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CHAPTER 5
Steady Currents and Conductive Materials 206
5.1 INTRODUCTION 207
5.2 ELECTRIC CURRENT 207
5.3 THE EQUATION OF CONTINUITY 209
5.4 OHM’S LAW AND CONDUCTIVE MATERIALS 211
5.5 GEORG SIMON OHM AND THE DISCOVERY OF OHM’S LAW 213
5.6 POWER – JOULE’S LAW 215
5.7 RELAXATION TIME 215
5.8 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR STEADY CURRENTS 217
5.9 A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CAPACITANCE AND RESISTANCE 219
PROBLEMS224

CHAPTER 6
Magnetostatic Fields 228
6.1 INTRODUCTION 229
6.2 MAGNETIC FIELD 229
6.3 BASIC LAWS OF MAGNETOSTATICS 231
6.4 AMPÈRE’S LAW 232
6.5 THE MAGNETIC VECTOR POTENTIAL AND THE BIOT-SAVART LAW 241
(THE MAGNETIC FIELDS OF ARBITRARY CURRENT DISTRIBUTIONS)
6.6 THE MAGNETIC DIPOLE 253
6.7 FORCES AND TORQUES ON CURRENTS IN MAGNETIC FIELDS 256
6.8 AMPÈRE’S FORCE LAW 261
6.9 ANDRÉ-MARIE AMPÈRE AND THE MAGNETIC FIELDS OF STEADY CURRENTS 262
6.10 THE HALL EFFECT 264
PROBLEMS265

CHAPTER 7
Magnetic Fields in Matter 276
7.1 INTRODUCTION 277
7.2 MAGNETIZATION 278
7.3 THE MAGNETIC FIELD B OF A MAGNETIZED MATERIAL 279
7.4 THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY H 281
7.5 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS 288
7.6 INDUCTANCE 291
7.7 JOSEPH HENRY AND THE DISCOVERY OF MAGNETIC INDUCTION 298
7.8 MAGNETIC ENERGY 300
7.9 MAGNETIC FORCES AND TORQUES 304
7.10 MAGNETIC MATERIALS 306
PROBLEMS309

CHAPTER 8
Time-Varying Fields: Faraday’s Law and Maxwell’s Equations 320
8.1 INTRODUCTION 321
8.2 LAWS OF ELECTROSTATICS AND MAGNETOSTATICS—A SUMMARY 321
8.3 FARADAY’S LAW 323
8.3.1 General Forms of Faraday’s Law 323
8.3.2 The Effects of Motion Through Magnetic Fields 325
8.3.3 Non-Relativistic Integral Forms of Faraday’s Law 327
8.3.4 Lenz’s Law 332
8.4 MICHAEL FARADAY’S FAMOUS EXPERIMENTS OF 1831 333
8.5 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS 335
8.5.1 Displacement Current 336
8.5.2 Maxwell’s Equations 340
8.5.3 The Wave Equation—Electromagnetic Waves! 342
8.5.4 James Clerk Maxwell 344
8.6 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR TIME-VARYING FIELDS 346
8.7 FLOW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC POWER: POYNTING’S THEOREM 348
PROBLEMS352

CHAPTER 9
Electromagnetic Waves 360
9.1 INTRODUCTION 361
9.2. THE WAVE EQUATION IN A SOURCE-FREE REGION 361
9.2.1 One-Dimensional Wave Solutions 363
9.3. TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS 365
9.3.1 Phasor Representation of Time-Harmonic Fields 365
9.3.2 Maxwell’s Equations for Time-Harmonic Fields 367
9.3.3 Complex Poynting’s Theorem—Real Power Flow 368
9.4. UNIFORM PLANE WAVES IN LOSSLESS MEDIA 372
9.4.1 Uniform Plane Waves Propagating in Arbitrary Direction 381
9.5. UNIFORM PLANE WAVES IN LOSSY MEDIA 383
9.5.1 Attenuation of Waves  383
9.5.2 Good Dielectric vs. Good Conductor 387
9.6 DISPERSION OF WAVES—GROUP VELOCITY 392
9.7. POLARIZATION OF WAVES 395
PROBLEMS399
CHAPTER 10
Reflection and Transmission of Waves 408
10.1 INTRODUCTION 409
10.2 NORMAL INCIDENCE AT A DIELECTRIC BOUNDARY 409
10.3 OBLIQUE INCIDENCE AT A DIELECTRIC BOUNDARY 414
10.3.1 Perpendicular Polarization 415
10.3.2 Parallel Polarization 420
10.4 TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION 427
10.5 BREWSTER ANGLE EFFECT 431
10.6 REFLECTION FROM PERFECT CONDUCTOR—STANDING WAVES 432
PROBLEMS438

CHAPTER 11
Waveguides, Resonators, and Transmission Lines 446
11.1 INTRODUCTION 447
11.2 SOLUTION METHODS FOR UNIFORM WAVEGUIDES 448
11.3 PARALLEL PLATE WAVEGUIDE 452
11.3.1 TM Mode Solutions 453
11.3.2 TE Mode Solutions 458
11.4 RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE 464
11.4.1 General Field Solutions 465
11.4.2 TM Mode Solutions 466
11.4.3 TE Mode Solutions 471
11.5 RECTANGULAR CAVITY RESONATOR 476
11.5.1 TM Mode Solutions 477
11.5.2 TE Mode Solutions 479
11.5.3 Quality Factor of the Cavity Resonator 481
11.6 COAXIAL CABLE 483
11.6.1 TEM Mode Solutions 484
11.7 TRANSMISSION LINES 486
11.7.1 The Transmission-Line Equations—Lumped-Circuit Model 486
11.7.2 The Transmission-Line Equations from Field Theory 489
11.7.3 Transmission-Line Circuit Parameters 492
11.7.4 Finite Transmission Line with Load 495
PROBLEMS499

CHAPTER 12
Radiation and Antennas 508
12.1 INTRODUCTION 509
12.2 POTENTIAL FORMULATION—METHOD OF SOLUTIONS FOR RADIATION PROBLEMS 509
12.2.1 Retarded Potentials 512
12.2.2 Retarded Vector Potential for Time-Harmonic Fields 513
12.2.3 Finding Antenna Fields 515
12.3 ELEMENTARY DIPOLE ANTENNA—HERTZIAN DIPOLE 516
 12.3.1 Radiation Fields of a Hertzian Dipole 519
12.3.2 Near Fields of a Hertzian Dipole 522
12.4 LINEAR ANTENNA—LONG DIPOLE 525
12.4.1 Half-Wave Dipole 528
12.5 ANTENNA ARRAYS 530
12.5.1 Two-Element Array 530
12.5.2 Uniform Linear Array 534
PROBLEMS538

BIBLIOGRAPHY546
APPENDIX A 548
A-1 Physical Constants 548
A-2 Prefixes 548
A-3 Frequently Used Symbols and Their Units 549
APPENDIX B 550
Tables for Vector Analysis 550
ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS 556
INDEX566
 PREFACE

