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BRIEF CONTENTS v
brief contents
CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 7
Why Physical Fitness? 1 Muscular Strength and
Lab 1A Daily Physical Activity Log 35 Endurance 243
Lab 1B PAR-Q and Health History Questionnaire 37 Lab 7A Muscular Strength and Endurance Assessment 289
Lab 1C Resting Heart Rate and Blood Pressure 39 Lab 7B Strength-Training Program 291
CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 8
Behavior Modifications 41 Muscular Flexibility 293
Lab 2A Exercising Control over Your Physical Activity and Lab 8A Muscular Flexibility Assessment 323
Nutrition Environment 65 Lab 8B Posture Evaluation 325
Lab 2B Behavior Modification Plan 67 Lab 8C Flexibility Development and Low-Back
Lab 2C Setting SMART Goals 69 Conditioning 327
CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 9
Nutrition for Wellness 71 Skill Fitness and Fitness
Lab 3A Nutrient Analysis 119 Programming 329
Lab 3B MyPlate Record Form 123 Lab 9A Assessment of Skill Fitness 359
Lab 9B Personal Fitness Plan 361
CHAPTER 4
Body Composition 125 CHAPTER 10
Lab 4A Hydrostatic Weighing for Body Composition Stress Assessment and
Assessment 147 Management Techniques 365
Lab 4B Body Composition, Disease Risk Assessment, and
Lab 10A Stress Events Scale 391
Recommended Body Weight Determination 149
Lab 10B Type A Personality and Hostility Assessment 393
CHAPTER 5 Lab 10C Stress Vulnerability Questionnaire 395
Weight Management 151 Lab 10D Goals and Time Management Skills 397
Lab 5A Computing Your Daily Caloric Requirement 189 Lab 10E Stress Management 401
Lab 5B Weight-Loss Behavior Modification Plan 190

CHAPTER 11
Lab 5C Calorie-Restricted Diet Plans 191
A Healthy Lifestyle 403
Lab 5D Healthy Plan for Weight Maintenance or Gain 195
Lab 11A Cardiovascular and Cancer Risk Management 443
Lab 5E Weight Management: Measuring Progress 197
Lab 11B Life Expectancy and Physiological Age Prediction
Questionnaire 445
CHAPTER 6
Lab 11C Fitness and Wellness Community Resources 449
Cardiorespiratory Endurance 199
Lab 11D Self-Evaluation and Future Behavioral Goals 451
Lab 6A Cardiorespiratory Endurance Assessment 233
Lab 6B Caloric Expenditure and Exercise Heart Rate 235
Lab 6C Exercise Readiness Questionnaire 239
Lab 6D Cardiorespiratory Exercise Prescription 241
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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vi BRIEF CONTENTS
Appendix A: Nutritive Value of Selected

Foods 455
Glossary 467
Answers to Assess Your Knowledge 475
Index 477
CONTENTS vii
contents
CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2
Why Physical Fitness? 1 Behavior Modifications 41
Life Expectancy 4 Living in a Toxic Health and Fitness Environment 42
Lifestyle as a Health Problem 4 Environmental Influences on Physical Activity 44
Physical Activity and Exercise Defined 5 Environmental Influence on Diet and Nutrition 46
Importance of Increased Physical Activity 6 Your Brain and Your Habits 48
National Initiatives to Promote Healthy and Active Barriers to Change 48
Lifestyles 8 Self-Efficacy 50
Monitoring Daily Physical Activity 10 Motivation and Locus of Control 50
Fitness and Longevity 11 Changing Behavior 52
Types of Physical Fitness 15 Behavior Change Theories 53
Fitness Standards: Health versus Physical Fitness 16 The Process of Change 57
Benefits of Fitness 19 Techniques of Change 60
The Wellness Challenge for Our Day 23 Assess Your Behavior 63
Guidelines for a Healthy Lifestyle: Using This Book 23 Assess Your Knowledge 63
An Individualized Approach 26 Notes 64
Exercise Safety 28 Suggested Readings 64
Resting Heart Rate and Blood Pressure Assessment 29 Lab 2A Exercising Control over Your Physical Activity and
Mean Blood Pressure 32 Nutrition Environment 65
Assess Your Behavior 33 Lab 2B Behavior Modification Plan 67
Assess Your Knowledge 33 Lab 2C Setting SMART Goals 69
Notes 34
Suggested Readings 34 CHAPTER 3
Lab 1A Daily Physical Activity Log 35 Nutrition for Wellness 71
Lab 1B PAR-Q and Health History Questionnaire 37 Nutrients 76
Lab 1C Resting Heart Rate and Blood Pressure 39 Carbohydrates 76
Fats (Lipids) 79
Proteins 82
Vitamins 83
Minerals 83
Water 83
Balancing the Diet 84
Nutrition Standards 86
Nutrient Analysis 88
Achieving a Balanced Diet 91
© Fitness & Wellness, Inc.
Choosing Healthy Foods 94

Vegetarianism 94
Nuts 96
Soy Products 96
viii CONTENTS
Assess Your Behavior 145

Assess Your Knowledge 145
Notes 146
Suggested Readings 146
Lab 4A Hydrostatic Weighing for Body Composition
Assessment 147
Lab 4B Body Composition, Disease Risk Assessment, and
© Julián Rovagnati/Shutterstock.com
Recommended Body Weight Determination 149
CHAPTER 5
Weight Management 151
Overweight versus Obese 156
Tolerable Weight 156
Probiotics 97
The Weight Loss Dilemma 157
Advanced Glycation End Products 97
Diet Crazes 157
Diets from Other Cultures 97
Eating Disorders 162
Nutrient Supplementation 100
The Physiology of Weight Loss 165
Benefits of Foods 104
Diet and Metabolism 169
Functional Foods 105
Hormonal Regulation of Appetite 170
Organic Foods 106
Sleep and Weight Management 170
Genetically Modified Crops 106
Monitoring Body Weight 170
Energy Substrates for Physical Activity 107
Exercise and Weight Management 170
Nutrition for Athletes 108
The Roles of Exercise Intensity and Duration in Weight
Bone Health and Osteoporosis 110 Management 173
Hormone-Replacement Therapy 113 Healthy Weight Gain 175
Iron Deficiency 114 Weight Loss Myths 176
2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans 114 Losing Weight the Sound and Sensible Way 177
Proper Nutrition: A Lifetime Prescription for Healthy Monitoring Your Diet with Daily Food Logs 181
Living 116
Low-Fat Entrees 182
Effect of Food Choices on Long-Term Weight Gain 182
Behavior Modification and Adherence to a Weight
Notes 118 Management Program 182
Suggested Readings 118 The Simple Truth 183
Lab 3A Nutrient Analysis 119 Assess Your Behavior 186
Lab 3B MyPlate Record Form 123 Assess Your Knowledge 186
Notes 187
CHAPTER 4 Suggested Readings 188
Body Composition 125 Lab 5A Computing Your Daily Caloric Requirement 189
Essential and Storage Fat 128 Lab 5B Weight-Loss Behavior Modification Plan 190
Techniques to Assess Body Composition 128 Lab 5C Calorie-Restricted Diet Plans 191
Body Mass Index 139 Lab 5D Healthy Plan for Weight Maintenance or Gain 195
Waist Circumference 140 Lab 5E Weight Management: Measuring Progress 197
Determining Recommended Body Weight 142
Importance of Regular Body Composition
Assessment 144
CONTENTS ix
CHAPTER 6 Lab 6C Exercise Readiness Questionnaire 239
Cardiorespiratory Endurance 199 Lab 6D Cardiorespiratory Exercise Prescription 241
Basic Cardiorespiratory Physiology: A Quick Survey 202

CHAPTER 7
Aerobic and Anaerobic Exercise 203
Muscular Strength and
Benefits of Aerobic Training 204
Physical Fitness Assessment 205
Endurance 243
Responders versus Nonresponders 206 Benefits of Strength Training 245
Assessment of Cardiorespiratory Endurance 207 Muscular Strength and Aging 246
Tests to Estimate VO2max 208 Assessment of Muscular Strength and Endurance 248
Interpreting the Results of Your VO2max 214 Strength-Training Prescription 253
Predicting VO2 and Caloric Expenditure from Walking and Overload 254
Jogging 215 Specificity of Training 254
Principles of CR Exercise Prescription 216 Principles Involved in Strength Training 255
Guidelines for CR Exercise Prescription 217 Exercise Variations 260
Intensity of Exercise 217 Plyometrics 260
Moderate- versus Vigorous-Intensity Exercise 218 Strength Gains 261
Monitoring Exercise Heart Rate 220 Strength-Training Exercises 261
Rate of Perceived Exertion 220 Dietary Guidelines for Strength Development 261
Mode of Exercise 220 Core Strength Training 263
Duration of Exercise 221 Pilates Exercise System 263
Frequency of Exercise 223 Stability Exercise Balls 264
Rate of Progression 223 Elastic-Band Resistive Exercise 264
Fitness Benefits of Aerobic Activities 224 Exercise Safety Guidelines 264
Getting Started and Adhering to a Lifetime Exercise Setting Up Your Own Strength-Training Program 266
Program 226 Assess Your Behavior 268
A Lifetime Commitment to Fitness 229 Assess Your Knowledge 268
Assess Your Behavior 229 Notes 269
Assess Your Knowledge 229 Suggested Readings 269
Notes 230 Strength-Training Exercises without
Suggested Readings 231 Weights 270
Lab 6A Cardiorespiratory Endurance Assessment 233 Strength-Training Exercises with Weights 275
Lab 6B Caloric Expenditure and Exercise Heart Rate 235 Stability Ball Exercises 284
Lab 7A Muscular Strength and Endurance Assessment 289
Lab 7B Strength-Training Program 291
CHAPTER 8
Muscular Flexibility 293
Benefits of Good Flexibility 294
Flexibility in Older Adults 296
Factors Affecting Flexibility 296
Assessment of Flexibility 296
Interpreting Flexibility Test Results 297

