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1892_book.fm Page vii Friday, May 7, 2004 8:37 AM

Preface

MATLAB® is numeric computation software for engineering and scientific

calculations. MATLAB is increasingly being used by students, researchers,
practicing engineers, and technicians. The causes of MATLAB popularity are
legion. Among them are its iterative mode of operation, built-in functions,
simple programming, rich set of graphing facilities, possibilities for writing
additional functions, and extensive toolboxes.
The goals of writing this book are:

1. To provide the reader with a simple, easy, hands-on introduction to

MATLAB
2. To demonstrate the use of MATLAB for solving electronics problems
3. To show the various ways MATLAB can be used to solve circuit
analysis problems
4. To show the flexibility of MATLAB for solving general engineering
and scientific problems

Audience
This book can be used by students, professional engineers, and technicians.
The first part of the book can be used as a primer to MATLAB. It will be
useful to all students and professionals who want a basic introduction to
MATLAB. Parts 2 and 3 are for electrical engineering students and electrical
engineers who want to use MATLAB to explore the characteristics of semi-
conductor devices and the application of MATLAB for analysis and design
of electrical and electronic circuits and systems.

Organization
The book is divided into three parts: Introduction to MATLAB, circuit anal-
ysis applications using MATLAB, and electronics applications with
MATLAB. It is recommended that the reader work through and experiment
with the examples at a computer while reading Chapters 1, 2, and 3. The
hands-on approach is one of the best ways of learning MATLAB.
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Part II consists of Chapters 4 to 8. This part covers the applications of

MATLAB in circuit analysis. The topics covered in Part II are dc analysis,
transient analysis, alternating current analysis, and Fourier analysis. In addi-
tion, two-port networks are covered. I have covered the underlying theory
and concepts briefly, not with the aim of writing a textbook on circuit analysis
and electronics. Selected problems in circuit analysis have been solved using
MATLAB.
Part III includes Chapters 9 through 13. The topics discussed in this part
are diodes, semiconductor physics, operational amplifiers, transistor circuits,
and electronic data analysis. Application of MATLAB for problem solving
in electronics is discussed. Extensive examples showing the use of MATLAB
for solving problems in electronics are presented.
Each chapter has its own bibliography and problems. Since the text con-
tains a large number of examples that illustrate electronics and circuit anal-
ysis principles and applications with MATLAB, the m-files of the examples
in the book are available at the CRC website. The reader can run the examples
without having to enter the commands. The examples can also be modified
to suit the needs of the reader.

Changes in the Second Edition

Chapters 1 to 3 have been rewritten to include additional MATLAB functions
and to bring the materials in those chapters up to date with changes in the
MATLAB software package. New topics have been added in Chapters 7, 8,
and 10. A new chapter on electronic data analysis has been added. This book
has 101 solved examples, 26% more than the first edition. Furthermore, there
are 134 end-of-chapter problems, which represent 58% more problems than
those in the previous edition of this book.
1892_book.fm Page ix Friday, May 7, 2004 8:37 AM

Acknowledgments

I appreciate the suggestions and comments from a number of reviewers of

the first edition of this book, including Dr. Murari Kejariwal, Dr. Reginald
Perry, Dr. Richard Wilkins, Dr. Warsame Ali, Anowarul Huq, and John Abbey.
Their frank and positive criticisms led to considerable improvement of this
work.
Special thanks go Nora Konopka, acquisition editor at CRC Press, and to
Helena Redshaw, supervisor, EPD department at CRC Press, for their sup-
port in getting this book to market. A final note of gratitude goes to my wife,
Christine N. Okyere, who encouraged me to finish the book in record time.
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1892_book.fm Page xi Friday, May 7, 2004 8:37 AM

List of Examples in Text

1.1 Voltage vs. Current Relation of Network ..................................................6

1.2 Magnitude of Input Impedance ................................................................ 11
1.3 Power Dissipation in a Resistor ................................................................13
1.4 Complex Number Representation ............................................................15
1.5 Equivalent Resistance .................................................................................16
1.6 Quadratic Equation .....................................................................................17

2.1 Voltage and Current of an RL Circuit ......................................................30

2.2 Gain vs. Frequency of an Amplifier .........................................................31
2.3 Polar Plot of a Complex Number .............................................................32
2.4 Subplots of Functions .................................................................................34
2.5 Plot of a Gaussian Random Data..............................................................36
2.6 Convolution between Two Discrete Data................................................37

3.1 Horizontal and Vertical Displacements ...................................................44

3.2 Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Converter .........................................................48
3.3 A System with Hysteresis ..........................................................................50
3.4 Summation of Consecutive Integers ........................................................52
3.5 Equivalent Inductance of Series-Connected Inductors .........................57

4.1 Nodal Voltages of a Simple Circuit ..........................................................64

4.2 Circuit with Dependent and Independent Sources ...............................66
4.3 Loop Analysis of a Bridge Circuit ............................................................70
4.4 Power Dissipation and Source Current Determinations ......................72
4.5 Calculations of Nodal Voltages of a Circuit with Dependent
Sources...........................................................................................................75
4.6 Maximum Power Dissipation....................................................................80

5.1 RC Circuits and Time Constants...............................................................88

5.2 Charging and Discharging of a Capacitor ..............................................89
5.3 Current in an RL Circuit.............................................................................93
5.4 Current Flowing through a Series RLC Circuit......................................97
5.5 Voltage across a Parallel RLC Circuit.......................................................98
5.6 State Variable Approach for RC Circuit Analysis ................................105
5.7 State Variable Approach to RLC Circuit Analysis ...............................106
5.8 State Variable Analysis of a Network ....................................................109

6.1 AC Power Calculations ............................................................................120

6.2 AC Voltage Calculations Using Nodal Analysis ..................................122
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6.3 AC Circuit Analysis Using Loop Analysis............................................125

6.4 Unbalanced Wye-Wye Three-Phase System..........................................129
6.5 Poles and Zeros of a Network Function................................................135
6.6 Output Voltage of a Network..................................................................136
6.7 Inverse Laplace Transform.......................................................................138
6.8 Magnitude Characteristic of a Transfer Function ...............................142
6.9 Magnitude and Phase Response of an RLC Circuit ............................143

7.1 z-Parameters of a T-Network ..................................................................152

7.2 y-Parameters of a Pi-Network.................................................................154
7.3 y-Parameters of a Field Effect Transistor...............................................155
7.4 h-Parameters of a Bipolar Junction Transistor Equivalent Circuit......156
7.5 Transmission Parameters of a Simple Impedance Network ..............158
7.6 Transmission Parameters of a Simple Admittance Network .............159
7.7 Two-Port Parameters Conversion ...........................................................163
7.8 y-Parameters of a Bridge-T Network .....................................................165
7.9 Transmission Parameters of a Simple Cascaded Network.................167
7.10 Transmission Parameters of a Cascaded Resistive Network .............168
7.11 z-Parameters and Magnitude Responses of an Active Lowpass
Filter .............................................................................................................172