Electromagnetics is not an easy subject for students. The subject presents a number of challenges, such as new
math, new physics, new geometry, new insights, and difficult problems. As a result, every aspect needs to be
presented carefully, using thorough mathematics, strong physical insights, and even alternative ways of viewing
and formulating the subject. The theoretician James Clerk Maxwell and the experimentalist Michael Faraday, both
shown on the cover, had great respect for physical insights.
This book is written primarily as a text for an undergraduate course in electromagnetics, taken by junior and
senior engineering and physics students. The book can also serve as a text for beginning graduate courses by
including advanced subjects and problems. The book has been thoroughly class-tested for many years for a
two-semester Electromagnetics course at Syracuse University for electrical engineering and physics students. It
could also be used for a one-semester course, covering up through Chapter 8 and perhaps skipping Chapter 4
and some other parts. For a one-semester course with more emphasis on waves, the instructor could briefly cover
basic materials from statics (mainly Chapters 2 and 6) and then go on to Chapters 8 through 12.
The authors have attempted to explain the difficult concepts of electromagnetic theory in a way that students
can readily understand and follow, without omitting the important details critical to a solid understanding of the
subject. We have included a large number of examples, summary tables, and alternative formulations whenever
possible, as well as homework problems. The examples explain the basic approach, leading the students step by
step, slowly at first, to the conclusion. Then, special and limiting cases are examined to draw out analogies, phys-
ical insights and their interpretation. Finally, a very extensive set of problems enables the instructor to teach the
course for several years without repeating assignments. Answers to selected problems at the end allow students
to check if their answers are correct.
During our years of teaching electromagnetics, we became interested in its historical aspects and found it
useful and instructive to introduce information about the basic discoveries into the classroom. We have included
short biographical sketches of some of the leading figures of electromagnetics, including Josiah Willard Gibbs,
Charles Augustin Coulomb, Benjamin Franklin, Pierre-Simon de Laplace, Georg Simon Ohm, André-Marie
Ampère, Joseph Henry, Michael Faraday, and James Clerk Maxwell.

xiii
 Preface

The text incorporates some unique features that include

• Coordinate transformations in 2D (Figures 1-11, 1-12).

• Summary tables, such as Table 2-1, 4-1, 6-1, 10-1.
• Repeated use of equivalent forms with R (conceptual) and |r–r′| (mathematical) for the distance between the
source point and the field point as in Eqs. (2-27), (2-46), (6-18), (6-19), (12-21).
• Intuitive derivation of equivalent bound charges from polarization sources, including piecewise approxima-
tion to non-uniform polarization (Section 3.3).
• Self-field (Section 3.8).
• Concept of the equivalent problem in the method of images (Section 4.3).
• Intuitive derivation of equivalent bound currents from magnetization sources, including piecewise approxi-
mation to non-uniform magnetization (Section 7.3)
• Thorough treatment of Faraday’s law and experiments (Sections 8.3, 8.4).
• Uniform plane waves propagating in arbitrary direction (Section 9.4.1).
• Treatment of total internal reflection (Section 10.4).
• Transmission line equations from field theory (Section 11.7.2).
• Presentation of the retarded potential formulation in Chapter 12.
• Interpretation of the Hertzian dipole fields (Section 12.3).

Finally, we would like to acknowledge all those who contributed to the textbook. First of all, we would like
to thank all of the undergraduate and graduate students, too numerous to mention, whose comments and sug-
gestions have proven invaluable. In addition, one million thanks go to Ms. Brenda Flowers for typing the entire
manuscript and making corrections numerous times. We also wish to express our gratitude to Dr. Eunseok Park,
Professor Tae Hoon Yoo, Dr. Gokhan Aydin, and Mr. Walid M. G. Dyab for drawing figures and plotting curves, and
to Professor Mahmoud El Sabbagh for reviewing the manuscript. Thanks go to the University of Poitiers, France,
and Seoul National University, Korea, where an office and academic facilities were provided to Professor Adams
and Professor Lee, respectively, during their sabbatical years. Thanks especially to Syracuse University where we
taught for a total of over 50 years. Comments and suggestions from readers would be most welcome.

Arlon T. Adams
Jay Kyoon Lee
leejk@syr.edu
June 2012
Syracuse, New York

Notes on the Second Edition

In the second edition, incorporating the feedback from the students and readers, we revised and added the expla-
nation of concepts and examples to help students understand it better. More examples and problems have been
added and the comparison of polarization vs. magnetization is added in Chapter 7.

Jay K. Lee
July 2018

xiv
 LIST OF TABLES
Table 1-1. Equations of transformation between coordinate systems 13
Table 1-2. Differential elements of length, surface, and volume 16
Table 1-3. Transformation of unit vectors 20
Table 1-4. Vector derivatives 28
Table 1-5. Vector identities 43
Table 2-1. Basic electrostatic fields and potentials 91
Table 3-1. Equivalent bound charge densities 122
Table 3-2. Gauss’ law for electric fields in matter 126
Table 3-3. Dielectric constants (or relative permittivities) 127
Table 3-4. Boundary conditions 133
Table 4-1. Solutions of Laplace’s equation in two-dimensions 181
Table 4-2. Legendre polynomials 195
Table 5-1. Conductivities 211
Table 5-2. Relaxation times 216
Table 6-1. Basic magnetostatic fields and potentials 240
Table 6-2. Magnetic forces on currents 257
Table 7-1. Equivalent bound current densities 281
Table 7-2. Ampère’s law for magnetic fields in matter 283
Table 7-3. Polarization vs. magnetization 287
Table 7-4. Magnetic susceptibilities of magnetic materials 307
Table 8-1. Faraday’s law 330
Table 9-1. Waves in lossy media 390
Table 9-2. Wave polarization 398
Table 10-1. Reflection and transmission coefficients 424
Table 11-1. Field solutions for parallel-plate waveguide 459
Table 11-2. Field solutions for rectangular waveguide 468
Table 11-3. Analogy between transmission-line waves and uniform
plane waves (or TEM waves) 491
Table 11-4. Transmission line parameters (L, C, R, G, Zo) 494
Table 12-1. Road map for finding antenna fields 515

1
 VECTOR ANALYSIS
C H A P T E R 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION 3
1.1.1 Josiah Willard Gibbs and the Development of Vector Analysis 3

1.2 VECTOR ALGEBRA 4

1.2.1 Basic Operations of Vector Algebra 4
1.2.2 Vector Algebra in Rectangular Coordinates 8
1.2.3 Triple Products 10

1.3 COORDINATE SYSTEMS 12

1.3.1 Coordinate System Geometry 12
1.3.2 Differential Elements of Length, Surface, and Volume 14
1.3.3 Coordinate Transformations 17
1.3.4 Integrals of Vector Functions 21

1.4 VECTOR CALCULUS 27

1.4.1 Definitions 27
1.4.2 Gradient 29
1.4.3 Divergence 31
1.4.4 Curl 33
1.4.5 The Divergence Theorem and Stokes’ Theorem – Solenoidal and
Conservative Fields 34
1.4.6 Vector Identities 42
1.4.7 Higher Order Functions of Vector Calculus 44

1.5 HELMHOLTZ’S THEOREM 45

PROBLEMS47

Electromagnetics
 1.1 INTRODUCTION

In Chapter 1 we take up the subject of vector analysis. This subject is of fundamental importance to us in the
development and the applications of electromagnetics because two major physical quantities that we deal
with—the electric field and the magnetic field—are vectors. Vectors and coordinate systems are covered first,
including differential elements of length, surface, and volume as well as vector transformations between different
coordinate systems. We introduce the basic functions of divergence, gradient, and curl, along with the divergence
theorem and Stokes’ theorem, and we conclude with Helmholtz’s theorem. In this chapter, we may need to refresh
our memories on the concepts of partial derivatives and multiple integrals, both of which are fundamental to
electromagnetic analysis. We will also strive to gain a deeper understanding of the three-dimensional properties
of the coordinate systems.