Principles of Muscular Flexibility Prescription 302
Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation 303
x CONTENTS
Side Stitch 347

Shin Splints 347
Muscle Cramps 347
Exercise and Aging 347
Physical Training in the Older Adult 347
Preparing for Sports Participation 349
Base Fitness Conditioning 350

Sport-Specific Conditioning 350
Overtraining 352
Periodization 353
Personal Fitness Programming: An Example 354
Cardiorespiratory Endurance 355
Physiological Response to Stretching 303 Muscular Strength and Endurance 355
Intensity 304 Body Composition 356
Repetitions 304 You Can Get It Done 356
Frequency of Exercise 304 Assess Your Behavior 357
When to Stretch? 304
Flexibility Exercises 305 Notes 358
Preventing and Rehabilitating Low-Back Pain 305 Suggested Readings 358
Effects of Stress 311 Lab 9A Assessment of Skill Fitness 359
Personal Flexibility and Low-Back Conditioning Lab 9B Personal Fitness Plan 361
Program 311
CHAPTER 10
Stress Assessment and
Notes 313
Management Techniques 365
The Mind–Body Connection 366
Flexibility Exercises 314
The Brain 368
Exercises for the Prevention and Rehabilitation
of Low-Back Pain 317 Stress and Illness 368
Lab 8A Muscular Flexibility Assessment 323 Sleep and Wellness 368
Lab 8B Posture Evaluation 325 Stress 369
Lab 8C Flexibility Development and Low-Back Stress Adaptation 370
Conditioning 327 Perceptions and Health 372
Self-Esteem 372
CHAPTER 9 Fighting Spirit 372
Skill Fitness and Fitness Sources of Stress 372
Programming 329 Behavior Patterns 373
Performance Tests for Skill-Related Fitness 333 Vulnerability to Stress 376
Power 335 Time Management 376
Team Sports 336 Coping with Stress 378
Specific Exercise Considerations 338 Physical Activity 379
Exercise-Related Injuries 345 Relaxation Techniques 381
Acute Sports Injuries 345 Biofeedback 381
Muscle Soreness and Stiffness 346 Progressive Muscle Relaxation 382
Exercise Intolerance 346 Breathing Techniques for Relaxation 383
CONTENTS xi
Age and Gender 421
Cancer 421
Chronic Lower Respiratory Disease 427
Accidents 427
Substance Abuse 428
Sexually Transmitted Infections 430
An Educated Fitness and Wellness Consumer 433

Health and Fitness Club Memberships 433
Personal Trainers 435
Purchasing Exercise Equipment 436
Life Expectancy and Physiological Age 436
Visual Imagery 384
Self-Evaluation and Behavioral Goals for the Future 437
Autogenic Training 385
The Fitness Experience and a Challenge for the Future 437
Meditation 386
Yoga 387
Tai Chi 388
Notes 440
Which Technique Is Best? 388
Lab 11A Cardiovascular and Cancer Risk Management 443
Lab 11B Life Expectancy and Physiological Age Prediction
Notes 390 Questionnaire 445
Suggested Readings 390 Lab 11C Fitness and Wellness Community Resources 449
Lab 10A Stress Events Scale 391 Lab 11D Self-Evaluation and Future Behavioral Goals 451
Lab 10B Type A Personality and Hostility Assessment 393
Appendix A: Nutritive Value of
Lab 10C Stress Vulnerability Questionnaire 395
Selected Foods 455
Lab 10D Goals and Time Management Skills 397
Lab 10E Stress Management 401 Glossary 467
Answers to Assess Your
CHAPTER 11
Knowledge 475
A Healthy Lifestyle 403
The Seven Dimensions of Wellness 406 Index 477
Spiritual Well-Being 406
Leading Health Problems in the United States 407
Increasing HDL Cholesterol 412
Lowering LDL Cholesterol 413
Elevated Triglycerides 414
Medications 415
Elevated Homocysteine 415
Inflammation 415
Diabetes 416
Metabolic Syndrome 417
Abnormal Electrocardiograms 418
Tobacco Use 418

Stress 420
Personal and Family History 420
xii PREFACE
Preface
People go to college to learn how to make a living. Making a you eliminate negative behaviors and implement a healthier
good living, however, won’t help unless people live an active way of life.
lifestyle that allows them to enjoy what they have. The
The emphasis throughout the book is on teaching you how
American way of life does not provide the human body with
to take control of your fitness and lifestyle habits so that you
sufficient physical activity to maintain adequate health.
can make a deliberate effort to stay healthy and achieve the
Many present lifestyle patterns are such a serious threat to
highest potential for well-being.
our health that they actually increase the deterioration rate
of the human body and often lead to premature illness and
mortality. New in the Ninth Edition
Furthermore, the science of behavioral therapy has estab- This new edition of Principles and Labs for Physical Fitness
lished that many of the behaviors we adopt are a product of has been revised and updated to conform to advances in the
our environment. Unfortunately, we live in a “toxic” health field and new recommendations by major national health
and fitness environment. Becoming aware of how the envi- and fitness organizations. New content is based on informa-
ronment affects our health is vital if we wish to achieve and tion reported in literature and at professional health, physi-
maintain wellness. Yet, we are so habituated to this modern- cal education, exercise science, and sports medicine
day environment that we miss the subtle ways in which it meetings.
influences our behaviors, personal lifestyle, and health each
day. Innovative features of this edition include Confident Con-
sumer or Diversity Considerations boxes to help you make
Research clearly indicates that people who lead an active healthier choices and be discerning fitness and wellness con-
lifestyle live longer and enjoy a better quality of life. As a re- sumers. A MyProfile box has also been added near the be-
sult, the importance of sound fitness and wellness programs ginning of each chapter so that you can evaluate your
has assumed an entirely new dimension. The Office of the current knowledge of the chapter’s topic. These features,
Surgeon General has identified physical fitness as a top along with the Real Life Story and FAQ sections, are in-
health priority by stating that the nation’s top health goals in tended to encourage your interest in the chapter contents.
the 21st century are exercise, increased consumption of Beyond the individual chapter updates listed in the next sec-
fruits and vegetables, smoking cessation, and the practice of tion, new figures and photography are included throughout
safe sex. All four of these fundamental healthy lifestyle fac- the textbook.
tors are thoroughly addressed in this book.
• In Chapter 1, “Why Physical Fitness?,” all statistics related
Because of the impressive scientific evidence supporting the to the leading causes of death, life expectancy, and yearly
benefits of physical activity, most people in this country are health care costs in the United States have been brought
aware that physical fitness promotes a healthier, happier, and up-to-date. New information on exercise and brain func-
more productive life. Nevertheless, the vast majority of tion and on immediate benefits of exercise following a
Americans do not enjoy a better quality of life because they single exercise bout is included.
either are led astray by a multibillion-dollar “quick fix” in- • In Chapter 2, “Behavior Modifications,” a new “Your Brain
dustry or simply do not know how to implement a sound and Your Habits” section has been added to explain the
physical activity program that yields positive results. Only in role that the corpus striatum, a part of the brain, plays in
a fitness course do people learn sound principles of healthy allowing habits to become “ingrained” and to dictate hu-
lifestyle factors, including exercise prescriptions that, if im- man behavior. An explanation of steps you can take to al-
plemented, teach them how to truly live life to its fullest ter undesirable habits or establish new habits is also
potential. provided.
Principles and Labs for Physical Fitness contains 11 chapters • Chapter 3, “Nutrition for Wellness,” has been updated to
and 35 laboratories that serve as guides to implement a include the new MyPlate nutritional guidelines and the
comprehensive lifetime fitness program. This edition has Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010. Also included in
been updated to include the latest information reported in the chapter are updates on the benefits of many healthy
the literature and at professional health, physical education, foods recommended in the American diet.
and sports medicine meetings. You are encouraged to ad- • Data and figures for the different obesity classes (I, II,
here to a well-balanced diet and a healthy lifestyle to achieve and III) have been included in Chapter 4, “Body
wellness. To promote this, the book includes information on Composition.”
motivation and behavioral modification techniques that help
PREFACE xiii
• In Chapter 5, “Weight Management,” data on the escalat-
ing obesity epidemic and its causes in the United States
Ancillaries
have been updated and are accompanied by new data on Profile Plus
obesity prevalence based on gender, level of education, NEW! Take control. Reach your goals with Profile Plus. Pro-
and cultural ethnicity. The controversial issue of the role file Plus is a brand-new tool that not only allows students to
of exercise in weight loss and proper weight management, track their diet and activity but also walks them through the
in particular light-intensity, vigorous, and high-intensity key steps in behavior change. After completing a Wellness
intermittent training exercise, is thoroughly discussed in Profile, students select areas where they would like to make a
this chapter. Other additions include information on the healthy lifestyle change. The program guides students to re-
fat mass and obesity–associated gene. The information on flect on their current behaviors, identify obstacles, and reach
popular diets has been expanded as well. successful behavior change. As they analyze the nutritional
• Chapter 6, “Cardiorespiratory Endurance,” has been re- value of the foods they eat through the diet tracker, students
viewed to ensure it conforms to the recently released will learn how to adjust their diets to reach personal health
American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) position goals and gain a better understanding of how nutrition im-
paper “Quantity and Quality of Exercise for Developing pacts their lives. Instructors can assign and review student
and Maintaining Cardiorespiratory, Musculoskeletal, and work in the form of reports and labs submitted through the
Neuromotor Fitness in Apparently Healthy Adults.” New system. Use Profile Plus in all your introductory health classes
information has also been included in the “Frequency of to show students how the concepts they are learning relate to
Exercise” section to cover the latest findings on the health their personal health goals and apply to their daily lives.
consequences of excessive sitting, even for an individual Instant Access Code: ISBN: 978-0-840-06580-3
meeting the daily recommended guidelines of moderate- Printed Access Card: ISBN: 978-0-840-06581-0
intensity physical activity. Suggestions are also provided
Global Health Watch
for enhancing nonexercise activity thermogenesis (the en-
Updated with today’s current headlines, Global Health
ergy expended doing daily activities not related to
Watch is your one-stop resource for classroom discussion
exercise).
and research projects. This resource center provides access
• The contents of Chapters 7 and 8, “Muscular Strength and to thousands of trusted health sources, including academic
Endurance” and “Muscular Flexibility,” respectively, have journals, magazines, newspapers, videos, podcasts, and
been updated according to the ACSM position paper on more. It is updated daily to offer the most current news
the quantity and quality of exercise. Furthermore, models about topics related to your health course.
of periodization for strength training have been added to Instant Access Code: ISBN: 978-1-111-37733-5
Chapter 7, and the section on preventing and rehabilitat- Printed Access Card: ISBN: 978-1-111-37731-1
ing low-back pain in Chapter 8 has been expanded to in-
corporate information on the ever-important roles of WebTutor™ with eBook on Blackboard and
physical activity, stretching, strengthening, and stress WebCT
management in overall back care management. WebTutorTM enables you to quickly and easily jump-start
• In Chapter 9, “Skill Fitness and Fitness Programming,” in- your course with customizable, rich, text-specific content
formation on the highly popular high-intensity interval within your learning management system. Using WebTutor
training (HIIT) programs has been added. Updates are allows you to assign online labs, provide access to a robust
also provided on exercise and type 2 diabetes and exercise eBook, and deliver online text-specific quizzes and tests to
and physical activity for older adults based on the recent your students. Give your students all their course materials
ACSM pronouncements on these topics. In addition, in- through WebTutor from Cengage Learning.
formation on current fitness trends is provided in this Instant Access Code–Blackboard: ISBN: 978-1-133-60473-0
chapter. Printed Access Card–Blackboard: ISBN: 978-1-133-60472-3
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• Information on the damaging effects of stress on the body
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has been added to Chapter 10, “Stress Assessment and
Management Techniques.” The concepts of mindless med- CourseMate™ with Interactive eBook
itation and tai chi for stress management are also included The CourseMate brings course concepts to life with interac-
in this edition. tive learning, study, and exam preparation tools that support
• In Chapter 11, “A Healthy Lifestyle,” data on the incidence the printed textbook. The CourseMate includes an interac-
and prevalence of cardiovascular disease, cancer, addictive tive eBook and interactive teaching and learning tools in-
behavior, and sexually transmitted infections were all cluding quizzes, flashcards, videos, and more. It also
updated using the latest statistics available. Revisions were contains the Engagement Tracker, a first-of-its-kind tool
also made to several risk factors for both cardiovascular that monitors student engagement in the course.
disease and cancer. Instant Access Code: ISBN: 978-1-133-60466-2
Printed Access Card: ISBN: 978-1-133-60465-5
xiv PREFACE
CengageNOW™ with eBook and InfoTrac® Walk4Life® Pedometer. ISBN-13: 978-0-495-01315-0.

