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CHAPTER LABS v
chapter labs
CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 7
Why Physical Fitness? 1 Muscular Fitness: Strength and
Lab 1A Daily Physical Activity Log 37 Endurance 257
Lab 1B PAR-Q and Health History Questionnaire 39 Lab 7A Muscular Strength and Endurance Assessment 305
Lab 1C Resting Heart Rate and Blood Pressure 41 Lab 7B Strength-Training Program 307
CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 8
Behavior Modification 43 Muscular Flexibility 309
Lab 2A Exercising Control over Your Physical Activity and Lab 8A Muscular Flexibility Assessment 337
Nutrition Environment 71 Lab 8B Posture Evaluation 339
Lab 2B Behavior Modification Plan 73 Lab 8C Flexibility Development and Low Back
Lab 2C Setting SMART Goals 75 Conditioning 341
CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 9
Nutrition for Wellness 77 Skill Fitness and Fitness
Lab 3A Nutrient Analysis 129 Programming 343
Lab 3B MyPlate Record Form 133 Lab 9A Assessment of Skill Fitness 375
Lab 9B Personal Fitness Plan 377
CHAPTER 4
Body Composition 135 CHAPTER 10
Lab 4A Hydrostatic Weighing for Body Composition Stress Assessment and
Assessment 159 Management Techniques 381
Lab 4B Body Composition, Disease Risk Assessment, and
Lab 10A Stress Events Scale 409
Recommended Body Weight Determination 161
Lab 10B Type A Personality and Hostility Assessment 411
CHAPTER 5 Lab 10C Stress Vulnerability Questionnaire 413
Weight Management 163 Lab 10D Goals and Time Management Skills 415
Lab 5A Computing Your Daily Caloric Requirement 203 Lab 10E Stress Management 419
Lab 5B Weight-Loss Behavior Modification Plan 205

CHAPTER 11
Lab 5C Calorie-Restricted Diet Plans 207
A Healthy Lifestyle 421
Lab 5D Healthy Plan for Weight Maintenance or Gain 211
Lab 11A Cardiovascular and Cancer Risk Management 461
Lab 5E Weight Management: Measuring Progress 213
Lab 11B Life Expectancy and Physiological Age Prediction
Questionnaire 463
CHAPTER 6
Lab 11C Fitness and Wellness Community Resources 467
Cardiorespiratory Endurance 215
Lab 11D Self-Evaluation and Future Behavioral Goals 469
Lab 6A Cardiorespiratory Endurance Assessment 247
Lab 6B Caloric Expenditure and Exercise Heart Rate 249
Lab 6C Exercise Readiness Questionnaire 253
Lab 6D Cardiorespiratory Exercise Prescription 255
Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
vi CHAPTER LABS
Appendix A: Nutritive Value of Selected

Foods 473
Glossary 485
Answers to Assess Your Knowledge 494
Index 495
CONTENTS vii
contents
CHAPTER 1 The Wellness Challenge for Our Day 28
Why Physical Fitness? 1 Guidelines for a Healthy Lifestyle: Using This Book 29
Life Expectancy 4 An Individualized Approach 29
Lifestyle as a Health Problem 5 The Joy of Fitness 30
Physical Activity and Exercise Defined 7 Exercise Safety 31
Importance of Increased Physical Activity 7 Resting Heart Rate and Blood Pressure Assessment 31
National Initiatives to Promote Healthy and Active Mean Blood Pressure 32

Lifestyles 9 Assess Your Behavior 33
Monitoring Daily Physical Activity 12 Assess Your Knowledge 33
“Sitting Disease:” A 21st Century Chronic Disease 14 Notes 34
Fitness and Longevity 15 Suggested Readings 35
Types of Physical Fitness 19 Lab1A Daily Physical Activity Log 37
Fitness Standards: Health versus Physical Fitness 19 Lab1B PAR-Q and Health History Questionnaire 39
Benefits of Fitness 22 Lab1C Resting Heart Rate and Blood Pressure 41
CHAPTER 2
Behavior Modification 43
Living in a Toxic Health and Fitness Environment 44
Environmental Influences on Physical Activity 46
Environmental Influence on Diet and Nutrition 48
Values and Behavior 50
Your Brain and Your Habits 51
Willpower 52
Barriers to Change 52
Self-Efficacy 54
Motivation and Locus of Control 54
Changing Behavior 56
Behavior Change Theories 57
The Process of Change 61
Techniques of Change 64
Assess Your Behavior 67
Assess Your Knowledge 67
Notes 68
Suggested Readings 69
Lab 2A Exercising Control over Your Physical Activity and
Nutrition Environment 71
© Fitness & Wellness, Inc.