1.1.1 Josiah Willard Gibbs (1839–1903)

and the Development of Vector Analysis
Josiah Willard Gibbs has been called the greatest American scientist of the 19th century. He was a Professor
of Mathematical Physics at Yale University from 1871 until his death in 1903. During that period he made major
contributions to physical chemistry, statistical mechanics, and vector analysis. Professor Gibbs was the discoverer
of the chemical potential, the phase rule, the Gibbs-Dalton Law, the absorption law of chemistry, and the Gibbs’
phenomenon of Fourier series.
Willard Gibbs, as he was sometimes called, grew up in New Haven, Connecticut. His father (also named
Josiah Willard Gibbs) was a Professor of Theology with an interest in comparative languages. He participated in
the famous “Amistad” case of 1839–41 in which it was finally decided that a group of slaves from Africa had the
right to mutiny and take over the ship (The Amistad) on which they were illegally held. Former President John
Quincy Adams was counsel for the defense in this sensational case. After the case was over, Father Gibbs wrote
biographies of the slaves involved and compiled a vocabulary of the rare language (Mendi) which they spoke.
Father Gibbs died in 1861, leaving Willard and his sisters well provided for.
After completing his graduate studies, Willard Gibbs spent four years in postdoctoral study in Europe,
accompanied by his two sisters. He was part of a flood of American students of the time who traveled to Europe for
advanced education. He returned in 1869 and was appointed Professor of Mathematical Physics in 1871.
During the 1870s Willard Gibbs accomplished some of his most important work. He published three papers in
the Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. The third paper, which was over 300 pages in
length, developed the idea of the chemical potential and outlined the phase rule. James Clerk Maxwell immediately
recognized the significance of his work, was a strong supporter, and did much to help him gain some recognition.
Maxwell corresponded with Gibbs, sent him a plaster cast model* of one of his theories and devoted an entire
chapter to Gibbs in his book Theory of Heat. Later, scientists in Germany, France, and Holland also recognized
Gibbs’s work. His third paper was translated and published as a book in Germany in 1892 and in France in 1899.
Finally, he received the Copley Medal in 1901.

* Muriel Rukeyser, Willard Gibbs, pp. 199–203, Oxbow Press, Woodbridge, CT, 1988, Reprint from Doubleday, Doran, Garden City, NY, 1942.

Electromagnetics
VECTOR ANALYSIS

Gibbs became interested in vector analysis in the early 1880s. He often said that the work gave him more plea-
sure than any other intellectual activity. He drew up an extensive set of notes on vector analysis for his students
during the 1880s but did not publish them. He himself felt that the work was not original since it derived from much
earlier work by the German mathematician Grassman. Nonetheless, his work on vector analysis did attract atten-
tion. It involved him in extensive and bitter controversy with the champions of quaternions, an extremely complex
competing methodology first proposed by Hamilton. Most of this controversy took place in the 1890s. Gibbs finally
allowed publication of his lectures in a book Vector Analysis authored by E. B. Wilson, one of his students. Why did
he not allow his name to appear on the book as author or even coauthor? Certainly part of the reason was that he
himself did not regard it as strictly original. Perhaps also he did not want to become involved in further controversy
with the fiercely combative quaternionic group.
Much has been written about Gibbs and his relative anonymity. The president of an American university went to
Europe to find a physicist and was told that the best man for his purposes was Gibbs. “He can’t be a very dynamic
person if I haven’t heard of him,” was the response. It is interesting to note that he was recognized quite early by
those within his field. Within 10 years of his initial appointment in 1871, he was recognized and praised extensively
by Maxwell, referred to by Lorentz, elected to the National Academy of Sciences, and awarded the Rumford Medal.
Willard Gibbs was a quiet man, by no means an extrovert. He enjoyed an active intellectual life, the affection of
a few close friends, and close relationships with his family. He lived out his professional life in the house in which
he had been raised, with unmarried sister Anna and the family of sister Julia.
Gibbs’s writings were very abstract and unusually concise, making them accessible to only a handful of people.
In addition, he published at first only in the relatively obscure Connecticut Academy Transactions. Moreover, Gibbs
did not fully illustrate his theory with applications. That was largely left to others. Time was required for many of
the applications to emerge. So, given his personality and the nature of his work, it should not be surprising that he
long remained unknown in the wider sense. He was the last of the classical school, coming, as he did, just after
the epochal classical contributions of Maxwell and just before the dramatic appearance of relativity and quantum
theory.

1.2. VECTOR ALGEBRA

1.2.1. Basic Operations of Vector Algebra

A scalar quantity is characterized by its magnitude. Temperature, charge, and voltage are scalars. Ordinary type
is used for scalars, e.g., V for voltage.
A vector has both magnitude and direction. Velocity and the electric field are vectors. Boldface type is used for
vectors, e.g., E for electric field. A vector A may be represented as a directed line segment or arrow (Figure 1-1).
The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the vector, denoted by A or A, and the arrow head
indicates its direction. Switching the head and tail of arrow changes A to −A. A vector is changed by rotation, but
not by translation.

Electromagnetics
 Chapter 1

Figure 1-1. The vector A as a directed line segment.

VECTOR ADDITION
To form the vectorial sum A + B, place the tail of B at the head of A as shown in Figure 1-2(a). The sum
A + B is the arrow from the tail of A to the head of B. One may also reverse the order and place the tail of A at
the head of B (Figure 1-2(b)). Note that both procedures yield the same result and one which is also identical to
the parallelogram method (Figure 1-2(c)) with which you may be familiar.
Vector addition is commutative as seen in Figures 1-2(a), (b):

A + B = B + A(1-1)

It is also associative
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)(1-2)

To subtract B from A, we add the negative of B to A (see Figure 1-2(d)):

A − B = A + (− B)(1-3)

Parallelogram rule
Figure 1-2. Addition of vectors.

Electromagnetics
VECTOR ANALYSIS

MULTIPLICATION OF A VECTOR BY A SCALAR

If a vector is multiplied by a scalar a its magnitude is multiplied by the magnitude of a. The direction of the vector
is unchanged if the scalar is positive and real. Scalar multiplication is distributive:

a (A + B ) = a A + a B  (1-4)

Scalar division by a corresponds to multiplication by the inverse of a:

B 1
=   B (1-5)
a a

If we divide a vector A by its magnitude Α, we obtain a vector of unit length pointing in the direction of A, i.e., a
unit vector a.
A
a= , a = 1 (1-6)
Α

All unit vectors have the same magnitude; they differ only in direction.

DOT OR SCALAR PRODUCT

The dot product of two vectors is a scalar and it is defined as

A ⋅ B ≡ Α Β cos θAB (0 ≤ θAB ≤ π ) (1-7)

where A = | A |, B = | B |, qAB is the angle between A and B (Figure 1-3).

Figure 1-3. The dot product.