College Edition Provided through an alliance with Walk4Life, the Walk4Life
Get instant access to CengageNOW! This exciting online re- Elite Model pedometer tracks steps, elapsed time, and dis-
source is a powerful new learning companion that helps stu- tance. Including a calorie counter and a clock, it can be inte-
dents gauge their unique study needs—and provides them grated into class activities and is an excellent tool to
with a Personalized Learning Plan that enhances their encourage students to track their steps and walk toward bet-
problem-solving skills and conceptual understanding. A ter fitness awareness.
click of the mouse allows students to enter and explore the
system whenever they choose, with no instructor setup nec-
essary. CengageNOW also provides access to InfoTrac Col-
Brief Author Biographies
lege Edition, an online university library of more than 5,000 Werner W.K. Hoeger is a professor emeritus of the De-
academic and popular magazines, newspapers, and journals, partment of Kinesiology at Boise State University. He re-
giving your students access to an entire library’s worth of remains active in research and continues to lecture in the
liable sources. areas of exercise physiology, physical fitness, and wellness.
Instant Access Code: ISBN: 978-1-133-60468-6
Dr. Hoeger completed his undergraduate and master’s de-
Printed Access Card: ISBN: 978-1-133-60469-3
grees in physical education at the age of 20 and received his
Online Instructor’s Manual with Test Bank. doctorate degree with an emphasis in exercise physiology at
ISBN-13: 978-1-133-60474-7. the age of 24. He is a fellow of the American College of
This comprehensive resource provides learning objectives, Sports Medicine and of the Research Consortium of the
detailed chapter outlines, classroom activities integrated American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recre-
with critical thinking questions, and teaching strategies. The ation, and Dance. In 2002, he was recognized as the out-
Test Bank provides true/false, multiple-choice, critical standing alumnus from the College of Health and Human
thinking, and essay questions. Performance at Brigham Young University. He is the recipi-
ent of the first Presidential Award for Research and Schol-
PowerLecture® DVD with JoinIn Student arship in the College of Education at Boise State University
Response System. ISBN-13: 978-1-133-60389-4. in 2004. In 2008, he was asked to be the keynote speaker at
Making lecture preparation easier, this DVD includes cus- the seventh Ibero-American Congress of Sports Medicine
tomizable PowerPoint® presentation slides with images from and Applied Sciences in Mérida, Venezuela, and was pre-
the text, new BBC® video clips, and electronic versions of sented with the Distinguished Guest of the City recogni-
the Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank. JoinIn content for tion. In 2010, he was also honored as the keynote speaker
Response Systems tailored to the text allows you to trans- at the Western Society for Kinesiology and Wellness in
form your classroom and assess your students’ progress with Reno, Nevada.
instant in-class quizzes and polls.
Using his knowledge and personal experiences, Dr. Hoeger
ExamView Computerized Testing CD. ISBN-13:
® writes engaging, informative books that thoroughly address
978-1-133-60391-7. today’s fitness and wellness issues in a format accessible to
Featuring automatic grading, ExamView allows you to cre- students. Since 1990, he has been the most widely read fit-
ate, deliver, and customize tests and study guides (both print ness and wellness college textbook author in the United
and online) in minutes. See assessments onscreen exactly as States. He has published a total of 54 editions of his nine
they will print or display online. Build tests of up to 250 fitness and wellness-related titles. Among the textbooks
questions using up to 12 question types and enter an unlim- written for Wadsworth/Cengage Learning are Lifetime
ited number of new questions or edit existing questions. Physical Fitness and Wellness: A Personalized Program, 12th
edition; Fitness and Wellness, 10th edition; Principles and
Careers in Health, Physical Education, and Labs for Fitness and Wellness, 12th edition; Wellness: Guide-
Sport, second edition. ISBN-13: 978-0-495-38839-5. lines for a Healthy Lifestyle, 4th edition; and Water Aerobics
This unique booklet takes students through the complicated for Fitness and Wellness, 4th edition (with Terry-Ann
process of picking the type of career they want to pursue; Spitzer Gibson).
explains how to prepare for the transition into the working
Dr. Hoeger was the first author to write a college fitness
world; and provides insight into different types of career
textbook that incorporated the wellness concept. In 1986,
paths, education requirements, and reasonable salary expec-
with the release of the first edition of Lifetime Physical Fit-
tations. A designated chapter discusses some of the legal is-
ness & Wellness, he introduced the principle that to truly
sues that surround the workplace, including discrimination
improve fitness, health, and quality of life and to achieve
and harassment. This supplement is complete with personal
wellness, a person needed to go beyond the basic health-
development activities designed to encourage students to fo-
related components of physical fitness. His work was so well
cus on and develop better insight into their futures.
received that every fitness author in the field immediately
followed his lead.
PREFACE xv
As an innovator in the field, Dr. Hoeger has developed many Sharon A. Hoeger is vice president of Fitness & Well-
fitness and wellness assessment tools, including fitness tests ness, Inc., of Boise, Idaho. Sharon received her degree in
such as the Modified Sit-and-Reach, Total Body Rotation, computer science from Brigham Young University. In the
Shoulder Rotation, Muscular Endurance, Muscular Strength 1980s, she served as a computer science instructor at the
and Endurance, and Soda tests. Proving that he practices University of Texas of the Permian Basin. She is extensively
what he preaches, he was the oldest male competitor in involved in the research process used in retrieving the most
the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah, at the current scientific information that goes into the revision of
age of 48. He raced in the sport of luge, along with his each textbook. She is also the author of the software that
then-17-year-old son Christopher. It was the first time in was written specifically for the fitness and wellness text-
Winter Olympics history that father and son competed in books. Her innovations in this area since the publication of
the same event. In 2006, at the age of 52, he was the oldest the first edition of Lifetime Physical Fitness & Wellness in
competitor at the Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy. In 2011, 1986 set the standard for fitness and wellness computer soft-
he raced in the 800-, 1,500-, and 5,000-meter events in track ware used in this market today.
and field at the World Masters Athletic (Track and Field)
Sharon is a coauthor in five of the seven fitness and wellness
Championships held in Sacramento, California. During the
titles. She also served as chef de mission (chief of delega-
summer of 2012, he ran 1,500 meters at the Idaho Senior
tion) for the Venezuelan Olympic Team at the 2006 Winter
Games in a time of 5:09.85, meeting the U.S.A. Track &
Olympics in Turin, Italy. A former gymnast, she now partic-
Field All-American Standards.
ipates in a variety of fitness activities to enjoy good health
and maintain a high quality of life.
Husband and wife have been jogging and strength training
together for more than 36 years. They are the proud parents
of five children, all of whom are involved in sports and life-
time fitness activities. Their motto: “Families that exercise
together, stay together.”
Acknowledgments
The completion of the ninth edition of Principles and Labs
for Physical Fitness was made possible through the contribu-
tions of many professionals throughout the country. In par-
ticular, we express our gratitude to the reviewers of the
eighth edition; their valuable comments and suggestions are
sincerely appreciated.
Steve Hsu, University of Southern California