8.1 Fourier Series Expansion of a Square Wave .........................................185

8.2 Amplitude and Phase Spectrum of a Full-Wave Rectifier
Waveform ....................................................................................................188
8.3 Synthesis of a Periodic Exponential Signal ...........................................191
8.4 Total Harmonic Distortion of a Waveform............................................195
8.5 Average Power Dissipated in a Load.....................................................196
8.6 DFT and FFT of a Sequence.....................................................................201
8.7 Fourier Transform and DFT of a Damped Exponential Sinusoid.....203
8.8 Power Spectral Density of a Noisy Signal ............................................205

9.1 Determination of Diode Parameters from Data ...................................216

9.2 I-V Characteristics of a Diode at Different Temperatures ..................218
9.3 Determining the Operating Point of a Diode by Using Graphical
Techniques...................................................................................................220
9.4 Determining the Operating Point of a Diode by Using the
Iterative Technique ....................................................................................223
9.5 Battery Charging Circuit — Current, Conduction Angle, and Peak
Current .......................................................................................................225
9.6 Capacitor Smoothing Circuit — Calculation of Critical Times..........230
9.7 Calculations of Parameters of a Full-Wave Rectifier ..........................234
9.8 A Zener Diode Voltage Regulator...........................................................239

10.1 Electron Concentration vs. Temperature ...............................................249

10.2 Minority Carriers in a Doped Semiconductor......................................252
10.3 Diffusion Coefficient vs. Temperature ...................................................255
1892_book.fm Page xiii Friday, May 7, 2004 8:37 AM

10.4 Electron and Hole Mobilities vs. Doping Concentration..................257

10.5 Resistivity vs. Doping .............................................................................257
10.6 Junction Potential vs. Voltage ................................................................262
10.7 Effects of Temperature on Reverse Saturation Current.....................266
10.8 Equation of Best Fit for Diode Data .....................................................267
10.9 Depletion Capacitance of a pn Junction ..............................................272
10.10 Diffusion and Depletion Capacitances as a Function
of Voltage...................................................................................................275
10.11 Effect of Doping Concentration on the Breakdown Voltage of a
pn Junction................................................................................................279

11.1 Frequency Response of a Miller Integrator .........................................292

11.2 Transfer Function, Pole, and Zero of a Noninverting Op Amp
Circuit.........................................................................................................295
11.3 Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain ...........................................................299
11.4 Open-Loop Gain Characteristics of an Op Amp ................................300
11.5 Effect of Closed-Loop Gain on the Frequency Response of an
Op Amp .....................................................................................................303
11.6 Output Voltage vs. Full-Power Bandwidth .........................................306
11.7 Effect of CMRR on the Closed-Loop Gain ..........................................309

12.1 Input Characteristics of a BJT ................................................................320

12.2 Output Characteristics of an npn Transistor.......................................322
12.3 Self-Bias Circuit — Stability Factors and Collector Current as a
Function of Temperature ........................................................................328
12.4 Comparison of Simple Current Mirror and Wilson Current
Source.........................................................................................................334
12.5 Frequency Response of a Common-Emitter Amplifier .....................338
12.6 I-V Characteristics of an n-Channel MOSFET ....................................343
12.7 Operating Point Calculation of an n-Channel MOSFET Biasing
Circuit.........................................................................................................345
12.8 Voltage and Current Calculations for a MOSFET Current
Mirror .........................................................................................................350
12.9 Common-Source Amplifier Gain, Cut-Off Frequencies, and
Bandwidth .................................................................................................355

13.1 Voltage vs. Temperature of a Thermister.............................................363

13.2 Notch Filter Characteristics....................................................................365
13.3 Statistics of Resistors ...............................................................................366
13.4 Correlation between Two Voltages of a Circuit ..................................368
13.5 Platinum Resistance Thermometer .......................................................370
13.6 Zener Voltage Regulator Circuit............................................................371
13.7 Average Current Flowing through a Diode ........................................376
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1892_book.fm Page xv Friday, May 7, 2004 8:37 AM

Contents

1 MATLAB Fundamentals ................................................................. 1

1.1 MATLAB Basic Operations ..........................................................................1
1.2 Matrix Operations..........................................................................................3
1.3 Array Operations ...........................................................................................7
1.4 Complex Numbers ........................................................................................9
1.5 The Colon Symbol (:) .................................................................................. 11
1.6 M-Files ...........................................................................................................14
1.6.1 Script Files ........................................................................................15
1.6.2 Function Files...................................................................................16
1.7 Mathematical Functions .............................................................................19
Bibliography ..........................................................................................................21
Problems.................................................................................................................21

2 Plotting Functions......................................................................... 25
2.1 Graph Functions ..........................................................................................25
2.2 X-Y Plots and Annotations.........................................................................25
2.3 Logarithmic and Polar Plots ......................................................................30
2.4 Subplots and Screen Control .....................................................................33
2.5 Other Plotting Functions ............................................................................35
2.5.1 Bar Plots............................................................................................35
2.5.2 Hist Function ...................................................................................36
2.5.3 Stem Plots .........................................................................................36
Bibliography ..........................................................................................................38
Problems.................................................................................................................39

3 Control Statements ....................................................................... 43

3.1 “For” Loops ..................................................................................................43
3.2 “If” Statements .............................................................................................44
3.3 “While” Loops..............................................................................................52
3.4 Input/Output Commands .........................................................................53
Bibliography ..........................................................................................................58
Problems.................................................................................................................58

4 DC Analysis................................................................................... 63
4.1 Nodal Analysis.............................................................................................63
4.2 Loop Analysis...............................................................................................68
4.3 Maximum Power Transfer .........................................................................77
4.3.1 MATLAB Diff and Find Functions...............................................79
1892_book.fm Page xvi Friday, May 7, 2004 8:37 AM

Bibliography ..........................................................................................................82
Problems.................................................................................................................82

5 Transient Analysis ........................................................................ 87

5.1 RC Network..................................................................................................87
5.2 RL Network ..................................................................................................91
5.3 RLC Circuit ...................................................................................................95
5.4 State Variable Approach ...........................................................................100
5.4.1 MATLAB Ode Functions .............................................................104
Bibliography ........................................................................................................ 112
Problems............................................................................................................... 112

6 AC Analysis and Network Functions ....................................... 117

6.1 Steady-State AC Power............................................................................. 117
6.1.1 MATLAB Functions quad and quad8 ....................................... 119
6.2 Single- and Three-Phase AC Circuits .....................................................121
6.3 Network Characteristics ...........................................................................132
6.3.1 MATLAB Functions roots, residue, and polyval .....................133
6.4 Frequency Response..................................................................................139
6.4.1 MATLAB Function freqs ..............................................................140
Bibliography ........................................................................................................145
Problems...............................................................................................................146

