uses
a sensor on the front wheel. The device can time how long it takes the wheel to make one
rotation and estimate the instantaneous speed by using the circumference of the wheel
(typically around 2.1 meters) as the “short distance.”
1.2 Speed and Velocity 19

The conversion from meters per second to miles per hour is done in the same way that
was used with distance in Section 1.1. From the Table of Conversion Factors on the back
inside cover, 1 m/s 2.24 mph; so
20 m/s 20 1 m/s 20 2.24 mph 44.8 mph
Actually, this is the car’s average speed during the short time span. In normal situations,
a car’s speed will increase or decrease by at most 1 mph during a twentieth of a second, so
this is a pretty good estimate. Our answer is within 1 mph of the true value. During a col-
lision, a car’s speed can change a great deal during 0.05 seconds, so one would have to some-
how use a much shorter time interval to calculate instantaneous speed in this case. An
automaker might use high-speed digital cameras capable of recording 250,000 frames per
second during a crash test to measure much shorter periods and corresponding distances.
In general, “very short time” means an interval during which the object’s speed won’t
change by an amount greater than the desired error limit of the estimate. The concept of
instantaneous speed is what is important here, more so than the technical details of how
it is measured in different situations.
Explore It Yourself 1.2

Look up the record times for Olympic racing events in running, swimming, ice skating, or
bicycling. (These can be found in a book of world records or online.) For several events,
calculate the average speed and notice how it is lower for longer races. Why is this so? For
comparison, compute the average speeds for the same distance in two different events such as
1,500 meters running and swimming. Why are they so different?
In some cases, an object may have been traveling for a while and already moved some
distance before we start taking measurements to determine its speed (average or instanta-
neous). Perhaps we want to measure a sprinter’s average speed during the last part of a
race. Then the distance and time that we use would be the values at the end of the segment
being timed (the final values) minus the values at the beginning of the segment (the ini-
tial values)—that is, the changes in distance and time. The general expression for speed is
change in distance dfinal dinitial
speed
change in time t final t initial
RON KUNTZ/AFP/Getty Images
¢d
v
¢t
(The symbol is the capital greek letter delta and is used to represent a “change in” a
physical quantity.) This equation can represent both average and instantaneous speed.
When t is the total elapsed time for a trip, v is the average speed. When t is a very short
● Figure 1.7 Florence Griffith Joyner, who set
time, then v is the instantaneous speed.
world records in the 100 meters and 200 meters.
Example 1.2 An analysis of a videotape of Olympic gold-medal winner Florence Griffith Joyner
(1959–1998; ● Figure 1.7) running a 100-meter dash might yield the data shown in the
margin table. Compute her average speed for the race and estimate her peak instanta-
d (meters) t (seconds)
neous speed. For the entire race, this would be as follows:
0 0
60 6.85 ¢d dfinal dinitial
average speed v
70 7.76 ¢t t final t initial
80 8.67
100 m 0 m 100 m
90 9.58 v
100 10.50 10.50 s 0 s 10.50 s
9.52 m/s ( 21.3 mph)

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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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CHAPTER 6 Epilogue 512

Prologue: Getting Started 2 Energy and Conservation Laws 86

CHAPTER 7 Optics 336

2 Prologue Getting Started

Why Learn Physics? 3

Clynt Garnham Technology/Alamy.

4 Prologue Getting Started

How Is Physics Done?

How Is Physics Done? 5

How Does One Learn Physics?

6 Prologue Getting Started

How Does One Learn Physics? 7

Concept Map P.1

Physical Life Behavioral

one branch is contributes to

8 Prologue Getting Started

Physical Quantities and Measurement

Physical Quantities and Measurement 9

● Table P.2 Common Metric Prefixes and Their Equivalents

10 Prologue Getting Started

12 Chapter 1 The Study of Motion

Newton’s Laws, Forces and Types

1.1 Fundamental Physical Quantities

Physical Quantity Metric Units English Units

1.1 Fundamental Physical Quantities 13

Physical Quantity Metric Units English Units

* We will use scientific notation occasionally. See Appendix B for a review.

14 Chapter 1 The Study of Motion

Physical Quantity Metric Units English Units

Explore It Yourself 1.1

NIKSPHOTO dot COM/Shutterstock.com

an electrically stimulated crystal made of quartz.

pendulum—by its repetitive motion—controls the

1.1 Fundamental Physical Quantities 15

16 Chapter 1 The Study of Motion

1.1 Fundamental Physical Quantities 17

● Figure 1.5 (a) When lifting something, you must

1.2 Speed and Velocity

Speed Rate of movement. Time rate of change of distance from a reference

Physical Quantity Metric Units English Units

18 Chapter 1 The Study of Motion

1.2 Speed and Velocity 19

Explore It Yourself 1.2

20 Chapter 1 The Study of Motion

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

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