Lab 2B Behavior Modification Plan 73

Lab 2C Setting SMART Goals 75
viii CONTENTS
CHAPTER 3
Nutrition for Wellness 77
Nutrients 81
Carbohydrates 83
Fats (Lipids) 86
Proteins 89
Vitamins 91
© Julián Rovagnati/Shutterstock.com
Minerals 91
Water 91
Balancing the Diet 92
Nutrition Standards 94
Nutrient Analysis 96
Achieving a Balanced Diet 99
CHAPTER 4
Choosing Healthy Foods 103
Body Composition 135
Vegetarianism 103
Essential and Storage Fat 138
Nuts 105
Techniques to Assess Body Composition 138
Soy Products 106
Metrics Used to Determine Recommended Body Weight 148
Probiotics 106
Body Mass Index 149
Advanced Glycation End Products 106
Waist Circumference 150
Diets from Other Cultures 107
Waist-to-Height Ratio: “Keep your waist circumference to
Nutrient Supplementation 109 less than half your height.” 152
Benefits of Foods 113 Determining Recommended Body Weight 154
Functional Foods 114 Importance of Regular Body Composition Assessment 155
Organic Foods 114 Assess Your Behavior 156
Genetically Modified Crops 115 Assess Your Knowledge 156
Energy Substrates for Physical Activity 117 Notes 157
Nutrition for Athletes 117 Suggested Readings 158
Bone Health and Osteoporosis 120 Lab 4A Hydrostatic Weighing for Body Composition
Iron Deficiency 122 Assessment 159
2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans 123 Lab 4B Body Composition, Disease Risk Assessment, and
Proper Nutrition: A Lifetime Prescription for Healthy Recommended Body Weight Determination 161
Living 124
Assess Your Behavior 125 CHAPTER 5
Assess Your Knowledge 125 Weight Management 163
Notes 126 Overweight versus Obese 168
Suggested Readings 127 Tolerable Weight 168
Lab 3A Nutrient Analysis 129 The Weight Loss Dilemma 169
Lab 3B MyPlate Record Form 133 Diet Crazes 169
Eating Disorders 174
The Physiology of Weight Loss 177
Diet and Metabolism 180
Hormonal Regulation of Appetite 181
Sleep and Weight Management 182
CONTENTS ix
Monitoring Body Weight 182
Exercise and Weight Management 182
The Roles of Exercise Intensity and Duration in Weight
Management 185
Overweight and Fit Debate 187
Healthy Weight Gain 188
Weight Loss Myths 188
Losing Weight the Sound and Sensible Way 188
Monitoring Your Diet with Daily Food Logs 194
Effect of Food Choices on Long-Term Weight Gain 195
Behavior Modification and Adherence to a Weight
Management Program 195
The Simple Truth 196
Notes 200
Lab 5A Computing Your Daily Caloric Requirement 203
Lab 5B Weight-Loss Behavior Modification Plan 205
Lab 5C Calorie-Restricted Diet Plans 207

Lab 5D Healthy Plan for Weight Maintenance or Gain 211
Lab 5E Weight Management: Measuring Progress 213
CHAPTER 6
Cardiorespiratory Endurance 215
Notes 246
Basic Cardiorespiratory Physiology: A Quick Survey 218
Aerobic and Anaerobic Exercise 219
Lab 6A Cardiorespiratory Endurance Assessment 247
Benefits of Aerobic Training 220
Lab 6B Caloric Expenditure and Exercise Heart Rate 249
Physical Fitness Assessment 222
Lab 6C Exercise Readiness Questionnaire 253
Responders versus Nonresponders 222
Lab 6D Cardiorespiratory Exercise Prescription 255
Assessment of Cardiorespiratory Endurance 223
Tests to Estimate VO2max 224 CHAPTER 7
Interpreting the Results of Your VO2max 230 Muscular Fitness: Strength and
Predicting VO2 and Caloric Expenditure from Walking and
Jogging 230
Endurance 257
Principles of CR Exercise Prescription 232 Strength Training Benefits 260
Guidelines for CR Exercise Prescription 233 Muscular Fitness and Aging 260
Fitness Benefits of Aerobic Activities 240 Assessment of Muscular Strength and Endurance 263