Danielle Roman, University of Southern California
Jackie Sgambati, Coastal Carolina University
Brooke Towner, Coastal Carolina University
1
Why Physical
Fitness?
“To give anything less than your best is to sacrifice the gift.”
—Steve Prefontaine
OBJECTIVES
• Understand the health and fitness consequences of physical inactivity.
• Identify the major health problems in the United States.
• Learn how to monitor daily physical activity.
• Learn the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans.
• Describe the difference between physical activity and exercise.
• Define physical fitness and list the components of health- and skill-related fitness.
• Differentiate health-fitness standards and physical-fitness standards.
• Point out the benefits and the significance of participating in a lifetime exercise program.
• List national health objectives for 2020.
• Determine whether you can safely initiate an exercise program.
• Learn to assess resting heart rate and blood pressure.
Photo © Galyna Andrushko/Shutterstock.com
Visit www.cengagebrain.com to access course

materials and companion resources for this text,
including a daily exercise log, the physical activ-
ity readiness questionnaire (PAR-Q), the health
history questionnaire, quiz questions designed
to check your understanding of the chapter
contents, and more! See the preface on page
xii for more information.
2 PRINCIPLES AND LABS FOR PHYSICAL FITNESS
Real Life Stories | Jeremy’s Experience

I was a multisport athlete in high school. I played soccer, foot- college life as much as possible and not worry so much
ball, basketball, and ran track. I was not the best athlete on about academics. We went to a lot of parties and watched
these teams, and I didn’t have a chance to make a college sporting events. There was always plenty of alcohol at these
team, but I sure loved sports activities. I know we drank way too much, we didn’t exercise,
and athletic competition. To and my grades suffered as a result. I shouldn’t have been so
earn extra money for col- shocked when I saw my final grades. To add insult to injury,
lege, I worked for a fast- it really hit home when I signed up for the fitness and
food chain that summer. I wellness class and found out I had gained more than
was so busy that I didn’t 15 pounds since high school graduation. My fitness test re-
do any fitness activities or sults showed I was not even in an average fitness category for
play sports that summer, most components.
and I ate too much
junk food, which I am so glad the fitness course was a required class, as I was
caused me to able to correct my lifestyle before it spiraled out of control and I
gain some wasted more time in college. I started to exercise on an almost
weight. Later in daily basis, and I learned so much about nutrition and healthy
college, it took eating. Parties and alcohol were no longer important to me. I had
some time to a life to live and prepare for. It felt so good to once again become
get used to my fit and eat a healthy/balanced diet. I rearranged my activities so
new surround- that schoolwork and fitness were right at the top of my list. I
ings and the stopped procrastinating on my schoolwork, and I was doing car-
©iStockphoto.com/zhang bo
newfound freedom dio five times a week and lifting twice per week. My goal is to
from my home life. My keep this up for the rest of my life. I now understand that if I
friends kept stressing want to enjoy wellness, I have to make fitness and healthy living
that I needed to enjoy a top priority in my life.
The current sedentary pattern of life seen in most developed The human organism needs movement and activity to
countries has led to a widespread global interest in health grow, develop, and maintain health. Advances in modern
and preventive medicine programs. Thus, over the last 4 de- technology, however, have almost completely eliminated
cades, there has been a large increase in the number of peo- the necessity for physical exertion in daily life. Physical ac-
ple participating in organized fitness and wellness programs. tivity is no longer a natural part of our existence. We live
From an initial fitness fad in the early 1970s, fitness and in an automated society, where most of the activities that
wellness programs are now a trend that is very much part of used to require strenuous exertion can be accomplished by
the American way of life. The growing number of partici- machines with the simple pull of a handle or push of a but-
pants is attributed primarily to scientific evidence linking ton. This epidemic of physical inactivity is the second-
regular physical activity and positive lifestyle habits to better greatest threat to U.S. public health and has been termed
health, longevity, quality of life, and total well-being. Sedentary Death Syndrome, or SeDS2 (the number-one
Research findings in the last few years have shown that threat is tobacco use—the largest cause of preventable
physical inactivity and a negative lifestyle seriously threaten deaths).
health and hasten the deterioration rate of the human body. At the beginning of the 20th century, life expectancy
Physically active people live longer than their inactive coun- for a child born in the United States was only 47 years. The
terparts, even if activity begins later in life. Estimates indi- most common health problems in the Western world were
cate that more than 112,000 deaths in the United States infectious diseases, such as tuberculosis, diphtheria, influ-
yearly are attributed to poor diet and physical inactivity.1 enza, kidney disease, polio, and other diseases of infancy.
Similar trends are found in most industrialized nations Progress in the medical field largely eliminated these dis-
throughout the world. eases. Then, as more North American people started to en-
CHAPTER 1 • WHY PHYSICAL FITNESS? 3
MyProfile: General Understanding of Fitness and Wellness

To the best of your ability, answer the following questions. If you do III. My current blood pressure is ___ /___ mm Hg, which is
not know the answer(s), this chapter will guide you through them. classified as (mark one) ___ normal, ___ prehypertension,
I. The minimum requirement in 2008 Physical Activity Guide- or ___ hypertension.
lines for Americans is that you accumulate _____ minutes IV. Are you aware of potential risk factors in your life and per-
of moderate-intensity aerobic activity or _____ minutes of sonal health family history that may increase your chances
vigorous-intensity aerobic activity weekly. of developing disease? ___ Yes ___ No
II. Cardiorespiratory endurance, strength, power, flexibility,
agility, and speed are the basic components of health-
related fitness. ___ True ___ False
FAQ
motivates us toward adoption of additional positive lifestyle be-
haviors, to maximize the benefits for a healthier, more productive,
happier, and longer life, we have to pay attention to all seven di-
mensions of wellness: physical, social, mental, emotional, occu-
pational, environmental, and spiritual. These dimensions are in-
terrelated, and one frequently affects the others. A wellness way
of life requires a constant and deliberate effort to stay healthy
Why should I take a fitness and wellness and achieve the highest potential for well-being within all di-
course? mensions of wellness.
Most people go to college to learn how to make a living, but a fit-
ness and wellness course teaches you how to live—truly live life If a person is going to do only one thing to
to its fullest potential. Some people seem to think that success is improve health, what would it be?
measured by how much money they make. Making a good living This is a common question. It is a mistake to think, though,
does not help you unless you live a wellness lifestyle that allows that you can modify just one factor and enjoy wellness. Well-
you to enjoy what you earn. You may want to ask yourself, Of ness requires a constant and deliberate effort to change un-
what value are a nice income, a beautiful home, and a solid re- healthy behaviors and reinforce healthy behaviors. Although it
tirement portfolio if at age 45 I suffer a massive heart attack is difficult to work on many lifestyle changes at once, involve-
that will seriously limit my physical capacity or end my life? ment in a regular physical activity program, proper nutrition,
and avoidance of addictive behavior are lifestyle factors to
Is the attainment of good physical fitness work on first. Others should follow, depending on your current
sufficient to ensure good health? lifestyle behaviors.
Regular participation in a sound physical fitness program pro-
vides substantial health benefits and significantly decreases the
risk of many chronic diseases. And although good fitness often
joy the “good life” (sedentary living, alcohol, fatty foods,

Health State of complete well-being—not just the absence of disease
excessive sweets, tobacco, drugs, etc.), a parallel increase ap-
or infirmity.
peared in the incidence of chronic diseases, such as hyper-
tension, coronary heart disease, atherosclerosis, strokes, Sedentary death syndrome (SeDS) Cause of deaths attributed to
diabetes, cancer, emphysema, and cirrhosis of the liver a lack of regular physical activity.
(Figure 1.1). According to the World Health Organization
Life expectancy Number of years a person is expected to live based
(WHO), chronic diseases account for 60 percent of all
on the person’s birth year.
deaths worldwide.3
As the incidence of chronic diseases climbed, we recog- Chronic diseases Illnesses that develop and last a long time.
nized that prevention is the best medicine. Consequently, a
Figure 1.1 Causes of death in the United States for selected Figure 1.2 Life expectancy at birth for selected countries: 2005–
years. 2015 projections.
100
Brazil 71 77
90
United Arab Emirates 76 78
80
Percent of all deaths
Argentina 72 80
70
60 Mexico 75 80
50 United States 76 81
40 Great Britain 78 82
30 Germany 78 83
20 Canada 79 83
10
France 78 85
0
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2010 Spain 79 85
Year
Influenza and Switzerland 80 85
pneumonia Cancer
Cardiovascular Japan 80 87
Tuberculosis disease
Accidents All other causes 65 70 75 80 85 90
Years
Source: National Center for Health Statistics, Division of Vital Statistics.
Dark color is men; light color is women.
Source: United Nations, “Social Indicators: Indicators on Health,” http://

unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/socind/health.htm, downloaded Jan-
uary 9, 2012.
fitness and wellness movement developed gradually in the