7 Two-Port Networks ..................................................................... 151

7.1 Two-Port Network Representations .......................................................151
7.1.1 z-Parameters...................................................................................151
7.1.2 y-Parameters ..................................................................................153
7.1.3 h-Parameters ..................................................................................155
7.1.4 Transmission Parameters .............................................................157
7.2 Conversion of Two-Port Parameters ......................................................160
7.3 Interconnection of Two-Port Networks .................................................163
7.4 Terminated Two-Port Networks..............................................................169
Bibliography ........................................................................................................175
Problems...............................................................................................................176

8 Fourier Analysis .......................................................................... 183

8.1 Fourier Series..............................................................................................183
8.2 Average Power and Harmonic Distortion.............................................193
8.3 Fourier Transforms ....................................................................................197
8.3.1 Properties of the Fourier Transform ..........................................197
8.4 Discrete and Fast Fourier Transforms ....................................................199
8.4.1 MATLAB Function fft...................................................................201
Bibliography ........................................................................................................206
Problems...............................................................................................................207
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9 Diodes .......................................................................................... 213

9.1 Diode Characteristics ................................................................................213
9.1.1 Forward-Biased Region................................................................214
9.1.2 MATLAB Function polyfit ...........................................................215
9.1.3 Temperature Effects ......................................................................217
9.2 Analysis of Diode Circuits .......................................................................218
9.3 Half-Wave Rectifier ...................................................................................224
9.3.1 MATLAB Function fzero..............................................................229
9.4 Full-Wave Rectification .............................................................................231
9.5 Zener Diode Voltage Regulator Circuits................................................236
Bibliography ........................................................................................................241
Problems...............................................................................................................242

10 Semiconductor Physics............................................................... 247

10.1 Intrinsic Semiconductors ..........................................................................247
10.1.1 Energy Bands .................................................................................247
10.1.2 Mobile Carriers..............................................................................248
10.2 Extrinsic Semiconductor ...........................................................................250
10.2.1 Electron and Hole Concentrations .............................................250
10.2.2 Fermi Level.....................................................................................253
10.2.3 Current Density and Mobility.....................................................254
10.3 pn Junction: Contact Potential, Junction Current ................................259
10.3.1 Contact Potential ...........................................................................259
10.3.2 Junction Current ............................................................................264
10.4 Depletion and Diffusion Capacitances...................................................269
10.4.1 Depletion Capacitance..................................................................269
10.4.2 Diffusion Capacitance...................................................................274
10.5 Breakdown Voltages of pn Junctions .....................................................276
References.............................................................................................................280
Problems...............................................................................................................281

11 Operational Amplifiers............................................................... 285

11.1 Properties of the Op Amp........................................................................285
11.2 Inverting Configuration............................................................................287
11.3 Noninverting Configuration ....................................................................293
11.4 Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain.............................................................297
11.5 Frequency Response of Op Amps ..........................................................300
11.6 Slew Rate and Full-Power Bandwidth...................................................304
11.7 Common-Mode Rejection.........................................................................307
Bibliography ........................................................................................................ 311
Problems...............................................................................................................312

12 Transistor Circuits....................................................................... 315

12.1 Bipolar Junction Transistors.....................................................................315
12.2 Biasing BJT Discrete Circuits ...................................................................322
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12.2.1 Self-Bias Circuit .............................................................................322

12.2.2 Bias Stability...................................................................................324
12.3 Integrated Circuit Biasing ........................................................................329
12.3.1 Simple Current Mirror .................................................................330
12.3.2 Wilson Current Source .................................................................332
12.4 Frequency Response of Common-Emitter Amplifier ..........................335
12.5 MOSFET Characteristics...........................................................................340
12.6 Biasing of MOSFET Circuits ....................................................................343
12.7 Frequency Response of Common-Source Amplifier............................352
Bibliography ........................................................................................................357
Problems...............................................................................................................357

13 Electronic Data Analysis ............................................................ 361

13.1 Save, Load, and Textread Functions.......................................................361
13.1.1 Save and Load Functions.............................................................361
13.1.2 Textread Function..........................................................................362
13.2 Statistical Analysis .....................................................................................366
13.3 Curve Fitting ..............................................................................................369
13.4 Other Functions for Data Analysis .........................................................373
13.4.1 Integration Function (trapz) ........................................................373
Bibliography ........................................................................................................377
Problems...............................................................................................................378

Index ..................................................................................................... 383

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1
MATLAB Fundamentals

MATLAB is numeric computation software for engineering and scientific

calculations. The name MATLAB stands for MATRIX LABORATORY.
MATLAB is primarily a tool for matrix computations, developed by John
Little and Cleve Moler of MathWorks, Inc. MATLAB is a high-level language
whose basic data type is a matrix that does not require dimensioning. All
computations are performed in complex-valued double-precision arithmetic
to guarantee high accuracy.
MATLAB has a rich set of plotting capabilities, with graphics integrated
into it. Since MATLAB is also a programming environment, a user can extend
the functional capabilities of MATLAB by writing new modules.
MATLAB has a large collection of toolboxes in a variety of domains.
Examples include control system, signal processing, neural network, image
processing, and system identification. The toolboxes consist of functions that
can be used to perform computations in a specific domain.

1.1 MATLAB Basic Operations

When MATLAB is invoked, the command window will display the prompt
>>. MATLAB is then ready for entering data or executing commands. To
quit MATLAB, type the command
exit or quit
MATLAB has on-line help. To see the list of MATLAB’s help facility, type
help
The help command followed by a function name is used to obtain infor-
mation on a specific MATLAB function. For example, to obtain information
on the use of fast Fourier transform function, fft, one can type the command
help fft

1
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2 Electronics and Circuit Analysis Using MATLAB

Another way to obtain help in MATLAB is the lookfor command. Whereas

the help command searches for an exact function name match, the lookfor
command searches the quick summary information of each function for a
match. The lookfor command tends to be slower than the help command.
The basic data object in MATLAB is a rectangular numerical matrix with
real or complex elements. Scalars are thought of as 1-by-1 matrices. Vectors
are considered as matrices with one row or column. MATLAB has no dimen-
sion statement or type declarations. Storage of data and variables is allocated
automatically once the data and variables are used.
MATLAB statements are normally of the form:
variable = expression
Expressions typed by the user are interpreted and immediately evaluated
by the MATLAB system. If a MATLAB statement ends with a semicolon,
MATLAB evaluates the statement but suppresses the display of the results.
MATLAB is also capable of executing a number of commands that are stored
in a file. This will be discussed in Section 1.6. A matrix,

È1 2 3ù
Í ú
A = Í2 3 4ú
ÍÎ3 4 5úû
may be entered as follows:
A = [1 2 3; 2 3 4; 3 4 5];
Note that the matrix entries must be surrounded by brackets [ ], with row
elements separated by blanks or by commas. The end of each row, with the
exception of the last row, is indicated by a semicolon. A matrix A can also
be entered across three input lines as
A = [ 1 2 3
2 3 4
3 4 5];
In this case, the carriage returns replace the semicolons. A row vector B
with four elements,
B = [ 6 9 12 15 18 ]
can be entered in MATLAB as
B = [6 9 12 15 18];
or
B = [6, 9, 12, 15, 18]
For readability, it is better to use spaces rather than commas between the
elements. The row vector B can be turned into a column vector by transpo-
sition, which is obtained by typing
1892_C01.fm Page 3 Wednesday, May 12, 2004 11:23 AM