Getting Started and Adhering to a Lifetime Exercise Strength-Training Prescription 268

Program 242 Overload 269
A Lifetime Commitment to Fitness 245 Specificity of Training 270
Assess Your Behavior 245 Principles Involved in Strength Training 270
Assess Your Knowledge 245 Strength-Training Exercises 277
x CONTENTS
Dietary Guidelines for Muscular and Strength CHAPTER 8

Development 277
Muscular Flexibility 309
Core Strength Training 279
Benefits of Good Flexibility 310
Pilates Exercise System 279
Flexibility in Older Adults 312
Stability Exercise Balls 280
Factors Affecting Flexibility 312
Elastic-Band Resistive Exercise 280
Assessment of Flexibility 312
Exercise Safety Guidelines 280
Interpreting Flexibility Test Results 313
Setting Up Your Own Strength-Training Program 282
Principles of Muscular Flexibility Prescription 318
Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation 318
Physiological Response to Stretching 319
Notes 285
Intensity 319
Repetitions 320
Strength-Training Exercises without Weights 286
Frequency of Exercise 320
Strength-Training Exercises with Weights 291
When to Stretch? 320
Stability Ball Exercises 300
Flexibility Exercises 321
Lab 7A Muscular Strength and Endurance Assessment 305
Preventing and Rehabilitating Low Back Pain 321
Lab 7B Strength-Training Program 307
Effects of Stress 326
Personal Flexibility and Low Back Conditioning
Program 326
Notes 328
Flexibility Exercises 329
Exercises for the Prevention and Rehabilitation of Low Back
Pain 332
Lab 8A Muscular Flexibility Assessment 337
Lab 8B Posture Evaluation 339
Lab 8C Flexibility Development and Low Back
Conditioning 341
CONTENTS xi
CHAPTER 9 Biofeedback 397
Skill Fitness and Fitness Progressive Muscle Relaxation 398
Programming 343 Breathing Techniques for Relaxation 399
Performance Tests for Skill-Related Fitness 346 Visual Imagery 400
Team Sports 350 Autogenic Training 402
Specific Exercise Considerations 351 Meditation 402
Exercise-Related Injuries 359 Yoga 404
Exercise and Aging 361 Tai Chi 405
Physical Training in the Older Adult 361 Which Technique Is Best? 405
Preparing for Sports Participation 362 Assess Your Behavior 406
Base Fitness Conditioning 365 Assess Your Knowledge 406
Sport-Specific Conditioning 366 Notes 407
Overtraining 368 Suggested Readings 407
Periodization 369 Lab 10A Stress Events Scale 409
Personal Fitness Programming: An Example 370 Lab 10B Type A Personality and Hostility Assessment 411
You Can Get It Done 372 Lab 10C Stress Vulnerability Questionnaire 413
Assess Your Behavior 372 Lab 10D Goals and Time Management Skills 415
Assess Your Knowledge 373 Lab 10E Stress Management 419
Notes 374
CHAPTER 11
A Healthy Lifestyle 421
Lab 9A Assessment of Skill Fitness 375
The Seven Dimensions of Wellness 424
Lab 9B Personal Fitness Plan 377
Spiritual Well-Being 424
CHAPTER 10 Leading Health Problems in the United States 425
Stress Assessment and Diseases of the Cardiovascular System 425
Management Techniques 381 Coronary Heart Disease 426
Cancer 438
The Mind–Body Connection 382
Chronic Lower Respiratory Disease 445
The Brain 384
Accidents 446
Stress and Illness 384
Substance Abuse 446
Sleep and Wellness 384
Sexually Transmitted Infections 449
Stress 385
Stress Adaptation 387
Perceptions and Health 388
Self-Esteem 388
Fighting Spirit 388
Sources of Stress 388
Behavior Patterns 389
Vulnerability to Stress 392
Time Management 392
Coping with Stress 394

Physical Activity 395
Relaxation Techniques 397
xii CONTENTS
An Educated Fitness/Wellness Consumer 451 Lab 11A Cardiovascular and Cancer Risk Management 461