The dot product is A times the projection of B on A (B cos θAB) or B times the projection of A on B (A cos θAB).
A projection is negative for θAB > p/2.
The dot product is commutative:

B · A = A · B (1-8)

Electromagnetics
 Chapter 1

and distributive:

A · (B + C) = A · B + A · C(1-9)

Special cases are:

A ⋅ B = AB (for θAB = 0)
= 0 (for θAB = π/2 when A and B are orthogonal.)
A ⋅ A = A2

CROSS OR VECTOR PRODUCT

The cross product of two vectors is a vector and it is defined as follows:

A × B = an AB sin qAB (0 ≤ qAB ≤ p)(1-10)

Note that the magnitude of A × B is AB sin θAB, which is the area (base times height) of the parallelogram formed
by A and B (see Figure 1-4(a)). Either A or B may be taken as the base. The direction of the cross product is
that of an (Figure 1-4(a)), which is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of the parallelogram (the plane formed
by A and B). The direction of the normal an is determined by the right-hand rule (Figure 1-4(b)). Note that A × B
is perpendicular to both A and B. You can also use the three-finger rule, by making the first three fingers of your
right-hand orthogonal to each other. If you align the thumb with A and the index finger with B, the middle finger
gives you the direction of A × B.
The cross product is distributive:

A × (B + C) = A × B + A × C (1-11)

A×B
(a) Magnitude. (b) Direction by right-hand rule. (c) Three-finger rule.
Figure 1-4. The cross product.

The cross product is not commutative:

A × B = − B × A (1-12)

7
Fig. 1.4a: Source: https://img.index.hu/assets/politika/belfold/2005/poligate/thumbsup.gif.
Fig. 1.4b: Copyright © Acdx (CC by 3.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Right_hand_rule_cross_product.svg.

Electromagnetics
VECTOR ANALYSIS

Special cases are:

A × B = AB (for θAB = π /2)
= 0 (for θAB = 0)
A×A = 0

1.2.2. Vector Algebra in Rectangular Coordinates

A vector may be represented in terms of its components in any coordinate system; we choose the rectangular
(Cartesian) coordinate system for this section. Figure 1-5(a) shows the Cartesian coordinate system with its unit
vectors ax, ay, az. Figure 1-5(b) shows a vector A and its projections axAx, ayAy, azAz on the x, y, z axes. By
translation, we can place the projections head to tail and show that

A = a x A x + a y A y + a z A z (1-13)

Ax, Ay, Az are the components of A or the magnitudes of its projections. The magnitudes may either precede or
follow the unit vectors.

(a) Unit vectors. (b) Components of vector A.

Figure 1-5. Representation of a vector in rectangular coordinate system.

VECTOR ADDITION

A + B = (a x A x + a y A y + a z A z ) + (a x Bx + a y By + a z Bz )
= a x (A x + Bx ) + a y (A y + By ) + a z (A z + Bz )  (1-14)

MULTIPLICATION BY A SCALAR
cA = c (a x A x + a y A y + a z A z )
= a x (cA x ) + a y (cA y ) + a z (cA z )  (1-15)

Electromagnetics
 Chapter 1

DOT PRODUCT
Unit vector relationships:
ax ⋅ ax = a y ⋅ a y = az ⋅ az = 1
ax ⋅ a y = ax ⋅ az = a y ⋅ az = 0

Thus

A ⋅ B = (a x A x + a y A y + a z A z ) ⋅ (a x Bx + a y By + a z Bz )
 (1-16)
= A x B x + A y B y + A z Bz (using the distributive property)

Special case:
2
A ⋅ A = A 2x + A 2y + A 2z = A

Thus

A = A 2x + A 2y + A 2z

CROSS PRODUCT
Unit vector cross product relations:

ax × ax = ay × ay = az × az = 0
ax × a y = az a y × a x = −a z
a y × az = ax a z × a y = −a x
az × ax = a y a x × a z = −a y

(Simply use the right-hand rule or consider the cyclic order xyzxyz to determine the cross product)
Thus

A × B = (a x A x + a y A y + a z A z ) × (a x Bx + a y By + a z Bz )
 (1-17a)
= a x (A y Bz − A z By ) + a y (A z Bx − A x Bz ) + a z (A x By − A y Bx )

The results above are identical to the convenient determinant form of the cross product:

ax ay az
A×B= Ax Ay A z (1-17b)
Bx By Bz

Electromagnetics
VECTOR ANALYSIS

1.2.3. Triple Products

SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT A · (B × C)

A · (B × C) is a scalar whose magnitude is equal to the volume of the parallelepiped (box) formed by the three
vectors. Figure 1-6(b) shows vectors A, B, C and the box which they form. We note that B × C is a vector with
direction an and magnitude equal to the area of the base of the parallelepiped: (see Figure 1-6(a))

B × C = a n (area of BaseCB )
Then

A ⋅ (B × C) = (a n ⋅ A ) (area of BaseCB ) (1-18)

= ± h a(area of Base CB ) = ± (volume of the box)

(a n ⋅ A ) is positive in the case of Figure 1-6. If A were reversed, (a n ⋅ A ) would be negative.

(a) BaseCB and height ha (b) The parallelepiped formed by vectors

A, B, and C.
Figure 1-6. The Triple Product A · (B × C).

Since the volume of the box can be obtained from three different bases and heights:

A ⋅ (B × C) = B ⋅ (C × A ) = C ⋅ ( A × B )
(1-19)
= − A ⋅ (C × B ) = −B ⋅ ( A × C) = −C ⋅ (B × A )
Thus we can change the order so long as we retain the cycle ABCABC. We may also interchange dot and cross
products in Eq. (1-19) to obtain:

A · (B × C) = (A × B) · C (1-20)

Note that all the parentheses of this section may be removed since there is only one possible location.

10

Electromagnetics
 Chapter 1

There is also a determinant form of the scalar triple product:

Ax Ay Az
A ⋅ (B × C ) = Bx By Bz (1-21)
Cx Cy Cz

This identity may be shown by laboriously expanding both sides in rectangular coordinates.

VECTOR TRIPLE PRODUCT A × (B × C)

A × (B × C) is a vector. We note that the direction of B × C is that of an (Figure 1-6). Then A × (B × C) is
perpendicular to (B × C), i.e., normal to an. Thus A × (B × C) lies in the plane formed by B and C and has
components in the B and C directions. The “BAC-CAB” rule gives these components:

A × (B × C) = B (A · C) − C (A · B )(1-22)

The identity above can be shown by expanding in rectangular components (see Problem 1-5). The parenthesis in
A × (B × C) is necessary since it differs from (A × B) × C.

EXAMPLE 1-1

Let A = ay 2 + az 2

B = ay 3

C = ax (− 4) + ay(4)
Find A · (B × C) and A × (B × C).

SOLUTION
0 2 2
A ⋅ (B × C ) = 0 3 0 = (− 4) { 2 ⋅ 0 − 2 ⋅ 3 } = 24
−4 4 0

A × ( B × C ) = B ( A ⋅ C ) − C( A ⋅ B )
= a y 3 ⋅ (8) − (−a x 4 + a y 4) ⋅ 6 = a X 24

Sketch the vectors and the parallelepiped (box). Show by geometrical considerations that A × (B × C) has only
an ax component.