1980s. We began to realize that good health is mostly self-
controlled and that the leading causes of premature death
and illness could be prevented by adhering to positive life-
style habits. We all desire to live a long life, and wellness onary heart disease, and fairly high levels of violence (nota-
programs seek to enhance the overall quality of life—for as bly homicides).
long as we live. Although life expectancy in the United States gradually
Three basic factors determine our health and longevity: increased by 30 years over the past century, scientists from the
genetics, the environment, and our behavior. Although we National Institute of Aging predict that in the coming decades
cannot change our genetic pool, we can exert control over the the average lifespan may decrease by as much as 5 years. This
environment and our health behaviors so that we may reach decrease in life expectancy will be related primarily to the
our full physical potential based on our own genetic code. growing epidemic of obesity. According to estimates from
How we accomplish this goal is thoroughly discussed the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 34 percent
throughout the chapters of this book. of the adult population in the United States is obese. If the
current trend continues, the current generation of children
Life Expectancy may not outlive their parents. Additional information on the
obesity epidemic and its detrimental health consequences is
Based on the most recent data available, the average life given in Chapter 5.
expectancy in the United States is 78.3 years (75.7 years
for men and 80.8 years for women). Based on WHO data,
the United States ranks 38th in the world for life expec- Lifestyle as a Health
tancy (Figure 1.2). Between 2000 and 2010, U.S. male life
expectancy slipped from 18th to 24th in the world and
Problem
female life expectancy dropped from 28th to 35th. Japan As the incidence of chronic diseases rose, it became obvious
ranks first in the world, with an overall life expectancy of that prevention was—and remains—the best medicine. Ac-
82.6 years. cording to the U.S. Surgeon General’s office, more than half
Several factors may account for the current U.S. life ex- of the people who die in this country each year die because
pectancy ranking: the extremely poor health of some groups of what they do. Based on estimates, more than half of dis-
(e.g., Native Americans, rural African Americans, and the ease is lifestyle related, a fifth is attributed to the environ-
inner-city poor), the obesity epidemic, the low level of daily ment, and a tenth is influenced by the health care the
physical activity, the high incidence of tobacco use and cor- individual receives. Only 16 percent is related to genetic fac-
DIV E R S I T Y C O N S I DERAT IONS

Life expectancy in the United States has increased by almost 9 years since 1960. There is, however, a disparity among ethnic groups.
Asian Americans live the longest, while African Americans have the shortest lifespan.
83.5 years
©CREATISTA/Shutterstock.com
75.1 years
74.3 years
©iStockphoto.com/digitalskillet
©iStockphoto.com/Nicolas McComber
78.7 years
Latinos
87.3 years
©Peter Bernik/Shutterstock.
African Americans
©iStockphoto.com/zhang bo
Native Americans
Caucasians
Asian Americans
Decreasing Disparities: Improving lifestyle, how one grows up (e.g., access to health care, physical activity, good nutrition, and per-
sonal safety), work environment, and conditions under which one grows old greatly increase the chances for a longer and healthier life.
Healthy choices you make today dictate quality of life and wellness during older age.
Figure 1.3 Estimated impact of the factors that affect health and Because of the unhealthy lifestyles that many young
well-being. adults lead, their bodies may be middle-aged or older! Many
physical education programs do not emphasize the skills
necessary for young people to maintain a high level of fit-
ness and health throughout life. The intent of this book is to
provide those skills and help prepare you for a lifetime of
Lifestyle
53% physical fitness and wellness. A healthy lifestyle is self-
controlled, and you can learn how to be responsible for your
own health and fitness. Healthy choices made today influ-
ence health for decades.
Health care
Environment 10%
Physical Activity and
21%
Genetics
16%
Exercise Defined
Abundant scientific research over the past 3 decades has es-
tablished a distinction between physical activity and exer-
© Cengage Learning cise. Physical
activity is bodily
tors (Figure 1.3). The individual controls as much as 84 per- movement pro- Physical activity Bodily movement pro-
cent of his or her vulnerability to disease—and thus quality duced by skeletal duced by skeletal muscles, which requires
of life. The same data indicate that 83 percent of deaths be- muscles. It re- expenditure of energy and produces progres-
fore age 65 are preventable. In essence, most people in the quires energy ex- sive health benefits.
United States are threatened by the very lives they lead today. penditure and

Jonathan Hoeger
Exercise and an active lifestyle increase health, quality of life, and longevity.
produces progressive health benefits. Physical activity typi-

cally requires only a low to moderate intensity of effort. Ex- Importance of Increased
amples of physical activity include walking to and from
work, taking the stairs instead of elevators and escalators,
Physical Activity
gardening, doing household chores, dancing, and washing The U.S. Surgeon General has stated that poor health as a re-
the car by hand. Physical inactivity, by contrast, implies a sult of lack of physical activity is a serious public health prob-
level of activity that is lower than that required to maintain lem that must be met head-on at once. Regular moderate
good health. physical activity provides substantial benefits in health and
Exercise is a type of physical activity that requires well-being for the vast majority of people who are not physi-
planned, structured, and repetitive bodily movement to im- cally active. For those who are already moderately active, even
prove or maintain one or more components of physical fit- greater health benefits can be achieved by increasing the level
ness. Examples of exercise are walking, running, cycling, of physical activity.
aerobics, swimming, and strength training. Exercise is usu- Among the benefits of regular physical activity and ex-
ally viewed as an activity that requires vigorous effort. ercise are significantly reduced risks for developing or dying
Table 1.1 Physical Activity Recommendations
Benefits Duration Intensity Frequency per Week Weekly Time

Health 30 min MI* 5 times 150 min
Health and fitness 20 min VI* 3 times  75 min
Health, fitness, and weight gain prevention 60 min MI/VI† 5–7 times 300 min
Health, fitness, and weight regain prevention 60–90 min MI/VI 5–7 times 450 min
*MI 5 moderate intensity, VI 5 vigorous intensity
†
MI/VI 5 You may use MI, VI, or a combination of the two
© Cengage Learning
© Hakon Stillingen
Combined upper and lower body exercises, such as cross-country skiing, in-
crease the energy demands of the activity.

from heart disease, stroke, type 2 diabetes, colon and breast
cancers, high blood pressure, and osteoporotic fractures.4
Regular physical activity also is important for the health of
muscles, bones, and joints, and it seems to reduce symptoms
of depression and anxiety, improve mood, and enhance abil- Regular participation in a lifetime physical activity program increases qual-
ity to perform daily tasks throughout life. It also can help ity of life at all ages.
control health care costs and maintain a high quality of life
into old age.
Moderate physical activity has been defined as any ac-
tivity that requires an energy expenditure of 150 calories
per day, or 1,000 calories per week. The general health lasting less than 10 minutes cannot be included as part of
recommendation is that people strive to accumulate 150 the moderate physical activity recommendation.
minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity per week, Because of
preferably divided into 30-minute segments over a mini- the ever-growing
mum of 5 days each week (Table 1.1). Whereas 30 minutes epidemic of obe- Exercise A type of physical activity that re-
of continuous activity is preferred, on days when time is sity in the United quires planned, structured, and repetitive
limited, three activity sessions of at least 10 minutes each States, the Insti- bodily movement with the intent of improving
still provide substantial health benefits. Examples of mod- tute of Medicine or maintaining one or more components of
erate physical activity are brisk walking or cycling, playing of the National physical fitness.
basketball or volleyball, swimming, water aerobics, fast Academy of Sci-
dancing, pushing a stroller, raking leaves, shoveling snow, ences increased Moderate physical activity Activity that
washing or waxing a car, washing windows or floors, and the general health uses 150 calories of energy per day, or 1,000
even gardening. Light-intensity activities of daily living recommendation calories per week.
such as casual walking, self-care, shopping, or activities to 60 minutes of
moderate-intensity physical activity every day.5 This recom-