MATLAB Fundamentals 3

C = B’
The above results in
C =
6
9
12
15
18
Other ways of entering the column vector C are
C = [6
9
12
15
18]
or
C = [6; 9; 12; 15; 18]
MATLAB is case sensitive in naming variables, commands, and functions.
Thus b and B are not the same variable. If you do not want MATLAB to be
case sensitive, you can use the command
casesen off
To obtain the size of a specific variable, type size ( ). For example, to find
the size of matrix A, you can execute the following command:
size(A)
The result will be a row vector with two entries. The first is the number
of rows in A, the second the number of columns in A.
Table 1.1 shows additional MATLAB commands to get one started on
MATLAB. Detailed descriptions and usages of the commands can be
obtained from the MATLAB help facility or from MATLAB manuals.

1.2 Matrix Operations

The basic matrix operations are addition (+), subtraction (–), multiplication
(*), and conjugate transpose (‘) of matrices. In addition to the above basic
operations, MATLAB has two forms of matrix division: the left inverse
operator \ or the right inverse operator /.
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4 Electronics and Circuit Analysis Using MATLAB

TABLE 1.1
Some Basic MATLAB Commands
Command Description
% Comments; everything appearing after the % command is not executed
demo Access on-line demo programs
length Length of a matrix
clear Clears the variables or functions from workspace
clc Clears the command window during a work session
clg Clears graphic window
diary Saves a session in a disk, possibly for printing at a later date

Matrices of the same dimensions may be subtracted or added. Thus if E

and F are entered in MATLAB as
E = [7 2 3; 4 3 6; 8 1 5];
F = [1 4 2; 6 7 5; 1 9 1];
and
G = E - F
H = E + F
then matrices G and H will appear on the screen as
G =
6 -2 1
-2 -4 1
7 -8 4
H =
8 6 5
10 10 11
9 10 6
A scalar (1-by-1 matrix) may be added to or subtracted from a matrix. In
this particular case, the scalar is added to or subtracted from all the elements
of another matrix. For example,
J = H + 1
gives
J =
9 7 6
11 11 12
10 11 7
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MATLAB Fundamentals 5

Matrix multiplication is defined provided the inner dimensions of the two

operands are the same. Thus, if X is an n-by-m matrix and Y is an i-by-j
matrix, X*Y is defined provided m is equal to i. Since E and F are 3-by-3
matrices, the product
Q = E*F
results as
Q =
22 69 27
28 91 29
19 84 26
Any matrix can be multiplied by a scalar. For example,
2*Q
gives
ans =
44 138 54
56 182 58
38 168 52
Note that if a variable name and the “=” sign are omitted, a variable named
ans is automatically created.
Matrix division can either be the left division operator \ or the right
division operator /. The right division a/b, for instance, is algebraically
equivalent to
a
b

while the left division a\b is algebraically equivalent to

b
a

If Z * I = V and Z is nonsingular, the left division Z\V is equivalent to the

MATLAB expression
I = inv ( Z ) * V

where inv is the MATLAB function for obtaining the inverse of a matrix.
The right division denoted by V/Z is equivalent to the MATLAB expression

I = V * inv ( Z )
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6 Electronics and Circuit Analysis Using MATLAB

TABLE 1.2
Some Common MATLAB Functions
Function Description
abs(x) Calculates the absolute value of x
acos(x) Determines cos–1x, with the results in radians
asin(x) Determines sin–1x, with the results in radians
atan(x) Calculates tan–1x, with the results in radians
Ê yˆ
atan2(x) Obtains tan–1 Á ˜ over all four quadrants of the circle; the results are in radians
Ë x¯
cos(x) Calculates cos(x), with x in radians
exp(x) Computes ex
log(x) Determines the natural logarithm loge (x)
sin(x) Calculates sin(x), with x in radians

TABLE 1.3
Some Utility Matrices
Function Description
diag(A) Produces a vector consisting of the diagonal of a square matrix A
eye(n) Generates an n-by-n identity matrix
eye(n,m) Generates an n-by-m identity matrix
ones(n) Produces an n-by-m matrix with all the elements being unity
ones(n,m) Produces an n-by-m matrix with all the elements being unity
zeros(n) Generates an n-by-n matrix of zeros
zeros(n,m) Generates an n-by-m matrix of zeros

In addition to the function inv, there are some other common MATLAB
functions worth noting. These functions can be found in Table 1.2.
There are MATLAB functions that can be used to produce special matrices
and also to initialize variables. Examples are given in Table 1.3.

Example 1.1 Voltage vs. Current Relation of Network

The voltage vs. current relationship of a network is given as

È 10ù È 3 6 9 ù È I1 ù
Í ú Í úÍ ú
Í 15ú = Í 6 15 12ú Í I2 ú
ÍÎ 12úû ÍÎ 9 12 20úû ÍÎ I3 úû

Solve for the current I1, I2, and I3.

Solution
We use the inv command to solve for the current.
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the regulation of the pendulum is performed by adding to, or
diminishing the mercury, in the part where the tube is widest.”
In addition to the foregoing description of the mechanism of this Time-piece,
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“In the Astronomical Clock made by Dr. Rittenhouse, and now in

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mentioning, except the pendulum; especially the apparatus for
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“For this purpose, there is fastened on the pendulum-rod (which is

of iron or steel) a glass tube of about thirty-six inches long; bent in
the middle into two parallel branches, at the distance of about an
inch from each other; the bend being placed downwards,
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within about two inches of the lower end or bend, with alcohol, and
the rest of the tube, within about one half of an inch of the upper
extremity or open end, with mercury; a few inches of the tube, at this
extremity, being about twice the width of the rest of the tube.

“Now, when the heat of the air encreases, it will expand the
pendulum-rod; and would thus lower the centre of oscillation, and
cause the clock to go slower: but this effect is completely
counteracted, by the expansion of the alcohol chiefly, and of the
mercury in part; which equally raises the centre of oscillation; and
thus preserves an equable motion in all the variable temperatures of
the atmosphere.”
 Description of an Hygrometer; first contrived and used by Dr.
Rittenhouse, about the year 1782.[A45]

The essential part of this Hygrometer consists of two very thin

strips of wood, about a foot long and half an inch broad, glued
together, in such a manner that the grain or fibres of the one shall be
at right angles with the other; so that when this compound strip was
placed in erect position, the grain of one of the pieces of wood would
have a vertical, and that of the other an horizontal position. One end
of this simply constructed instrument is to be made fast to a wall, or
plane board, with the edge outward, and the other end is to be at
liberty to move.