11

Electromagnetics
VECTOR ANALYSIS

EXAMPLE 1-2

Let A = a x A x + a yA y + a z Az

Find A ⋅ a z and A × a z

SOLUTION
A · az = az · (axAx + ayAy + azAz) = 0 + 0 + Az = Az

Taking the dot product of vector A with any unit vector yields the component of A in the direction of the unit vector.

ax ay az
A × az = Ax A y Az = a x A y − a yA x
0 0 1

1.3 COORDINATE SYSTEMS

1.3.1. Coordinate System Geometry

Figure 1-7 shows the three basic coordinate systems we will use in this text, namely, the rectangular coordinate
system (x, y, z), the cylindrical coordinate system (ρ, f, z), and the spherical coordinate system (r, θ, f). An
understanding of the coordinate systems and the geometry involved is most essential in the three-dimensional
problems of electromagnetics. Often the geometry is at the heart of the problem.
Note in Figure 1-7 the relationships among the three coordinate systems. The coordinate r is the distance from
the origin to a particular point P. The coordinate q (polar angle) is an angle from the z-axis to the radial line OP.
It ranges from 0 to p. The coordinate ρ is the radial distance from P to the z axis. ρ is also the distance from the
origin to the projection of P on the xy plane and ρ = r sin θ. z has the same definition for both rectangular and
cylindrical coordinate systems and z = r cos θ. The coordinate f (azimuth angle) is an angle from the x-axis to the
radial line from the origin to the projection of P on the xy plane. It ranges from 0 to 2p. f has the same definition
for both cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems. (x, y) and (ρ, f) are related by x = ρ cos f and y = ρ sin f.
Table 1-1 is a collection of all the equations of transformation between coordinates. Can you reconstruct some
of the relationships, for instance, the first set, from the figures of the coordinate systems?

12

Electromagnetics
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Vegas, a short distance south of Habana, in which about 600 of
both sexes can receive instruction at one time. This form of
instruction is more important, under the conditions found to
exist, than the ordinary instruction given in the other
schools. As conditions improve, an opportunity can be given to
increase the number of these schools, and by their means
introduce modern methods more rapidly than by other systems."

General John R. Brooke,

Civil Report, October 1, 1899
(Message and Documents: Abridgment, 1899-1900,
volume 2, pages 1266-1276).

General Fitzhugh Lee reported, September 19, 1899, on the

state of things in the province of Havana, as follows: "I
assumed command of the department of the province of Habana
January 1, 1899, and of the province of Pinar del Rio April
19, 1899. The deplorable condition of the island after it was
evacuated by the Spanish is well known. Business of all sorts
was suspended. Agricultural operations had ceased; large sugar
estates, with their enormous and expensive machinery, were
destroyed; houses burned: stock driven off for consumption by
the Spanish troops, or killed. There was scarcely an ox left
to pull a plow, had there been a plow left. Not a pig had been
left in the pen, nor a hen to lay an egg for the poor,
destitute people who still held on to life, most of them sick,
weary, and weak. Miles and miles of country uninhabited either
by the human race or domestic animals was visible to the eye
on every side. The great fertile island of Cuba in some places
resembled an ash pile; in others, the dreary desert. The
'reconcentrado' order of the former Captain-General Weyler, it
will be remembered, drove from their houses and lands all the
old men, women, and children who had remained at their homes
because they were not physically able to bear the burdens of
war. The wheels of the former government had ceased to
revolve. Chaos, confusion, doubt, and uncertainty filled with
apprehension the minds of the Cubans, who, for the first time,
had been relieved of the cruel care of those who for centuries
controlled their country and their destiny. … The railroads on
the island were in bad order, having been used to the extent
of their endurance conveying Spanish troops and Spanish
supplies over them, while the great calzadas or turnpikes were
filled with holes, for the war prevented repairs to either
railroads or roads. Municipalities were all greatly in debt.
None of the civil officers had been paid, and school-teachers
had large amounts of back salary due. Judicial officers were
discharging their duties as far as they could—for there was
really no law in the island except the mandate of the
Captain-General—without pay, and many months of back pay was
due to the professors in the colleges of the largest cities.
The whole framework of the government had to be rebuilt, and
its machinery carefully and gradually reconstructed. Important
government problems had to be promptly solved, which involved
social, economic, commercial, agricultural, public
instruction, support of eleemosynary institutions of all
kinds, means of communications, reorganization of
municipalities, with the necessary town and city police,
including a mounted force to patrol the adjoining rural
districts within the limits, and subject to the authorities of
the mayors and council of their respective municipalities; the
appointment of new alcaldes and other officers to replace
those left in authority by the Spanish Government, and who
would be more in accord with the inhabitants whose local
affairs they directed. Many trying and troublesome questions
arose, and many difficulties environed on either side of the
situation.

"Of the Cuban rural population, less than 20 per cent of them
were able to read and write, resembling children awaking the
first time to the realities of life. They were in the main
obedient, docile, quiet, and inoffensive, and anxious to adapt
themselves as soon as possible to the new conditions which
confronted them. The Cuban soldiers, black and white, who had
been in the fields and woods for four years defying the
 Spanish banner, still kept their guns, and were massing around
the cities and towns, producing more or less unrest in the
public mind with the fear that many of them, unaccustomed to
work so long, would be transformed into brigands, and not
become peaceful, law-abiding citizens.
{185}
In eight months wonderful progress has been made. The arms of
the Cuban soldiers have been stacked, and they have quietly
resumed peaceful vocations. Brigandage, which partially
flourished for a time, has been stamped out, tillage
everywhere has greatly increased, many houses rebuilt, many
huts constructed, fences are being built, and more and more
farming lands are gradually being taken up, and municipalities
reorganized with new officers representing the wishes of the
majority of the inhabitants. Municipal police have been
appointed who are uniformed and under the charge of, in most
cases, efficient officers."

General Fitzhugh Lee,

Report, September 19, 1899.

General Leonard Wood, commanding in the province of Santiago,

reported at the same time as follows: "On the assumption of
control by the American Government, July 17, 1899, of that
portion of the province of Santiago included in the
surrendered territory, industries were practically at a
standstill. In the rural districts all industries were at an
end. The estates, almost without exception, have been
destroyed, and no work is being done. … In the towns the
effect of reconcentration was shown by large crowds of women
and children and old men who were practically starving. They
were thin, pale, and barely able to drag themselves about. The
merchants and a few planters were the only prosperous people
in the province. … A feeling of bitter hostility existed
between the Cubans and Spaniards, and also a very ugly feeling
between the Cubans who had acted in harmony with the
autonomists in the latter days of the Spanish occupation and
those who had been in the Cuban army. At first there was a
good deal of talk of a threatening character in regard to what
the Cubans would do to the Spaniards, now that they were in a
position to avenge themselves for some of the many injuries
received in the past. This, however, soon passed over, and
much more friendly and sensible ideas prevailed. There were no
schools and no material for establishing them. All officers of
the civil government had resigned and left their posts, with
the exception of one judge of the first instance and several
municipal judges and certain police officers. The prisons were
full of prisoners, both Spanish and Cuban, many of them being
Spanish military and political prisoners. The administration
of justice was at a standstill. The towns all presented an
appearance of greatest neglect, and showed everywhere entire
disregard of every sanitary law. The amount of clothing in the
possession of the people was very limited, and in many of the
interior villages women were compelled to keep out of sight
when strangers appeared, as they had only skirts and waists
made of bagging and other coarse material. Many of the
children were absolutely without clothing. Evidences of great
suffering were found on every hand. A very large proportion of
the population was sick in the country districts from malaria
and in the seaboard towns from lack of food and water. …

"The first two and a half months after the surrender were
devoted almost entirely to the distribution of food and to
supplying hospitals and charities with such limited quantities
of necessary material as we were able to obtain. Commanding
officers in all parts of the island were busily engaged in
cleaning up towns and carrying out all possible sanitary and
administrative reforms. Schools were established, some 60 in
the city of Santiago and over 200 in the province as a whole.
Affairs have continued to improve slowly but surely, until at
the present time we find the towns, generally speaking, clean,
the death rate lower than the people have known before, some
public improvements under way in all the large towns, the
amount of work done being limited only by the amount of money
 received. … Industries of all kinds are springing up. New
sugar plantations are being projected; hospitals and
charitable institutions are being regularly supplied, and all
are fairly well equipped with necessary articles. The death
rate among the native population is very much lower than in
former years. The people in the towns are quiet and orderly,
with the exception of a few editorial writers, who manage to
keep up a certain small amount of excitement, just enough to
give the papers in question a fair sale. The people are all
anxious to work. The present currency is American currency. A
condition of good order exists in the rural districts. The
small planters are all out on their farms and a condition of
security and good order prevails. The issue of rations has
been practically stopped and we have few or almost no
applications for food."