mendation was based on evidence indicating that people CRITICAL THINKING
who maintain healthy weight typically accumulate 1 hour of
Do you consciously incorporate physical activity into your daily
daily physical activity.
lifestyle? Can you provide examples? Do you think you get suf-
Subsequently, the Dietary Guidelines for Americans by
the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and the ficient daily physical activity to maintain good health?
U.S. Department of Agriculture recommend that up to 60
minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity per day
may be necessary to prevent weight gain; in addition, be-
tween 60 and 90 minutes of moderate-intensity physical ac- bic physical activity, 2 hours and 30 minutes a week of
tivity daily is recommended to sustain weight loss for vigorous physical activity, or an equivalent combination of
previously overweight people.6 both.
In sum, although health benefits are derived from 30 • Adults should also do muscle-strengthening activities that
minutes of physical activity performed on most days of the involve all major muscle groups, performing them 2 or
week, people with a tendency to gain weight need to be more days per week.
physically active for 60 to 90 minutes daily to prevent weight
gain. This additional activity per day provides additional Older Adults (Ages 65 and Older)
health benefits, including a lower risk for cardiovascular dis- • Older adults should follow the adult guidelines. If this is
ease and diabetes. not possible due to limiting chronic conditions, older
adults should be as physically active as their abilities al-
low. They should avoid inactivity. Older adults should do
National Initiatives to exercises that maintain or improve balance if they are at
risk of falling.
Promote Healthy and Children 6 Years of Age and Older and Adolescents
Active Lifestyles • Children and adolescents should do 1 hour or more of
physical activity every day. Most of the 1 hour or more a
day should be either moderate or vigorous aerobic physi-
Federal Guidelines for Physical Activity cal activity.
Because of the importance of physical activity to our health,
the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services issued • As part of their daily physical activity, children and ado-
Federal Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans. These lescents should do vigorous activity at least 3 days per
guidelines complement the current Dietary Guidelines for week. They also should do muscle- and bone-strengthen-
Americans (Chapter 3, pages 114–116) and further substan- ing activities at least 3 days per week.
tiate previous recommendations issued by the American
Pregnant and Postpartum Women
College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) and the American
• Healthy women who are not already doing vigorous phys-
Heart Association (AHA) in 20077 and the U.S. Surgeon
ical activity should get at least 2 hours and 30 minutes
General in 1996.8
(150 minutes) of moderate-intensity aerobic activity a
The federal guidelines provide science-based guidance
week. Preferably, this activity should be spread through-
on the importance of being physically active to promote
out the week. Women who regularly engage in vigorous
health and reduce the risk for chronic diseases. The federal
aerobic activity or high amounts of activity can continue
guidelines include the following recommendations9:
their activity provided that their condition remains un-
Adults between 18 and 64 Years of Age changed and they talk to their health care provider about
• Adults should do 2 hours and 30 minutes a week of their activity level throughout their pregnancy.
moderate-intensity aerobic (cardiorespiratory) physical In a previous 2007 report, the ACSM and the AHA re-
activity, 1 hour and 15 minutes (75 minutes) a week of leased a joint statement on physical activity recommendations
vigorous aerobic physical activity, or an equivalent com- for healthy adults.10 The ACSM/AHA report stated that an
bination of moderate and vigorous aerobic physical amount of physical activity that exceeds the minimum recom-
activity (also see Chapter 6). When combining moderate mendations provided here for adults between 18 and 64 years
and vigorous activities, a person could participate in of age provides even greater benefits and is recommended for
moderate-intensity activity twice a week for 30 minutes individuals who wish to further improve personal fitness, re-
and high-intensity activity for 20 minutes on another duce the risk for chronic disease and disabilities, prevent pre-
2 days. Aerobic activity should be performed in episodes mature mortality, or prevent unhealthy weight gain.
each at least 10 minutes long, preferably spread through- The ACSM/AHA report also stated that only 49.1 per-
out the week. cent of the adult population meets the recommendations.
• Additional health benefits are provided by increasing to College graduates are more likely to adhere to the recom-
5 hours (300 minutes) a week of moderate-intensity aero- mendations (about 53 percent of them), followed by indi-
Figure 1.4 Selected health objectives for 2020.
• Increase the proportion of persons with health insurance, a usual primary • Reduce infections caused by key pathogens commonly transmitted
care provider, and coverage for clinical preventive services. through food.
• Ensure that all people, including those with illnesses and chronic • Increase the proportion of sexually active persons who use condoms.
disability, participate daily in meaningful and freely chosen recreation, • Reduce the rate of HIV transmission among adults and adolescents, and
leisure, and physical activity, which directly influences well-being and reduce the number of deaths resulting from HIV infection.
quality of life.
• Increase the proportion of substance-abuse treatment facilities that offer
• Reduce the proportion of adults who engage in no leisure-time physical HIV/AIDS education, counseling, and support.
activity.
• Increase school-based health promotion programs available to youths
• Increase the proportion of adolescents and adults who meet current between the ages of 14 and 22 to decrease the rate of sexually
federal physical activity guidelines. transmitted diseases and teen pregnancy and to increase the proportion
• Increase the proportion of adults who are at a healthy weight, and reduce of adolescents who abstain from sexual intercourse or use condoms if
the proportion of children, adolescents, and adults who are overweight sexually active.
or obese. • Reduce tobacco use by adults and adolescents and reduce the initiation
• Reduce coronary heart disease and stroke deaths. among children, adolescents, and young adults.
• Reduce the mean total blood cholesterol levels among adults and the • Reduce average annual alcohol consumption and increase the
proportion of persons in the population with hypertension. proportion of adolescents who disapprove of substance abuse.
• Increase the proportion of adults aged 20 years and older who are aware • Increase the proportion, among persons who need alcohol and/or illicit
of, and respond to, early warning symptoms and signs of a heart attack drug treatment, of those who receive specialized treatment for abuse or
and stroke. dependence.
• Reduce the overall cancer death rate and provide counseling about • Reduce drug-induced deaths.
cancer prevention.
• Reduce the diabetes death rate and the annual number of new cases of
diagnosed diabetes in the population.
© Cengage Learning
viduals with some college education and then high school health disparities among all groups of people. The objectives
graduates; the least likely to meet the recommendations are address three important points12:
those with less than a high school diploma (37.8 percent). 1. Personal responsibility for health behavior. Individuals
In conjunction with the preceding report, the ACSM and need to become ever more health conscious. Responsible
the American Medical Association (AMA) launched a nation- and informed behaviors are the keys to good health.
wide “Exercise Is Medicine” program.11 The goal of this initia-
2. Health benefits for all people and all communities. Lower
tive is to help improve the health and wellness of the nation
socioeconomic conditions and poor health often are in-
through exercise prescriptions from physicians and health
terrelated. Extending the benefits of good health to all
care providers. It calls on all physicians to assess and review
people is crucial to the health of the nation.
every patient’s physical activity program at every visit.
“Exercise is medicine, and it’s free.” All physicians 3. Health promotion and disease prevention. A shift from
should be prescribing exercise to all patients and partici- treatment to preventive techniques will drastically cut
pate in exercise themselves. Exercise is considered the health care costs and help all Americans achieve better
much-needed vaccine of our time to prevent chronic quality of life.
diseases. Physical activity and exercise are powerful Developing these health objectives involves more than
tools for both the treatment and the prevention of 10,000 people representing 300 national organizations, in-
chronic diseases and premature death. Additional infor- cluding the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy
mation on this program can be obtained by consulting of Sciences, all state health departments, and the federal Of-
www.exerciseismedicine.org. fice of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. Figure 1.4
summarizes the key 2020 objectives. Living the fitness and
National Health Objectives for 2020 Every wellness principles provided in this book will enhance the
10 years, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Ser- quality of your life and allow you to be an active participant
vices releases a list of objectives for preventing disease and in achieving the Healthy People 2020 objectives.
promoting health. Since 1979, the Healthy People initiative
has set and monitored national health objectives to meet a National Physical Activity Plan Established in
range of health needs, encourage collaborations across sec- 2010, the National Physical Activity Plan calls for policy, en-
tors, guide individuals toward making informed health deci- vironmental, and cultural changes to help all Americans en-
sions, and measure the effect of prevention activity. Cur- joy the health benefits of physical activity. It aims to increase
rently, Healthy People is leading the way to achieve increased physical activity among all segments of the population. The
quality and years of healthy life and seeking to eliminate plan is a comprehensive private–public sector joint effort to
create a culture that supports active lifestyles and enables ev- • Providing tax breaks for building owners or employees
eryone to meet physical activity guidelines throughout life. who provide amenities in workplaces and support active
The vision of the plan is that one day all Americans commuting, including showers in buildings, secure bi-
will be physically active and will live, work, and play in en- cycle parking, free bicycles, or transit subsidies
vironments that facilitate regular physical activity. The plan • Encouraging businesses to implement work policies that
complements the Federal Physical Activity Guidelines and allow employees to get some physical activity before, dur-
the Healthy People 2020 objectives and comprises recom- ing, or after work hours
mendations organized in eight sectors of societal influence:
The implementation of the National Physical Activity
education; business and industry; health care; mass media;
Plan requires cooperation among school officials, city and
park recreation, fitness, and sports; public health; volun-
county council members, state legislators, corporations, and
teer and nonprofit; and transportation, land use, and com-
Congress.
munity design. Strategies to implement the plan include
the following:
• Developing and implementing policies requiring school Monitoring Daily Physical
accountability for quality and quantity of physical educa-
tion and physical activity Activity
• Encouraging early childhood education programs to have According to the Centers for Disease Control and Preven-
children as physically active as possible tion, the majority of U.S. adults are not sufficiently physi-
• Providing access to and opportunities for physical activity cally active to promote good health. Surveys indicate that
before and after school only 49 percent of adults meet the minimal recommenda-
• Making physical activity a patient “vital sign” (tracking tion of 30 minutes of moderate physical activity at least
activity levels) that all health care providers assess and 5 days per week, 24 percent report no leisure physical activ-
discuss with patients ity, and 14 percent are inactive (less than 10 minutes per
week of moderate or vigorous physical activity). The preva-
• Using routine performance measures by local, state, and
lence of physical activity by state in the United States is dis-
federal agencies to set benchmarks for active travel (walk-
played in Figure 1.5.
ing, biking, and public transportation)
Other than carefully monitoring actual time engaged in
• Enhancing the existing parks and recreation infrastruc- activity, an excellent tool to monitor daily physical activity is
ture with effective policy and environmental changes to a pedometer. A pedometer is a small mechanical device
promote physical activity that senses vertical body motion and is used to count foot-
• Identifying and disseminating best-practice models for steps. Wearing a pedometer throughout the day allows you
physical activity in the workplace to determine the total steps you take in a day. Some pedom-
Figure 1.5 Approximate prevalence of recommended physical activity in the United States.
WA
MT ND ME
MN
OR
ID SD WI NY VT
WY MI NH
IA PA MA
NV NE OH
IL IN CT
UT RI
CA CO WV VA
KS MO KY
DC NJ
NC
TN
AZ NM OK AR . DE
SC
MD
AL GA
TX LA MS
> 55%
FL 50–54.9%
45–49.9%
AK
40–44.9%
< 40%
Hawaii Guam Puerto Rico Virgin Islands
Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Table 1.2 Adult Activity Levels Based on Total Number of Steps
Taken per Day
Steps per Day Category

5,000 Sedentary lifestyle
5,000–7,499 Low active
7,500–9,999 Somewhat active
10,000–12,499 Active
12,500 Highly active
Source: C. Tudor-Locke and D. R. Basset, "How Many Steps/Day Are Enough? Preliminary Pedometer
Indices for Public Health," Sports Medicine 34 (2004): 1–8.
utes of moderate-intensity physical activity in at least three
Photos © Fitness & Wellness, Inc.