Then, as moisture has little or no effect on the length of a piece of

wood, or in the direction of its fibres, but a very sensible one on its
breadth, or transverse direction, especially when thin, it follows, that
on any increase of moisture in the air, this Hygrometer becomes bent
into a curve, convex on the side of the transverse fibres; and vice
versâ. The degrees, from the greatest dryness to the greatest
moisture, are to be marked on a curve drawn on the board or wall,
described by the motion of the free end of the Hygrometer; and an
index, attached to the moving end of it, will point out, on this
graduated arch, the existing state of the atmosphere at the moment,
in relation to its condition of moisture or dryness: The relative degree
of either, on the smallest change from the one to the other, will be
indicated with much precision; and probably, with much more
uniformity and truth, in the results of long-continued observations,
than can be attained to by the use of Hygrometers constructed of
metal, or any other substance than wood.[A46]

Astronomical Observations, made in the years 1776, 1777 and 1778,

at Philadelphia, by the Rev. Dr. W. Smith, and David Rittenhouse,
John Lukens, and Owen Biddle, Esquires: copied from a
manuscript account of those Observations, drawn up by Dr. Smith;
never before published.

ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS, 1776.

 This year exhibiting little else but scenes of confusion and distress
amidst the calamities of an unhappy war, scarce any attention was
paid, by the members of the American Philosophical Society, to
astronomical or any other literary subjects. It was agreed, however,
by Mr. Rittenhouse, Mr. Lukens and myself, to look out whether
Mercury would touch the Sun’s disc the 2d of November this year; as
a very small difference of latitude from what the Tables give, would
have carried the planet clear of the Sun: but, from our observation of
the transit of this planet, in 1769, we had reason to expect it would
pass further on the Sun, than Halley’s Catalogue gives it.

The following were the observations made, viz.

Nov. 2d, 1776. I got ready the two f. reflector with the largest
object-glass, and shortest eye-tube, magnifying about 95 times.

At 4h per clock—No appearance of the planet on the Sun, and did

not expect it until about half an hour past 4; but as Mr. Lukens and
Mr. Rittenhouse had not yet come to me in the college, I sent to
hasten them.

At 4h 5′ per clock—took my eye from the tube to adjust it, and fix
the smoked glass, to give clearer vision, the atmosphere being hazy.
Having fixed the smoked glass in the proper place, so as to prevent
its sliding or falling with its own weight, and before I had applied my
eye to the telescope again, Mr. Rittenhouse came in; and I desired
him to see if the focus and dark glass were all suitable to his eye, as
they were to mine. I had been about 4′ employed in this adjustment.

At 4h 9′, Mr. Rittenhouse having put his eye to the tube,

immediately called out, that he saw the planet on the Sun.
h
At 4 10′ per clock, we judged ☿ had entered one-third of his
diameter on the Sun.

At 4h 17′, we clearly noted the internal contact of the limbs.

 At 4h 45′, we judged the least distance of the nearest limbs to be
rather more than one diameter of ☿; or that the distance of the limbs
was 10″. We-did not apply the micrometer to make any measures; as
we presumed that we could judge the distance as accurately by the
eye, as it could be measured; on account of the haziness of the
atmosphere and the small altitude of the Sun. We kept viewing the
planet till sun-set, the distance of the limbs continuing so nearly the
same, that we could scarce perceive any diminution thereof; though
we were sure also, that it did increase above 10″.[A47]

The following were the Observations made for ascertaining the

Going of the Clock, by William Smith.

Equal Altitudes.
dh ′ ″ h ′ \″
Nov. 39 14 9 2 37 12 ☉ on Merid. per clock h ′ ″
15 44 2 35 35 or mean noon 11 55 40
Equat. Correspond. Alt. + 14.4
Correct Noon per Clock 11 55
54.4

49 32 48 20 56 Mean Noon, or ☉ on 11 56 53
34 33 19 13 Merid. per. Clock
36 14 17 31 Equat. of equal + 13.8
37 20 16 23 Altitudes
14 39
40 54 2 12 53 Correct Noon per Clock 11 57 6.8

78 51 9 9 29 Mean 12 0 19
Noon
52 37 80 per Equat Eq. Alt. + 12
Clock
54 1 3 6 37 12 0 19
Cor. 12 0 31
Noon
per Clock
 Per Meridian Mark.
d h ′ ″
8 ☉ West Limb on Merid. 12 0 36
East Limb on do. 12 2 52
—-——
Centre 12 1 44
Correct Noon per Clock.

Applied to Going of Clock.

Nov. 3d, at Noon ′ ″
Clock slower than ☉ 4 5.6 Daily gaining of the Clock over
☉ faster than mean time 16 11 mean or equal time.
Clock faster than m. time 12 5.4

4th,
Clock slower than ☉ 2 53.2 ′ ″
☉ faster than mean time 16 9 From 3d to 4th 1 10.4
Clock faster than m. time 13 15.8

7th,
Clock faster than ☉ 0 31
From 4th mean to
☉ faster than mean time 16 00 7 that a mean 1 5.1
Clock faster than m. time 16 31 per day

8th,
Clock faster than ☉ 1 44
☉ faster than mean time 15 56 From 7th to 8th 1 9
Clock faster than m. time 17 40
Thus the Clock gains at a
mean, per day, 1′ 8″.

Whence, Nov. 2d, at noon, the Clock was 10′ 57″ faster than mean
time, gaining 68″ per day; and 4h 17′ gains 12″, wherefore at the
internal contact, the Clock was 11′ 9″ faster than mean time.

Whence the contact was at 4h 5′ 51″ mean time; or 4h 21′ 2″

apparent time.

Eclipse of the Sun, January 9th, 1777.

The Gregorian Reflector, with the magnifying power of 95, was

made use of for this Observation; which, as well as the Observation
of the Transit of Mercury, was made in the College-Library, to which
the Telescope belongs.

While Mr. Rittenhouse was endeavouring to adjust the two-f.

reflector belonging to the Library of the city of Philadelphia, made by
Short, and which had been borrowed on this occasion, I observed
with the greatest certainty the first contact of ☾’s limb with the ☉,
which was shining very bright, and the telescope in the best order,
viz. at 8h 57′ 27″ per clock.

The same was visible, in about 3″ more, to Mr. Lukens, with the
equal altitude instrument, magnifying about 25 times.

Mr. Rittenhouse had not got the other reflector ready to observe
the beginning of the eclipse: but the end was observed by both of us
to the same instant, viz. at 11h 48′ 50″ per clock.

The clock, at noon, was 23″ slower than mean time, whence

Beginning of the Eclipse 8h 49′ 55″

Apparent time.
End of the same 11 41 15

N.B. The clock stopped once during the Observation, owing, it was
supposed, to the cold weather; but was oiled a little, and set a going
again by a stop-watch that beats seconds, and which was set with
the clock at the beginning of the eclipse: so that she lost no time.
She was examined at noon, and found as above by the meridian
mark. But this mark itself, having been lately shaken with the stormy
weather, is to be re-examined, and also equal altitudes taken the
following days.