General Leonard Wood;

Report, September 20, 1899.

CUBA: A. D. 1899 (October).

Census of the Island.
Statistics of population, nativity, illiteracy, etc.

"The total population of Cuba on October 16, 1899, determined

by the census taken [under the direction of the War Department
of the United States] as of that date, was 1,572,797. This was
distributed as follows among the six provinces:

Habana, 424,804;
Matanzas, 202,444;
Pinar del Rio, 173,064;
Puerto Principe, 88,234;
Santa Clara, 356,536;
Santiago, 327,715.

The latest census taken under Spanish authority was in 1887.

The total population as returned by that census was 1,631,687,
 and the population by provinces was as follows:

Habana, 451,928;
Matanzas, 259,578;
Pinar del Rio, 225,891;
Puerto Principe, 67,789;
Santa Clara, 354,122;
Santiago, 272,379.

Whether that census was correct may be a matter of discussion,

but if incorrect, the number of inhabitants was certainly not
overstated. Comparing the total population at these two
censuses, it is seen, that the loss in the 12 years amounted
to 58,890, or 3.6 per cent of the population in 1887. This
loss is attributable to the recent civil war and the
reconcentration policy accompanying it, but the figures
express only a part of the loss from this cause. Judging from
the earlier history of the island and the excess of births
over deaths, as shown by the registration records, however
imperfect they may be, the population probably increased from
1887 up to the beginning of the war and at the latter epoch
reached a total of little less than 1,800,000. It is probable,
therefore, that the direct and indirect losses by the war and
the reconcentration policy, including a decrease of births and
of immigration and an increase of deaths and of emigration
reached a total of approximately 200,000. …

"The area of Cuba is approximately 44,000 square miles, and

the average number of inhabitants per square mile 35.7, about
the same as the State of Iowa. … Habana, with the densest
population, is as thickly populated as the State of
Connecticut, and Puerto Principe, the most sparsely populated,
is in this respect comparable with the State of Texas. …

{186}

"The total number of males of voting age in Cuba was 417,993,

or 26 per cent of the total population. This is a little less
than the proportion, in 1890, in the United States, where it
was 27 per cent. … Classifying the potential voters of Cuba by
birthplace and race, it is seen that 44.9 per cent were
whites, born in Cuba; that 30.5 per cent were colored, and as
nearly all the colored were born in the island it is seen that
fully seven-tenths of the potential voters of Cuba were native
born, 23 per cent were born in Spain, and 1.6 per cent in
other countries. Classifying the whole number of potential
voters by citizenship it is seen that 70 per cent were Cuban
citizens, 2 per cent were Spanish citizens, 18 per cent were
holding their citizenship in suspense, and 10 per cent were
citizens of other countries, or their citizenship was unknown.
…

"The Cuban citizens, numbering 290,905, were composed almost

entirely of persons born in Cuba, there being among them but
220 white persons, and probably not more colored, of alien
birth. The white Cuban citizens, who were natives of the
island, numbered 184,471, and of these 94,301, or 51 per cent,
were unable to read. The colored Cuban citizens numbered
106,214, of which not less than 78,279, or 74 per cent, were
unable to read. The people of Cuba who claimed Spanish
citizenship numbered 9,500, and of these nearly all were born
in Spain, there being but 159 born elsewhere. Those whose
citizenship was in suspense numbered 76,669. These also were
nearly all of Spanish birth, the number born elsewhere being
but 1,420. The number of persons of other or unknown
citizenship was 40,919. Of these fully one-half were colored,
most of them being Chinese, and much the larger proportion of
the remaining half were of Spanish birth.

"Summing up the situation, it appears that the total number of

males of voting age who could read was 200,631, a little less
than half the total number of males of voting age. Of these
22,629 were of Spanish or other foreign citizenship or unknown
citizenship. The number whose citizenship was in suspense was
 59,724, and the number of Cuban citizens able to read was
118,278, or 59 per cent of all Cuban citizens of voting age."

Census of Cuba,
Bulletins Numbers I and III.

CUBA: A. D. 1899 (December).

Appointment of General Leonard Wood to the
military command and Governorship.

On the 6th of December General Leonard Wood was commissioned

major-general of volunteers, and was assigned to command of
the Division of Cuba, relieving General Brooke as division
commander and military governor of Cuba. On the 30th, Governor
Wood announced the appointment of the following Cuban
ministers to form his cabinet:

Secretary of State and Government, Diego Tamayo;

Secretary of Justice, Luis Estevoz;
Secretary of Education, Juan Bautista Hernandez;
Secretary of Finance, Enrique Varona;
Secretary of Public Works, Jose Ramon Villalon;
Secretary of Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce, Rius Rivera.

CUBA: A. D. 1900.
Organization of a school system.
Teachers at Harvard Summer School.

"Especial attention has been given by the military government

to the development of primary education. The enrollment of the
public schools of Cuba immediately before the last war shows
36,306 scholars, but an examination of the reports containing
these figures indicates that probably less than half the names
enrolled represented actual attendance. There were practically
no separate school buildings, but the scholars were collected
in the residences of the teachers. There were few books, and
practically no maps, blackboards, desks or other school
apparatus. … Even these poor apologies for public schools
were, to a great extent, broken up by the war, and in
December, 1899, the entire public-school enrollment of the
island numbered 21,435. The following table shows the advance
in school facilities during the half year ending June 30 last:

School rooms. Enrollment.

January, 1900 635 37,995

February, 1900 1,338 69,476
March, 1900 3,126 127,881
April, 1900 3,126 127,426
May, 1900 3,313 139,616
June, 1900 3,500 143,120

"This great development was accomplished under the Cuban

secretary of public instruction and the Cuban commissioner of
public schools, with the able and experienced assistance of
Mr. Alexis E. Frye as superintendent. It is governed by a
school law modeled largely upon the law of Ohio. … The schools
are subject to constant and effective inspection and the
attendance is practically identical with the enrollment.

"The schools are separated from the residences of the

teachers, and each schoolroom has its separate teacher. The
courses and methods of instruction are those most approved in
this country. The text-books are translations into Spanish of
American text-books. For the supply of material $150,000 were,
in the first instance, appropriated from the insular treasury,
and afterwards, upon a single order, 100,000 full sets of
desks, text-books, scholars' supplies, etc., were purchased
upon public advertisement in this country at an expense of
about three-quarters of a million dollars. All over the island
the old Spanish barracks, and barracks occupied by the
 American troops which have been withdrawn, are being turned
into schoolrooms after thorough renovation. The pressure for
education is earnest and universal. The appropriations of this
year from the insular treasury for that purpose will amount to
about four and a half million dollars; but great as the
development has been it will be impossible, with the resources
of the island for a long time yet to come, to fully meet the
demand for the learning so long withheld. The provincial
institutions and high schools and the University of Habana
have been reorganized.