10-minute sessions 5 days per week. A 10-minute brisk
walk (a distance of about 1,200 yards at a 15-min/mile
pace) is approximately 1,300 steps. A 15-min/mile (1,770
yards) walk is about 1,900 steps.13 Thus, new pedometer
brands have an aerobic steps function that records steps
taken in excess of 60 steps per minute over a 10-minute
period.
If you do not accumulate the recommended 10,000
Pedometers are used to monitor daily physical activity by determining the
total number of steps taken each day. daily steps, you can refer to Table 1.3 to determine the ad-
ditional walking or jogging distance required to reach your
goal. For example, if you are 5′8″ tall, are female, and typi-
cally accumulate 5,200 steps per day, you would need an
eters also record distance, calories burned, speeds, and ac- additional 4,800 daily steps to reach your 10,000-steps
tual time of activity each day. A pedometer is a great goal. You can do so by jogging 3.0 miles at a 10-min/mile
motivational tool to help increase, maintain, and monitor pace (1,602 steps 3 3.0 miles 5 4,806 steps) on some days,
daily physical activity that involves lower-body motion and you can walk 2.5 miles at a 15-min/mile pace (1,941
(walking, jogging, and running). steps 3 2.5 miles 5 4,853 steps) on other days. If you do
Before purchasing a pedometer, be sure to verify its ac- not find a particular speed (pace) that you typically walk
curacy. Many free and low-cost pedometers provided by or jog at in Table 1.3, you can estimate the number of steps
corporations for promotion and advertisement purposes are at that speed using the prediction equations at the bottom
inaccurate, so their use is discouraged. Pedometers also tend of this table.
to lose accuracy at a very slow walking speed (slower than The first practical application that you can undertake
30 minutes per mile), because the vertical movement of the in this course is to determine your current level of daily
hip is too small to trigger the spring-mounted lever arm inactivity. The log provided in Lab 1A will help you do this.
side the pedometer to properly record the steps taken. Keep a 4-day log of all physical activities that you do daily.
You can obtain a good pedometer for about $25, and On this log, record the time of day, type and duration of
ratings are available online. The most accurate pedometer the exercise/activity, and if possible, number of steps
brands are Walk4Life, Yamax, Kenz, and New Lifestyles. To taken while engaged in the activity. The results will indi-
test the accuracy of a pedometer, follow these steps: Clip the cate how active you are and serve as a basis to monitor
pedometer on your waist directly above a kneecap, reset the changes in the next few months and years.
pedometer to zero, carefully close the pedometer, walk ex-
actly 50 steps at your normal pace, carefully open the pe-
dometer, and look at the number of steps recorded. A
Fitness and Longevity
reading within 10 percent of the actual steps taken (45 to 55 During the second half of the 20th century, scientists began
steps) is acceptable. to realize the im-
The typical male American takes about 6,000 steps per portance of good
day, in comparison to women, who take about 5,300 steps. fitness and im-
Pedometer An electronic device that
The general recommendation for adults is 10,000 steps per proved lifestyle in
senses body motion and counts footsteps.
day. Table 1.2 provides specific activity categories based on the fight against
the number of daily steps taken. chronic diseases, Some pedometers also record distance, calo-
All daily steps count, but some of your steps should particularly those ries burned, speeds, “aerobic steps,” and
come in bouts of at least 10 minutes to meet the national of the cardiovas- time spent being physically active.
physical activity recommendation of accumulating 30 min- cular system. Be-
Table 1.3 Estimated Number of Steps to Walk or Jog a Mile Based on Gender, Height, and Pace
Pace (min/mile)
Walking Jogging
Height 20 18 16 15 12 10 8 6
Women
50 2,371 2,244 2,117 2,054 1,997 1,710 1,423 1,136
54 2,315 2,188 2,061 1,998 1,943 1,656 1,369 1,082
58 2,258 2,131 2,005 1,941 1,889 1,602 1,315 1,028
60 2,202 2,075 1,948 1,885 1,835 1,548 1,261 974
Men
52 2,310 2,183 2,056 1,993 1,970 1,683 1,396 1,109
56 2,253 2,127 2,000 1,937 1,916 1,629 1,342 1,055
510 2,197 2,070 1,943 1,880 1,862 1,575 1,288 1,001
62 2,141 2,014 1,887 1,824 1,808 1,521 1,234 947
Prediction Equations (pace in min/mile and height in inches):
Walking Running
Women: Steps/mile 5 1,949 1 [(63.4 3 pace) 2 (14.1 3 height)] Women and Men: Steps/mile 5 1,084 1 [(143.6 3 pace) 2 (13.5 3 height)]
Men: Steps/mile 5 1,916 1 [(63.4 3 pace) 2 (14.1 3 height)]
Source: W. K. Hoeger et al., “One-Mile Step Count at Walking and Running Speeds.” ACSM’s Health & Fitness Journal, 12(1):14–19, 2008.
cause of more participation in wellness programs, Figure 1.6 Death rates by physical activity index.
cardiovascular mortality rates dropped. The decline began
40
around 1963, and between 1960 and 2000, the incidence of
cardiovascular disease dropped by 26 percent. In addition, 35
heart attack and death rates from it have further declined by
about 25 percent during the first decade of the 21st century. 30
Percent of total deaths
This decrease is credited to higher levels of wellness and bet- 25

ter treatment modalities in the United States.
Furthermore, several studies showed an inverse rela- 20
tionship between physical activity and premature mortal-
15
ity rates. The first major study in this area was conducted
in the 1980s among 16,936 Harvard alumni, and the re- 10
sults linked physical activity habits and mortality rates.14
As the amount of weekly physical activity increased, the 5
risk for cardiovascular deaths decreased. The largest de- 0
crease in cardiovascular deaths was observed among < 500 500–1,999 2,000+
alumni who used more than 2,000 calories per week Physical activity index, calories/week
through physical activity. Figure 1.6 graphically illustrates Cardiovascular Respiratory Accidents
the study results. disease disease
Cancer Suicides
A landmark study subsequently conducted at the Aer-
obics Research Institute in Dallas upheld the findings of The graph represents cause-specific death rates per 10,000 person-years of ob-
the Harvard alumni study.15 Based on data from 13,344 servation among 16,936 Harvard alumni, 1962–1978, by physical activity in-
dex and is adjusted for differences in age, cigarette smoking, and hypertension.
people followed over an average of 8 years, the study re- Source: R. S. Paffenbarger Jr., R. T. Hyde, A. L. Wing, and C. H. Steinmetz,
vealed a graded and consistent inverse relationship be- “A Natural History of Athleticism and Cardiovascular Health,” Journal of the
American Medical Association 252 (1984): 491–495.
tween physical activity levels and mortality, regardless of
age and other risk factors. As illustrated in Figure 1.7, the
higher the level of physical activity, the longer the
lifespan.
During the 8-year study, the death rate from all significant finding of this landmark study was the large
causes for the low-fit men was 3.4 times higher than that drop in all-cause, cardiovascular, and cancer mortality
for the high-fit men. For the low-fit women, the death rate when individuals went from low fitness to moderate fit-
was 4.6 times higher than that for the high-fit women. A ness—a clear indication that moderate-intensity physical
Figure 1.7 Death rates by physical fitness groups.
39.5
64.0
70 40
60 35
50 30
40 26.3 24.6 25
16.4 16.3
30 20.3 20
20.3
20 15
9.7 7.4
7.8 7.4
10 10 3.9
7.3 4.8 2.9
3.1 1.0
5.8 1.0
4.7
ry
ry
C
.8
C
o
s
au
au
se se
g
g
Lo
Lo
1.8
te
cau
5.4
te
se
cau
se
w
w
ca
All ar ca
o
All r
cul
o
nce
s
f
M
d
es
M
d
es
as er ar
ea
od
Ca
ea
iov od
n
nc cul
n
er
er
th
it
th
it
Ca
at
ard
at
F
F
as
e
t
e
ent
Hi
Hi
C den iov
gh
gh
ci Men rd cid Women

Ac Ca Ac
Numbers on top of the bars are all-cause death rates per 10,000 person-years of follow-up for each cell; 1 person-year indicates one person who was followed up
1 year later.
Source: Based on data from S. N. Blair, H. W. Kohl III, R. S. Paffenbarger Jr., G. G. Clark, K. H. Cooper, and L. W. Gibbons, “Physical Fitness and All-Cause Mor-
tality: A Prospective Study of Healthy Men And Women,” Journal of the American Medical Association 262 (1989): 2395–2401.
activity, achievable by most adults, provides considerable Figure 1.8 Effects of fitness changes on mortality rates.
health benefits and extends life. The data also revealed
140
that the participants attained more protection by combin- 122.0
ing higher fitness levels with reduction in other risk fac- 120
Death rate from all causes*
tors, such as hypertension, serum cholesterol, cigarette

smoking, and excessive body fat. 100
A follow-up 5-year research study on fitness and mor- 80 67.7
tality found a substantial (44 percent) reduction in mortality
risk when people abandoned a sedentary lifestyle and be- 60
come moderately fit.16 The lowest death rate was found in 39.6
40
people who were fit at the start of the study and remained
fit; and the highest death rate was found in men who were 20
unfit at the beginning of the study and remained unfit
0
(Figure 1.8). Initial assessment Unfit Unfit Fit
Research on the benefits of physical activity and exer-
cise on health and longevity is too impressive to be ig- 5-year follow-up Unfit Fit Fit
nored. A 2010 analysis of 33 studies involving more than *Deaths per 10,000 person-years observation.
180,000 people clearly concluded that better aerobic fit- Source: Based on data from S. N. Blair, H. W. Kohl III, C. E. Barlow, R. S.
Paffenbarger Jr., L. W. Gibbons, and C. A. Macera, “Changes in Physical Fit-
ness is associated with a substantially lower risk of all- ness and All-Cause Mortality: A Prospective Study of Healthy and Unhealthy
cause mortality and cardiovascular disease and coronary Men,” Journal of the American Medical Association 273 (1995): 1193–1198.
heart disease events.17 In today’s society, a person cannot

afford not to be physically fit.
In another major research study, a healthy lifestyle was Compared
shown to contribute to some of the lowest cancer mortality with the general Risk factors Lifestyle and genetic vari-
rates ever reported in the literature.18 The investigators in white population, ables that may lead to disease.
this study looked at three general health habits among the this group of
participants: regular physical activity, sufficient sleep, and more than 10,000 Sedentary A person who is relatively inac-
lifetime abstinence from smoking. In addition, study par- people had much tive and whose lifestyle is characterized by a
ticipants abstained from alcohol, drugs, and all forms of lower cancer, car- lot of sitting.
tobacco. diovascular, and
overall death rates. Men in the study had one-third the vascular disease (Figure 1.9). Life expectancies for 25-year-
death rate from cancer, one-seventh the death rate from olds who adhered to the three health habits were 85 and 86
cardiovascular disease, and one-fifth the rate of overall years compared with 75.6 and 80.8 years for the average
mortality. Women had about half the rate of cancer and U.S. white man and woman, respectively (Figure 1.10).
overall mortality and one-third the death rate from cardio- The additional 6 to 11 “golden years” are precious—and
Figure 1.9 Effects of a healthy lifestyle on all-cause, cancer, and

cardiovascular death rates for white men and women.
100
Standardized mortality ratio*