The annexed micrometer measures were taken for determining

the quantity of the eclipse, chiefly by Mr. Rittenhouse. More would
have been taken, but the Sun was hid under clouds for about an
hour after the middle of the eclipse, and broke out again a little
before the end.

Micrometer Measures.
h ′ ″ inches. tenths. 500ths.
9 15 0 2 2 6
distances of the cusps.
31 0 3 1 ½

10 17 5 1 1 14 enlightened parts
22 0 1 1 23 remaining.

11 37 0 1 7 6
38 46 1 5 21 distances of the cusps.
42 26 1 2 18

Continuation of the Observations for adjusting the Clock.

Jan. 11th. W. limb on Merid. [A48]
☉’s
E. limb on do.
Centre on do.

Whence clock faster than mean time 0 1′ 46″ per merid. mark.

Equal Altitudes.
h ′ ″
20th. 9 37 20 59 49
39 1 58 6 Mean noon per clock 12 18 34
40 41 2 56 26
21st. W. limb on Merid. 12 20 3
E. limb on do. 22 22
Centre on do. 12 21 12.5
 Eq. Alt.
22d. 9 14 10 3 31 10 Mean noon per clock 12 23 50

Eclipse of the Sun, June 24, 1778: Observed by D. Rittenhouse,

John Lukens, Owen Biddle, and William Smith, at the College of
Philadelphia.

The morning being very cloudy, the beginning of the eclipse was
not seen.

At 10h 7′ 40″ per clock, the following micrometer-measure of the

enlightened parts was taken, while the Sun appeared for a few
minutes between clouds, viz. 1in. 9-10ths. 13-500ths. = 16′ 23″.

11h 6′ 57″ per clock end of eclipse distinctly seen, the Sun having
shone clearly for several minutes, the clouds now wholly dispersing,
and the remainder of the day continuing clear.

Observations upon the Clock.

h ′ ″
27th. ☉ on meridian per clock 11 54 50
☉’s app. time of passing meridian 12 2 33.5
Clock slow of app. time 0 7 43.5

July 2d. ☉ on meridian per clock 11 54 50.5

☉’s app. time of passing meridian 12 3 33
Clock slow of app. time 0 8 42.5

A versification of “The Zephyrs”—from Gesner’s Idyls;—a fragment:

copied from a loose scrap of paper, containing, in the hand-writing
of the late Dr. Rittenhouse, all but the three last verses; which have
been now added, by a lady.

First Zephyr.

Why, amidst these blooming roses,

Idly fluttering, dost thou stay?
Come with me to yonder valley,
There we’ll spend the cheerful day.
There, in purest crystal fountain,
Sportive, bathe the am’rous maids;
Where tall willows, on the margin,
Form the closest deepest shades.

Second Zephyr.

No, with thee I will not wander;

To the vale alone repair:
Fan the nymphs you so admire;
A sweeter task employs my care.
Here, in the bosom of these roses,
I cool my wings in pearly dew,
As I lightly skim them over,
Gath’ring all their fragrance too.

First Zephyr.

Your wings in dew of roses steep’d

With all their grateful fragrance stor’d;—
Can you find employment sweeter,
Than yonder cheerful nymphs afford?

Second Zephyr.

Yes, in this path, along the mount,

Each rosy morn a maid appears,
To yon lonely cot advancing,
A basket on her arm she bears.
Two tender infants, and their mother,
Are by her constant bounty fed:
A helpless widow, there residing,
From her receives her daily bread.
See! where she comes,—of all the graces,
The youngest and the fairest too;
Her cheeks, with sweetest blushes glowing,
 Are moist’ned with the morning dew.
I haste, with fragrant airs, so cooling,
To fan her tender glowing cheek,—
And kiss the pearly drops, while falling
From her blue eyes, so chaste and meek.[A49]

First Zephyr.

Yes! much more pleasing is your task;

I would imbrue my wings in dew,
And bear the fragrance of these flow’rs,
Melinda to refresh, like you.
But see! she breaks through yonder grove,
Refulgent as a summer’s morn;
Her step is grace—her lip of rose
The smiles of modest worth adorn.
Like you, transported, let me fan her;
Like you, admire the bounteous maid:
For, sure, a fairer face I never
Spread forth my cooling wings to aid.

Diploma.

Praeses et Professores Collegii, seu Universitatis, Gulielmi et

Mariæ, omnibus at quos præsentes literæ pervenerint, Salutem.—
Cum eum in finem gradus academici majoribus nostris prudenter
instituti fuerint, ut viri optimé meriti, seu in gremio nostræ matris
educati, seu aliundi bonarum artium disciplinis eruditi, istis insignibus
a literatorum vulgo secernerentur; sciatis, quod nos, ea sola quæ
possumus viâ, gradu Artium Magistri libenter studioséque concesso,
testamur quanti facimus Davidem Rittenhouse Philosophorum
Principem, qui ingenio nativo Machinam celeberrimam, motus et
phænomena cœlestium manifestius exhibentem, commentus est:—
Idcirco, in solenni convocatione, tricessimo die decembris, Anno
Domini millesimo septingentesimo octogesimo quarto, habito,
conspirantibus omnium suffragiis, eundem virum egregium, Davidem
Rittenhouse, Artium Magistrum creavimus et constituimus.—In
cujus rei testimonium, sigillum Universitatis, quo in hac parte utimur,
præsentibus apponi fecimus. Datum in domo nostræ convocationis,
anno domini, die et mense, prædictis.

J. Madison, Præses, et prof. Ma. and Nat. Phil. G. Wythe, Leg. et

Polit. Prof. Robertus Andrews, Math. Prof. Carolus Bellini,
Neot. Ling. Prof.

Diploma.

Præses et Curatores Collegii Neo-Cæsariensis, omnibus has

Literas lecturis, plurimam Satutem.

Quandoquidem æquum sit et ratione prorsus, consentaneum, ut ii

qui labore et studio bonas didicerunt artes præmia suis meritis digna
referant ut et ipsis benè sit, et aliorum provoceter industria.

Quando etiam huc potissimum spectant amplissima illa jura nostro

Collegio publico Diplomate collata. Quumque clarissimus vir David
Rittenhouse sit non tantum Moribus inculpatus et Ingenio insignis,
sed et sibi tantam in Artibus liberalibus cognitionem Industria
laudabili acquisivit, ut summos Honores Academicos probe
mereatur.

Idcirco notum sit omnibus, quod nos, Senatus-consulto Academico

nec non Facultatis Artium decreto, supradictum Davidem
Rittenhouse Titulo Graduque Doctoris in Legibus adornandum,
et dehinc pro Adepto et Doctore habendum volumus; cujus, hæc
Membrana, Sigillo nostri Collegii rata et Chirographis nostris munita,
Testimonio sit.
 Datum Aulæ Nassovicæ, Pridie Calendas Octobris Anno
MDCCLXXXIX.

Joannes Witherspoon, Præses. Joannes Rodgers, Joannes

Bayard, Joannes Woodhull, Guls. Paterson, Isaacus Snowden,
Jacobus Boyd, Joannes Beatty, Guliel. M. Tennent, Andreas Hunter,
Curatores.