"During the past summer, through the generosity of Harvard

University and its friends, who raised a fund of $70,000 for
that purpose, 1,281 Cuban teachers were enabled to attend a
summer school of instruction at Cambridge, designed to fit
them for their duties. They were drawn from every municipality
and almost every town in the island. They were collected from
the different ports of the island by five United States
transports, which carried them to Boston, and, at the
expiration of their visit, took them to New York and thence to
Habana and to their homes. They were lodged and boarded in and
about the University at Cambridge, and visited the libraries
and museums and the educational institutions and manufacturing
establishments in the neighborhood of Boston. Through the
energy of Mr. Frye money was raised to enable them to visit
New York and Washington. They were returned to their homes
without a single accident or loss, full of new ideas and of
zeal for the educational work in which they had found so much
sympathy and encouragement."

United States, Secretary of War, Annual Report,

November 30, 1900, pages. 32-33.

{187}

CUBA: A. D. 1900 (June-November).

Municipal elections and election
of a Constitutional Convention.
Meeting of the Convention.
Statement of the Military Governor.

"The census having been completed and the period given for
Spanish residents to make their election as to citizenship
having expired on the 11th of April, 1900, steps were
immediately taken for the election of municipal governments by
the people. In view of the fact that 66 per cent of the people
could not read and write, it was not deemed advisable that
absolutely unrestricted suffrage should be established, and,
after very full conference with leading Cubans, including all
the heads of the great departments of state, a general
agreement was reached upon a basis of suffrage, which provided
that every native male Cuban or Spaniard who had elected to
take Cuban citizenship, of full age, might vote if he either
could read and write, or owned real estate or personal
property to the value of $250, or had served in and been
honorably discharged from the Cuban army; thus according a
voice in the government of the country to everyone who had the
intelligence to acquire the rudiments of learning, the thrift
to accumulate property, or the patriotism to fight for his
country. On the 18th of April an election law, which aims to
apply the best examples of our American election statutes to
the existing conditions of Cuba, was promulgated for the
guidance of the proposed election. On the 16th of June an
election was held throughout the island in which the people of
Cuba in all the municipalities, which include the entire
island, elected all their municipal officers. The boards of
registration and election were composed of Cubans selected by
the Cubans themselves. No United States soldier or officer was
present at or in the neighborhood of any polling place. There
was no disturbance. After the newly elected municipal officers
had been installed and commenced the performance of their
duties an order was made enlarging the powers of the municipal
governments and putting into their hands as much of the
government of the people as was practicable.
"As soon as the new municipal governments were fairly
established the following call for a constitutional convention
was issued:

'Habana, July 25, 1900.

The military governor of Cuba directs the publication of the
following instructions:

Whereas the Congress of the United States by its joint

resolution of April 20, 1898, declared That the people of the
island of Cuba are, and of right ought to be, free and
independent; That the United States hereby disclaims any
disposition or intention to exercise sovereignty,
jurisdiction, or control over said island except for the
pacification thereof, and asserts its determination, when that
is accomplished, to leave the government and control of the
island to its people; And whereas the people of Cuba have
established municipal governments, deriving their authority
from the suffrages of the people given under just and equal
laws, and are now ready, in like manner, to proceed to the
establishment of a general government which shall assume and
exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction, and control over the
island: Therefore

"'It is ordered,
That a general election be held in the island of Cuba on the
third Saturday of September, in the year nineteen hundred, to
elect delegates to a convention to meet in the city of Habana,
at twelve o'clock noon on the first Monday of November, in the
year nineteen hundred, to frame and adopt a constitution for
the people of Cuba, and, as a part thereof, to provide for and
agree with the Government of the United States upon the
relations to exist between that Government and the Government
of Cuba, and to provide for the election by the people of
officers under such constitution and the transfer of
government to the officers so elected.
"'The election will be held in the several voting precincts of
the island under and pursuant to the provisions of the
electoral law of April 18, 1900, and the amendments thereof.
The people of the several provinces will elect delegates in
number proportionate to their populations as determined by the
census, viz: The people of the province of Pinar del Rio will
elect three (3) delegates. The people of the province of
Habana will elect eight (8) delegates. The people of the
province of Matanzas will elect four (4) delegates. The people
of the province of Santa Clara will elect seven (7) delegates.
The people of the province of Puerto Principe will elect two
(2) delegates. The people of the province of Santiago de Cuba
will elect seven (7) delegates.'

"Under this call a second election was held on the 15th of

September, under the same law, with some slight amendments,
and under the same conditions as the municipal elections. The
election was wholly under the charge of Cubans, and without
any participation or interference whatever by officers or
troops of the United States. The thirty-one members of the
constitutional convention were elected, and they convened at
Habana at the appointed time. The sessions of the convention
were opened in the city of Habana on the 5th of November by
the military governor, with the following statement: 'To the
delegates of the Constitutional Convention of Cuba. Gentlemen:
As military governor of the island, representing the President
of the United States, I call this convention to order. It will
be your duty, first, to frame and adopt a constitution for
Cuba, and, when that has been done, to formulate what, in your
opinion, ought to be the relations between Cuba and the United
States. The constitution must be adequate to secure a stable,
orderly, and free government.

"'When you have formulated the relations which, in your

opinion, ought to exist between Cuba and the United States,
the Government of the United States will doubtless take such
 action on its part as shall lead to a final and authoritative
agreement between the people of the two countries for the
promotion of their common interests.

{188}

"'All friends of Cuba will follow your deliberations with the

deepest interest, earnestly desiring that you shall reach just
conclusions, and that, by the dignity, individual self-restraint,
and wise conservatism which shall characterize your
proceedings, the capacity of the Cuban people for
representative government may be signally illustrated. The
fundamental distinction between true representative government
and dictatorship is that in the former every representative of
the people, in whatever office, confines himself strictly
within the limits of his defined powers. Without such
restraint there can be no free constitutional government.
Under the order pursuant to which you have been elected and
convened you have no duty and no authority to take part in the
present government of the island. Your powers are strictly
limited by the terms of that order.'"

United States, Secretary of War,

Annual Report, November 30, 1900, pages 24-32.

CUBA: A. D. 1900 (December).

Measures for the destruction of the mosquito,
as a carrier of yellow fever.

See (in this volume)

SCIENCE, RECENT: MEDICAL AND SURGICAL.

CUBA: A. D. 1900-1901.
Frauds by American officials in the Havana post office.
Question cf the extradition of C. F. W. Neely.
Decision of the Supreme Court of the United States as to the
independent status of Cuba in its relations
to the United States.

In the spring of 1900 a discovery was made of extensive frauds

committed by American officials who had been placed, by U. S.
military authority, in the post office at Havana. One of the
persons accused, named C. F. W. Neely, having returned to the
United States, his extradition, for trial in Cuba, was
demanded, and a question thereon arose as to the status of the
island of Cuba in its relations to the United States. The case
(Neely vs. Henkel) was taken on appeal to the Supreme Court of
the United States, and Neely was subjected to extradition by the
decision of that tribunal, rendered in January, 1901. The
status of Cuba, as an independent foreign territory, was thus
defined in the opinion of the Court:

"The legislative and executive branches of the Government, by

the joint resolution of April 20, 1898, expressly disclaimed
any purpose to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction, or control
over Cuba, 'except for the pacification thereof,' and asserted
the determination of the United States, that object being
accomplished, to leave the government and control of Cuba to
its own people. All that has been done in relation to Cuba has
had that end in view, and so far as the court is informed by the
public history of the relations of this country with that
island, nothing has been done inconsistent with the declared
object of the war with Spain. Cuba is none the less foreign
territory, within the meaning of the act of Congress, because
it is under a military governor appointed by and representing
the President in the work of assisting the inhabitants of that
island to establish a government of their own, under which, as
a free and independent people, they may control their own
affairs without interference by other nations. The occupancy
of the island by troops of the United States was the necessary
result of the war. That result could not have been avoided by
the United States consistently with the principles of
international law or with its obligations to the people of
Cuba. It is true that as between Spain and the United
 States—indeed, as between the United States and all foreign
nations—Cuba, upon the cessation of hostilities with Spain and
after the treaty of Paris, was to be treated as if it were
conquered territory. But—as between the United States and
Cuba, that island is territory held in trust for the
inhabitants of Cuba, to whom it rightfully belongs and to
whose exclusive control it will be surrendered when a stable
government shall have been established by their voluntary
action."