Health/Fitness Club Memberships 452 Lab 11B Life Expectancy and Physiological Age Prediction
Personal Trainers 453 Questionnaire 463
Purchasing Exercise Equipment 455 Lab 11C Fitness and Wellness Community Resources 467
Life Expectancy and Physiological Age 455 Lab 11D Self-Evaluation and Future Behavioral Goals 469
Self-Evaluation and Behavioral Goals for the Future 456 Appendix A: Nutritive Value of
The Fitness Experience and a Challenge for the Future 456 Selected Foods 473
Glossary 485
Notes 459 Answers to Assess Your
Suggested Readings 460 Knowledge 494
Index 495
PREFACE xiii
Preface
People go to college to learn how to make a living. Making a book includes information on motivation and behavioral
good living, however, won’t help unless people live an active modification techniques that help you eliminate negative be-
lifestyle that allows them to enjoy what they have. The haviors and implement a healthier way of life.
American way of life does not provide the human body with
The emphasis throughout the book is on teaching you how
sufficient physical activity to maintain adequate health.
to take control of your fitness and lifestyle habits so that you
Many present lifestyle patterns are such a serious threat to
can make a deliberate effort to stay healthy and achieve the
our health that they actually increase the deterioration rate
highest potential for well-being.
of the human body and often lead to premature illness and
mortality.
Furthermore, the science of behavioral therapy has estab- New in the Tenth Edition
lished that many of the behaviors we adopt are a product of This new edition of Principles and Labs for Physical Fitness
our environment. Unfortunately, we live in a “toxic” health has been revised and updated to conform to advances in the
and fitness environment. Becoming aware of how the envi- field and new recommendations by major national health
ronment affects our health is vital if we wish to achieve and and fitness organizations. New content is based on informa-
maintain wellness. Yet, we are so habituated to this modern- tion reported in literature and at professional health, physi-
day environment that we miss the subtle ways in which it cal education, exercise science, and sports medicine
influences our behaviors, personal lifestyle, and health each meetings.
day.
In this edition, we continue to provide the MyProfile feature
Research clearly indicates that people who lead an active at the beginning of each chapter for students to evaluate
lifestyle live longer and enjoy a better quality of life. As a re- their current knowledge of the chapter’s topic. Included also
sult, the importance of sound fitness and wellness programs are the Confident Consumer and Diversity Considerations
has assumed an entirely new dimension. The Office of the boxes to help students make healthier choices and be dis-
Surgeon General has identified physical fitness as a top cerning fitness and wellness consumers. These features,
health priority by stating that the nation’s top health goals in along with the Real Life Story and FAQ sections, are in-
the 21st century are exercise, increased consumption of tended to perk the students’ interest in the chapter contents.
fruits and vegetables, smoking cessation, and the practice of Beyond the individual chapter updates listed in the next sec-
safe sex. All four of these fundamental healthy lifestyle faction, new figures and photography are included throughout
tors are thoroughly addressed in this book. the textbook.