An English Obituary Notice of Dr. Rittenhouse: Extracted from the

European Magazine, for July, 1796.

In the sixty-fourth year of his age, died David Rittenhouse, The

American Philosopher. His history is curious, from the admiration in
which his character was held.

Rittenhouse was a native of America; and, in the early part of his

life, he mingled the pursuits of science with the active employments
of a farmer and watch-maker.[A50] In 1769, he was invited by the
American Philosophical Society to join a number of gentlemen who
were then occupied in making some astronomical observations,
when he particularly distinguished himself by the accuracy of his
calculations and the comprehension of his mind. He afterwards
constructed an observatory,[A51] which he superintended in person,
and which was the source of many important discoveries, as well as
greatly tending to the diffusion of knowledge in the western world.
During the American war, he was an active assertor of the cause of
independence. Since the establishment of the peace, he
successively filled the offices of Treasurer of the State of
Pennsylvania and Director of the National Mint; in both of which
capacities, he was alike distinguished for strength of judgment and
integrity of heart. He succeeded the illustrious Franklin in the office
of President of the Philosophical Society; a situation which the bent
of his mind and the course of his studies had rendered him eminently
qualified to fill: and towards the close of his days, he retired from
public life to the enjoyment of domestic happiness; when he formed
a circle of private friends, who will continue to admire his Virtues as a
Man, while the world will applaud his Talents as a Philosopher.

Letter from the Rev. Mr. Cathcart, to the Writer of these Memoirs.

York, 13th. Nov, 1812.

Dear Sir,

The following is a statement of the conversation which took place

between Drs. Sproat and Rittenhouse, mentioned by me to Bishop
White.

At a time when Dr. Rittenhouse was confined by sickness to his

room, or perhaps to his bed,[A52] he sent for the Rev. Dr. Sproat to
visit him. The Doctor was somewhat surprised, on receiving the
message: but as he had made it an uniform rule to visit all who sent
for him, he expressed his surprise at being sent for; observing, that
he could offer no comfort or consolation to any person, who was not
a Believer in the Christian Religion. On hearing this declaration, Dr.
Rittenhouse immediately asked, if Dr. Sproat considered him among
the number of such? To which the Doctor answered; that the world
had generally classed him with them. Dr. Rittenhouse on hearing
this, with great mildness and a smile on his countenance, replied,
that the opinion of the world was sometimes wrong; and, as it
respected himself, he could with truth declare, that ever since he had
examined Christianity and thought upon the subject, he was a firm
believer in it; and, that he expected salvation only in the way and
manner, as proposed in the Gospel.

The above is the substance of what Dr. Sproat mentioned to

myself; and I might add, that when the good old man told it, his eyes
overflowed with tears of joy. It gives me pleasure to be able to
furnish you with this satisfactory proof of Dr. Rittenhouse’s faith; and
which I once introduced into a sermon preached in the city, as justice
due to the character of the deceased, and who had been
triumphantly claimed by the Infidels. I am happy to find that you are
engaged in the laudable business of writing the Life of that worthy
Man. Yours, respectfully,

Robert Cathcart.

William Barton, Esquire.

Character of Dr. Rittenhouse:

Communicated to the Author of the Memoirs of his Life, in a letter

from Andrew Ellicott, Esq.
Lancaster, December 30th, 1812.

Dear Sir,

I felt no small degree of pleasure and satisfaction, on

understanding that you are about publishing Memoirs of the Life of
Dr. Rittenhouse; knowing, from your connexion, and intimacy with
him for many years, you have it in your power to delineate, and
transmit his true character and a knowledge of his rare virtues to
posterity, with as much, if not more accuracy than any other person.
As I also have had the pleasure and advantage of Dr. Rittenhouse’s
acquaintance and friendship, I request you to accept of the following
short sketch of his character, as a small testimony of my esteem for
him when living, and of my veneration for his memory, now he is no
more. I am, dear Sir, your sincere friend,

Andrew Ellicott.

William Barton, Esq.

I became acquainted with the late Dr. Rittenhouse, in the sixteenth

year of my age, being first introduced to him, after he removed to the
city of Philadelphia, by the late Joseph Galloway, Esq. and my
Father; both of whom were sincerely attached to him, not only on
account of his scientific talents and acquirements, but for his public
and private virtues. From that period, to the end of his life, we
enjoyed an uninterrupted friendship.

In my scientific pursuits, I was frequently aided by him; particularly,

in that part which relates to Astronomy, with which he was better
acquainted, both in theory and practice, than any other person in this
country; and when he ceased to calculate the Almanacks for the
middle states, at his request I continued them several years.

In the years 1784 and 1785, Dr. Rittenhouse and myself were
engaged in determining the boundaries between this commonwealth
and the state of Virginia; and in the year 1786, in determining the
boundary between this commonwealth and the state of New-York. In
those arduous employments, I had many opportunities of witnessing
his address in overcoming the numerous difficulties we necessarily
had to encounter, in the then wilderness, in which our operations
were performed.

As a gentleman of general science, Dr. Rittenhouse would have

held a respectable rank in any country; but as a Mechanist and
Astronomer, he has had but few equals. It has been frequently
asked,—why he has not left more evidences of his talents, for the
use of posterity? In answer to this question, it is to be observed, that
almost from his childhood, he had a complaint in his breast; which
increased so much with his age, that for the last fifteen years of his
life,—and in which he had the most leisure for composition,—it was
painful for him to support the position a person must occupy, when
writing. This circumstance I have frequently heard him lament, in a
feeling manner; as it prevented him from answering letters with
promptitude, and writing to his friends as often as he wished.

Though Dr. Rittenhouse had not the advantage of a liberal

education, he wrote not only correctly but with ease: he made
himself master of the German language, to which he was partial: and
of the French, so far as to read the scientific works in that tongue,
with facility.
 As an Husband, and a Father, he might be taken as an example
and a pattern, in the most virtuous community that ever existed. He
was a good Citizen,—and warm and sincere in his friendships; and
though reserved in large mixed companies, he was cheerful and
communicative, when in a small circle of his friends. His mind
appeared formed for contemplation, and therefore not calculated for
the noisy and busy scenes of this world: from this placid turn of mind,
he had a singular antipathy to all mobs and riots; and I recollect to
have heard him speak of the riots of the Paxton-boys, (as they were
called,) with greater acrimony than on any other occasion,—more
than twenty years after they happened. Being a philanthropist by
nature, he wished the happiness and welfare of the whole human
race; and viewed slavery, in all its forms, with feelings of horrour:
from this attachment to the happiness, the rights, and the liberty of
his fellow-creatures, he was led to take an active and useful part in
favour of our revolution, which separated the colonies (now the
United States,) from the mother-country.

His contemplative mind naturally carried him to piety; but his

liberality was so great, that he did not appear to give a very decided
preference to any one of the sects into which Christianity is divided:
he practised the morality of a sincere Christian, without troubling
himself about the dogmas of the different churches.