80
60 55
47
40 34 34
22
20 14
0
All causes Cancer Cardiovascular
General population Men Women
*Standardized mortality ratio (SMR) relative to those in the general population

(SMR 1 100).
Source: J. E. Enstrom, “Health Practices and Cancer Mortality among Active

California Mormons,” Journal of the National Cancer Institute 81 (1989):
1807–1814.
Figure 1.10 Life expectancy for 25-year-olds who adhere to a

lifetime healthy lifestyle program compared to the average U.S. white
population.
90
85
80
Years
75
70
65
60
Men Women
Average U.S. white population

People leading a healthy lifestyle
Source: J. E. Enstrom, “Health Practices and Cancer Mortality among Active

Individuals who initiate physical activity and exercise habits at a young age California Mormons,” Journal of the National Cancer Institute 81 (1989):
are more likely to participate throughout life. 1807–1814.
more enjoyable—for those who maintain a lifetime well- be the most widely prescribed medication throughout the
ness program. world today.
Two additional studies reported in 2009 confirm that
fitness improves wellness, quality of life, and longevity.
The first study included 4,384 subjects, and the results Types of Physical Fitness
showed that the least-fit group had an almost twofold As the fitness concept grew at the end of the past century,
greater risk of all-cause and cardiovascular mortalities it became clear that several specific components contrib-
compared with the moderately fit groups and a fourfold ute to an individual’s overall level of fitness. Physical
increased risk in comparison to the most-fit group.19 The fitness is classified into health-related and skill-related
researchers concluded that the mortality rates between the categories.
least-fit and the other groups was most likely related to Health-related fitness relates to the ability to perform
their sedentary lifestyle rather than differences in other activities of daily living without undue fatigue and is condu-
health parameters. cive to a low risk of premature hypokinetic diseases.24 The
The second study looked at four health-related factors health-related fitness components are cardiorespiratory (aer-
among a group of more than 23,000 people.20 These factors obic) endurance, muscular strength and endurance, muscu-
included lifetime nonsmoker, not considered obese (body lar flexibility, and body composition (Figure 1.11).
mass index, or BMI, below 30), engaging in a minimum of Skill-related fitness components consist of agility, bal-
3.5 hours of weekly physical activity, and adherence to ance, coordination, reaction time, speed, and power (Fig-
healthy nutrition principles (high consumption of whole- ure 1.12; also see Chapter 9). These components are related
grain breads, fruits, and vegetables and low consumption of primarily to successful sports and motor skill performance.
red meat). Those who adhered to all four health habits were Participating in skill-related activities contributes to physical
78 percent less likely to develop chronic diseases (diabetes, fitness, but in terms of general health promotion and well-
heart disease, stroke, and cancer) during the almost-eight- ness, the main emphasis of physical fitness programs should
year study. Furthermore, the risk for developing a chronic be on the health-related components.
disease progressively increased as the number of health fac-
tors decreased.
While it is clear that moderate-intensity exercise
provides substantial health benefits, research data also
CRITICAL THINKING
show a dose–response relationship between physical activ- What role do the four health-related components of physical
ity and health. That is, greater health and fitness benefits fitness play in your life? Rank them in order of importance to
occur at higher duration, intensity, or both of physical
you, and explain the rationale you used.
activity. Vigorous activity and longer duration to the
extent of a person’s capabilities are preferable, because
they are most clearly associated with better health and
longer life.
Vigorous exercise seems to provide the best benefits.21 Vigorous activity Any exercise that requires a metabolic equivalent
Compared with prolonged moderate-intensity activity, vig- task (MET) level equal to or greater than 6 METs (21 mL/kg/min). One
orous exercise has been shown to provide the best improve-
MET is the energy expenditure at rest (3.5 mL/kg/min), and METs are de-
ments in aerobic capacity, coronary heart disease risk
fined as multiples of this resting metabolic rate (examples of activities
reduction, and overall cardiovascular health.22
Furthermore, a comprehensive review of research that require a 6-MET level include aerobics, walking uphill at 3.5 mph,
studies found a lower rate of heart disease in vigorous ex- cycling at 10 to 12 mph, playing doubles in tennis, and vigorous strength
ercisers compared with those who exercised at moderate training).
intensity.23 While no differences were found in weight loss Physical fitness The ability to meet the ordinary, as well as unusual,
between the two groups, greater improvements were seen demands of daily life safely and effectively without being overly fa-
in cardiovascular risk factors in the vigorous groups, in- tigued and still have energy left for leisure and recreational activities.
cluding aerobic fitness, blood pressure, and blood glucose
control. Health-related fitness Fitness programs prescribed to improve the
A word of caution, however, is in order: Vigorous individual’s overall health.
exercise should be reserved for healthy individuals who Hypokinetic diseases Hypo denotes “lack of”; therefore, illnesses
have been cleared to do so (Lab 1B) and who have been related to lack of physical activity.
participating regularly in at least moderate-intensity activ-
ities. The benefits of physical activity and exercise on Skill-related fitness Fitness components important for success in
health, longevity, and quality of life are so impressive that skillful activities and athletic events; encompasses agility, balance, coor-
researchers and sports medicine leaders have stated that if dination, reaction time, speed, and power.
the benefits of exercise could be packaged in a pill, it would
Figure 1.11 Health-related components of physical fitness. Figure 1.12 Motor skill–related components of physical fitness.
Cardiorespiratory Coordination
endurance
Agility Speed
Balance Power
Reaction
time
Muscular
flexibility
© Cengage Learning
Body
composition
Muscular
strength and
endurance
Fitness Standards: Health

versus Physical Fitness
Divers—© Fitness & Wellness, Inc.; Kayaker—Chuck Scheer, Boise State University
The assessment of fitness components is presented in Chap-
ters 4 and 6 through 9. In addition, a meaningful debate
regarding age- and gender-related fitness standards has re-
sulted in the two standards: health fitness (also referred to as
criterion referenced) and physical fitness.
Health Fitness Standards The health fitness

standards proposed here are based on data linking mini-
mum fitness values to disease prevention and health. At-
taining health fitness standards requires only moderate
physical activity. For example, a 2-mile walk in less than
30 minutes, five or six times a week, seems to be sufficient
to achieve the health fitness standard for cardiorespiratory
endurance.
As illustrated in Figure 1.13, significant health benefits
can be reaped with such a program, although fitness im- Good health-related fitness and skill-related fitness are required to partici-
provements, expressed in terms of maximum oxygen up- pate in highly skilled activities.
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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eTextbook 978-1133599692 Principles

and Labs for Physical Fitness

Lab 5B Weight-Loss Behavior Modification Plan 190

Appendix A: Nutritive Value of Selected

Answers to Assess Your Knowledge 475

Choosing Healthy Foods 94

Assess Your Behavior 145

Basic Cardiorespiratory Physiology: A Quick Survey 202

Assessment of Cardiorespiratory Endurance 207 Muscular Strength and Aging 246

Interpreting the Results of Your VO2max 214 Strength-Training Prescription 253

Interpreting Flexibility Test Results 297

Side Stitch 347

© Fitness & Wellness, Inc.

© Fitness & Wellness, Inc.

Tobacco Use 418

CengageNOW™ with eBook and InfoTrac® Walk4Life® Pedometer. ISBN-13: 978-0-495-01315-0.

Steve Hsu, University of Southern California

Visit www.cengagebrain.com to access course

Real Life Stories | Jeremy’s Experience

MyProfile: General Understanding of Fitness and Wellness

joy the “good life” (sedentary living, alcohol, fatty foods,

Source: United Nations, “Social Indicators: Indicators on Health,” http://

fitness and wellness movement developed gradually in the

DIV E R S I T Y C O N S I DERAT IONS

© Fitness & Wellness, Inc.

produces progressive health benefits. Physical activity typi-

Table 1.1 Physical Activity Recommendations

Benefits Duration Intensity Frequency per Week Weekly Time

© Fitness & Wellness, Inc.

moderate-intensity physical activity every day.5 This recom-

Hawaii Guam Puerto Rico Virgin Islands

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Steps per Day Category

utes of moderate-intensity physical activity in at least three

Photos © Fitness & Wellness, Inc.

This decrease is credited to higher levels of wellness and bet- 25

ci Men rd cid Women

tors, such as hypertension, serum cholesterol, cigarette

heart disease events.17 In today’s society, a person cannot

Figure 1.9 Effects of a healthy lifestyle on all-cause, cancer, and

Standardized mortality ratio*

General population Men Women

*Standardized mortality ratio (SMR) relative to those in the general population

Source: J. E. Enstrom, “Health Practices and Cancer Mortality among Active

Figure 1.10 Life expectancy for 25-year-olds who adhere to a

Average U.S. white population

Source: J. E. Enstrom, “Health Practices and Cancer Mortality among Active

Fitness Standards: Health

Health Fitness Standards ​The health fitness

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

Health Fitness Standards The health fitness