Because of the impressive scientific evidence supporting the
benefits of physical activity, most people in this country are Chapter Updates
aware that physical fitness promotes a healthier, happier, and • All statistics related to the leading causes of death, life ex-
more productive life. Nevertheless, the vast majority of pectancy, and health care costs and prevalence of physical
Americans do not enjoy a better quality of life because they activity in the United States have been brought up-to-date
either are led astray by a multibillion-dollar “quick fix” in- in the opening chapter, “Why Physical Fitness?” New sec-
dustry or simply do not know how to implement a sound tions on the Nagano Lifestyle Experience, Adopting Healthy
physical activity program that yields positive results. Only in Habits at a Young Age, and Sitting Disease, a 21st century
a fitness course do people learn sound principles of healthy ailment coined by the scientific community to explain the
lifestyle factors, including exercise prescriptions that, if im- detrimental effects of excessive sitting on health and well-
plemented, teach them how to truly live life to its fullest ness have been added to this chapter. Information is also
potential. presented on recommendations for daily lifestyle changes
to minimize the risk for “sitting disease.” The section on
Principles and Labs for Physical Fitness contains 11 chapters Exercise and Brain Function has been updated and en-
and 35 laboratories that serve as guides to implement a hanced and provides new information on the role of exer-
comprehensive lifetime fitness program. This edition has cise in the prevention of mental decline and Alzheimer’s
been updated to include the latest information reported in disease.
the literature and at professional health, physical education,
• Chapter 2, “Behavior Modification,” includes a new sec-
and sports medicine meetings. You are encouraged to be
tion on Values and Behavior that explains the way core
physically active, adhere to a well-balanced diet, and lead a
values are formed, with new information on the role of
healthy lifestyle to achieve wellness. To promote this, the
the prefrontal cortex of the brain in carrying out value-
xiv PREFACE
centered behavior. The section about the brain and habit • The title of Chapter 7 has been changed to “Muscular Fit-
formation has been updated and expanded, and new con- ness,” a new term that describes the general health,
tent introduces mindfulness, willpower, and examines the strength, and endurance of a person’s muscular system.
way these affect goal achievement. All statistics regarding Updates were also made to the Strength Training Benefits
the negative effects of a sedentary lifestyle and our food- section, aging and sarcopenia (loss of muscle mass), ef-
abundant environment have been updated, and new in- fects of aging on visceral fat, free weights versus strength-
formation on the effect of social norms on behavior has training machines, dietary protein guidelines for strength
also been added to the chapter. A new figure on SMART development, exercise safety guidelines, and an introduc-
goals has also been added. tion to the concepts of myofibrillar and plasmic
• The topic of Chapter 3, “Nutrition for Wellness,” was up- hypertrophy.
dated and revised to include new information on the • In Chapter 8, “Muscular Flexibility,” the section on pre-
health consequences of excessive sugar intake, sugar- venting and rehabilitating low back pain has been ex-
sweetened beverages, and energy drinks. Additional infor- panded to include information on the importance of core-
mation is provided on unsaturated fatty acids (including strengthening exercise to strengthen muscles that stabilize
omega-9s); olive oil and canola oil; the key role of ade- the spine. New studies are cited, emphasizing the benefit
quate protein intake throughout the day; complementary of exercise therapy over bed rest as a treatment for
proteins for vegetarian diets; red-meat intake, chronic dis- chronic back pain, including data supporting yoga as ef-
ease, and premature death; the Harvard Healthy Eating fective for reducing pain and improving function. Also
Plate; and the latest advances for the prevention and treat- added to the chapter was a new figure listing ergonomic
ment of osteoporosis. Many other minor updates as re- tips to improve the computer workspace, provide optimal
lated to nutrition principles were made to the chapter. lower back support, and ensure correct sitting posture
• New global recommendations for health metrics have while working at a desk.
been added to Chapter 4, “Body Composition,” including • In Chapter 9, “Skill Fitness and Fitness Programming,” all
a discussion of the way waist circumference, waist-to- information regarding 2014 fitness trends has been
height-ratio (WHtR), and the Body Mass Index are being brought up to date and incorporates new discussions on
used in conjunction to prevent disease. The potential of various activities, including functional fitness, bike com-
WHtR to more accurately predict disease and to be used muting and outdoor training, the Tabata high-intensity
in public health education is discussed. Data and figures training program, the reemergence of high-intensity cir-
for the different obesity classes (I, II, and III) were also cuit training (HICT), and senior fitness solutions incorpo-
included. rating Tai Chi.