His manners were plain and unassuming, though not without a

sufficient share of dignity; and, from a consciousness of his own
talents, he did not envy those of others.

It has too frequently happened, for the honour of science and

literature, that men of great and commanding talents, have been
obstinately dogmatical, and impatient of contradiction;—of those
blemishes, Dr. Rittenhouse had not the least tincture.

To conclude,—if Dr. Rittenhouse was not the greatest man, of the

age, his character has fewer blemishes in it; and, if his talents were
not of that kind which are usually considered the most brilliant, they
were—like those of Washington—of the most solid and useful
order.
Some particulars concerning the Residence, the Tomb, &c. of
Copernicus: communicated to the late Dr. Rittenhouse, Pres. A. P.
S. by the Earl of Buchan.

“In the year 1777,” says his Lordship, “my learned friend John
Bernouilli, of Berlin, on one of his tours having happened to meet
with the Bishop of Warmia,[A53] in the Abbey of Oliva, near Dantzic,
was informed by that prelate, that he had the pleasure to discover, in
the Cathedral of Frauenburg, the Tomb of Copernicus, so long
fruitlessly sought for.

“In the year 1778, Mr. Bernouilli having occasion to pass through
Frauenburg, on his road to St. Petersburg, did not fail to visit the
Cathedral, and explore the Monument of Copernicus. Acquainted
with no one in the place, he was yet lucky enough to meet with a
Canon, in the street, whose countenance invited him to accost him
on this subject, and who proved very attentive to his researches. He
informed him, that as for the Ashes of Copernicus, they were
mingled in the charnel-house with the bones of the fraternity of the
Canons; but that, for the Tombstone of the Philosopher, it was no
more than a tablet of marble, simple, as the mode was of his days,
and had no other inscription than these words—Nic. Copernicus,
Thor:—-That this tablet had remained hidden for some time, in
rubbish; and when recovered, was placed in the chapter-house, till a
more suitable place should be destined for it. Mr. Bernouilli
expresses his regret to me, that he had not urged the Canon to
indulge him with a sight of this Stone; and to look for a further
inscription, to support the assertion of Gassendi, who mentions
(page 325), That the Bishop Martin Cromer, an eminent Polish
historian, caused a mural marble monument to be inscribed and
erected to the memory of Copernicus, with the following inscription:
 D. O. M.
R. D. NICOLAO COPERNICO,
Torunensi, Artium et
Medicinæ Doctori,
Canonico Warmiensi,
Præsenti Astrologo, et
Ejus Disciplinæ
Instauratori;
Martinus Cromerus,
Episcopus Warmiensis,
Honoris, et ad Posteritatem
Memoriæ, Causâ, posuit;
M. D. L. X. X. X. I.

“Gassendi adds, that this Monument was not erected until thirty-six
years after the death of Copernicus, which does not agree with this
date of 1581.

“The good Canon informed Bernouilli, that he was lodged in the

apartment of Copernicus, of which he was very proud; and invited
the Prussian Philosopher to visit him in that place, which he
accordingly did; and was shewn by the Canon another place, above
the Dormitories, which had been used by Copernicus as his study
and observatory, in which the Canon had a portrait of that eminent
man, concerning the original of which he would not say. This little
Observatory had an extensive view; but when Copernicus had
occasion for one more extensive, he was wont to observe on the
gallery of the steeple, which communicates with this place.

“Charmed with these classic footsteps, Bernouilli forgot to look at

the Monument on the chapter-house, above mentioned. In a
repository adjoining to the Cathedral, the Canon shewed Bernouilli
the remains of a hydraulic machine said to have been invented and
used by Copernicus. The construction seemed interesting, but in
great disrepair; and Bernouilli had not leisure to examine it
particularly. The use of the machine was to force and convey water
into the most elevated apartments of the house of the Canons, who
are now under the necessity of having it fetched from a distance,
from the lower Town.”

“I remember to have seen (says Bernouilli), in some old German

Journal, that the Library of the ancient town of Konigsberg contained
some books, chiefly mathematical, which were part of the Library of
Copernicus; and also his Portrait, which had been purchased at
Thorn, where the remains of his family still possessed the house in
which he was born, as late as the year 1720. In P. Freher’s Theatrum
Virorum eruditorum, there is a Chronostick on the year of
Copernicus’s death, 1543. p. 1447.

eX hoC eXCessIt trIstI CopernICVs eVo,

IngenIo astronVM et CognItIone potens.

“In the above mentioned book, p. 1442, there is a neat little Print of
Copernicus. In Hartknoch’s Alter und newes Preusen, here is a print
of Copernicus, from a picture on wood which hangs in what they call
his Cenotaph, at Thorn; and which represents him kneeling, in his
canonicals, before a Crucifix;—and below this portrait are these
sapphic verses:

Non parem Pauli gratiam requiro,

Veniam Petri neque posco; sed quam
In Crucis ligno dederas sationi,
Sedulus oro.

(a little lower)

Nicolao Copernico, Thoruniensi, absolutæ subtilitatis

mathematico, ne tanti viri apud exteros celeb. in sua patria periret
memoria, hoc monumentum positum.

Mort. Varmiæ, in suo Canonicatu, Anno 1543—

die 4 + ætatis LXXIII.
(lastly, lowest.)
Nicolaus Copernicus, Thoruniensis, Mathematicus celeberrimus.
 “This Monument of Copernicus was erected by Melchior
Pyrnesius, M. D., who died in 1589.

“On the same altar-piece, or picture, is represented the portrait of

John D’Albert, with the following inscription.

Illustris Princeps Dn. Joh. Albertus, Polo. Rex, apoplexiâ hic

Thoru. mortuus, Anno 1501, die 17 Maii, ætat. 41; cujus viscera hic
sepulta, Corpore Craco translato; Reg. Ann. VIII.

“Upon the whole,” concludes Lord Buchan, “it appears the likeness
I send, of Copernicus, is most to be depended on; and, as such, I
flatter myself it will be an Heir-loom to infant America! Concerning
Napier, it is needless for me to enlarge; the learned Dr. Minto having
enabled me to do justice to his memory.”

Although the following particulars respecting Dr. Rittenhouse were

not communicated by the writer, Professor Barton, until it was too
late to give them a place in the body of the work, the Author
nevertheless is glad to have an opportunity of presenting to the
public, even at the close of his book, the interesting circumstances
this communication contains.

As Optics were one of his favourite studies, so he at one time

contemplated a course of public, and I think popular, lectures on this
beautiful and important branch of physics. On this subject he
mentioned to me his intention in the winter of 1785-1786. The
enthusiasm, indeed, with which he developed his design, and I may
add the warmth of zeal with which his manner at the time inspired
me, I can never forget. And, indeed, I cannot but regret, that our
excellent friend never made his appearance in publick, as a
LECTURER. As such, he would, unquestionably, have greatly
advanced the love and the knowledge of natural philosophy in the
United-States. He may, perhaps, have wanted some of the