CUBA: A. D. 1901 (January).

Draft of Constitution reported to the Convention
by its Central Committee.

Public sessions of the Constitutional Convention were not

opened until the middle of January, 1901, when the draft of a
Constitution was reported by its Central Committee, and the
text given to the Press. By subsequent action of the
Convention, various amendments were made, and the instrument,
at this writing (early in April), still awaits finish and
adoption. The amendments have been reported imperfectly and
the text of the Constitution, even in its present state,
cannot be authentically given. It is probable, however, that
the structure of government provided for in the draft reported
to the Convention stands now and will remain substantially
unchanged. An outline of its features is the most that we will
venture to give in this place.

The preamble is in these words:

"We, the delegates of the Cuban people, having met in assembly

for the purpose of agreeing upon the adoption of a fundamental
law, which, at the same time that it provides for the
constitution into a sovereign and independent nation of the
people of Cuba, establishes a solid and permanent form of
government, capable of complying with its international
obligations, insuring domestic tranquillity, establishing
 justice, promoting the general welfare, and securing the
blessings of liberty to the inhabitants, we do agree upon and
adopt the following constitution, in pursuance of the said
purpose, invoking the protection of the Almighty, and prompted
by the dictates of our conscience."

The form of government is declared to be republican. The

guarantees of the Constitution, defined with precision and at
length, include "equal rights under the law," protection from
arbitrary arrest and imprisonment, freedom of thought, speech,
writing and publication, freedom of worship, freedom of
association and meeting, freedom of teaching, freedom of
travel, inviolability of private dwellings and private papers,
"except by order of a competent authority and with the
formalities prescribed by the laws."

Legislative powers are to be exercised by two elective bodies,

to be named House of Representatives and Senate, and
conjointly known as Congress. The Senate to be composed of six
senators elected from each of the six departments of the
republic; the boundaries and names of the departments to be
those of the present provinces "as long as not modified by the
laws."

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The terms of the senators to be six years, one third of their

number to be elected every two years. The House of
Representatives to be composed of "one representative for
every 25,000 inhabitants or fraction of more than 12,000,
elected for a period of four years, by direct vote, and in the
manner prescribed by law "; one half to be elected every two
years. Representatives and Senators not to be held responsible
for opinions expressed in the exercise of their duties, and not
to be arrested nor tried without the consent of the body to
which they belong, "except in case of being discovered in the
act of committing some crime." Congress to meet in regular
session every year on the first Monday in November, and to
remain in session for at least ninety consecutive days,
excepting holidays and Sundays. Its powers to be substantially
the same as those exercised by the Congress of the United
States.

The executive power to be exercised by the President of the

republic, who "shall be elected by direct votes, and an
absolute majority thereof, cast on one single day, in
accordance with the provisions of the law." The term of the
President to be four years, and none to be elected for three
consecutive terms. A Vice-President to be elected "in the same
manner as the President, conjointly with the latter and for a
like term."

The judicial power to be "exercised by the Supreme Court of

Justice and such other courts as may be established by law."
The Supreme Court, like that of the United States, "to decide
as to the constitutionality of legislative acts that may have
been objected to as unconstitutional," and to have an
appellant jurisdiction corresponding to that of the Supreme
Court of the United States.

Over each of the six departments or provinces it is provided

that there shall be a governor, "elected by a direct vote for
a period of three years," and a Departmental Assembly, "to
consist of not less than eight or more than twenty, elected by
direct vote for a like period of three years." The
Departmental Assemblies to "have the right of independent
action in all things not antagonistic to the constitution, to
the general laws nor to international treaties, nor to that
which pertains to the inherent rights of the municipalities,
which may concern the department, such as the establishment
and maintenance of institutions of public education, public
charities, public departmental roads, means of communication
by water or sea, the preparation of their budgets, and the
appointment and removal of their employés."
 The "municipal terminos" are to be governed by
"Ayuntamientos," composed of Councilmen elected by a direct
vote in the manner prescribed by law, and by a Mayor, elected
in like manner. The Ayuntamientos to be self-governing, free
to "take action on all matters that solely and exclusively
concern their municipal termino, such as appointment and
removal of employés, preparation of their budgets, freely
establishing the means of income to meet them without any
other limitation than that of making them compatible with the
general system of taxation of the republic."

The provision for amendment of the Constitution is as follows:

"The constitution cannot be changed in whole or part except by

two-thirds vote of both legislative bodies. Six months after
deciding on the reform, a Constitutional Assembly shall be
elected, which shall confine itself to the approval or
disapproval of the reform voted by the legislative bodies.
These will continue in their functions independently of the
Constitutional Assembly. The members in this Assembly shall be
equal to the number of the members in the two legislative
bodies together."

CUBA: A. D. 1901 (February-March).

Conditions on which the government of the island will
be yielded to its people prescribed by the Congress
of the United States.

In the call for a Constitutional Convention issued by the

military governor on the 25th of July, 1900 (see above), it
was set forth that the duty of the Convention would be "to
frame and adopt a constitution for the people of Cuba, and, as
a part thereof, to provide for and agree with the government
of the United States upon the relations to exist between that
government and the government of Cuba." This intimated an
intention on the part of the government of the United States
to attach conditions to its recognition of the independent
government for which the Convention was expected to provide.
The intimation was conveyed still more plainly to the
Constitutional Convention by Military Governor Wood, at the
opening of its sessions, when he said: "When you have
formulated the relations which, in your opinion, ought to
exist between Cuba and the United States, the government of
the United States will doubtless take such action on its part
as shall lead to a final and authoritative agreement between
the two countries for the promotion of their common
interests." The Convention, however, gave no sign of a
disposition to act as desired by the government of the United
States, and seemed likely to finish its work, either without
touching the subject of relations between the Cuban and
American Republics, or else offering proposals that would not
meet the wishes of the latter. Those wishes were made known to
the Convention in flat terms, at length, by the military
governor, and its prompt action was urged, in order that the
judgment of the Congress of the United States might be
pronounced on what it did. But the day on which the session of
Congress would expire drew near, and still nothing came from
the Cubans, who seem to have understood that they were
exempted from such dictation by the resolution which Congress
adopted on the 18th of April, 1898, when it took up the Cuban
cause [see (in this volume)) UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D.
1998 (APRIL)], declaring that "the United States hereby
disclaims any disposition or intention to exercise
sovereignty, jurisdiction, or control over said island [of
Cuba], except for the pacification thereof, and asserts its
determination when that is accomplished to leave the
government and control of the island to its people."

Unwilling to be left to deal, alone, with the question thus

arising between the Cubans and their liberators, President
McKinley caused it to be understood that he should call an
extra session of Congress, if no Congressional expression on
the subject of Cuban relations was found practicable before