• Important changes related to the recommendations and • Information on the importance of proper breathing as a
advances in the field of weight control are discussed in natural mechanism to reduce stress has been added to
Chapter 5, “Weight Management.” The data on the obesity Chapter 10, “Stress Assessment and Management Tech-
epidemic in the United States were brought up-to-date niques.” The benefits of mindfulness meditation, Tai Chi,
and include obesity prevalence estimates based on gender, and yoga for stress management have also been expanded
level of education, and cultural ethnicity. EDNOS (Eating in this edition.
Disorders Not Otherwise Specified) and the Federal Trade • Chapter 11, “A Healthy Lifestyle,” contains updates on
Commission’s Weight-Loss Gimmick “7 Gut Check lifestyle-related factors that contribute to premature mor-
Claims” are included in the chapter. Enhancements were tality, including the major risk factors for coronary heart
also made to the Physiology of Weight Loss and Weight disease and cancer. New information is provided on
Loss Strategies sections, including a better explanation on warning signs for stroke, ECG recommendations, and the
the rule of thumb that one pound of fat represents 3,500 new heart disease and stroke prevention guidelines by the
calories; a new section on the Overweight and Fit Debate American Heart Association and the American College of
(fit and fat); the value of having three regular meals and Cardiology. The content on illegal drugs, alcohol abuse,
two healthy snacks daily; the importance of adequate and sexually transmitted infections in the United States,
amount of lean protein sources with each meal; and the as well as the guidelines for choosing a personal fitness
benefits of exercise-intensity, interval training, and the ef- trainer, have all been brought up-to-date in the chapter.
fects of cold-water swimming on weight loss.
• The “Cardiorespiratory Endurance” chapter (Chapter 6)
includes updates on the number of people who meet the Ancillaries
2008 Federal Guidelines for Physical Activity. Additional
Health MindTap for Principles and Labs
information on energy drinks, the new FITT-VP acronym
for Physical Fitness with Instant Access Code.
used for exercise prescription, “physical stillness,” the im-
ISBN-13: 978-1-305-27663-5.
portance of maintaining some physical activity through-
MindTap is well beyond an eBook, a homework solution or
out the day, exercise volume, and fitness apps are all ad-
digital supplement, a resource center website, a course deliv-
dressed in this chapter.
PREFACE xv
ery platform, or a Learning Management System. More than Careers in Health, Physical Education, and Sport, 2nd edi-
70% of students surveyed said that it was unlike anything tion. ISBN-13: 978-0-495-38839-5.
they have ever seen before. MindTap is a new personal This unique booklet takes students through the complicated
learning experience that combines all of your digital process of picking the type of career they want to pursue;
assets—readings, multimedia, activities, and assessments— explains how to prepare for the transition into the working
into a singular learning path to improve student outcomes. world; and provides insight into different types of career
paths, education requirements, and reasonable salary expec-
Diet & Wellness Plus tations. A designated chapter discusses some of the legal is-
Diet & Wellness Plus helps you gain a better understanding sues that surround the workplace, including discrimination
of how nutrition relates to your personal health goals. It en- and harassment. This supplement is complete with personal
ables you to track your diet and activity, generate reports, development activities designed to encourage students to fo-
and analyze the nutritional value of the food you eat! It in- cus on and develop better insight into their futures.
cludes over 55,000 foods in the database, custom food and
recipe features, the latest Dietary References, as well as your Walk4Life® Pedometer. ISBN-13: 978-0-495-01315-0.
goal and actual percentages of essential nutrients, vitamins, Provided through an alliance with Walk4Life, the Walk4Life
and minerals. It also helps you to identify a problem behav- Elite Model pedometer tracks steps, elapsed time, and dis-
ior and make a positive change. After completing a Wellness tance. Including a calorie counter and a clock, it can be inte-
Profile questionnaire, Diet & Wellness Plus will rate the level grated into class activities and is an excellent tool to
of concern for eight different areas of wellness, helping you encourage students to track their steps and walk toward bet-
determine the areas where you are most at risk. It then helps ter fitness awareness.
you put together a plan for positive change by helping you
select a goal to work toward—complete with a reward for all
your hard work. Diet & Wellness Plus is also available as an Brief Author Biographies
App that can be accessed from the App dock in MindTap Werner W.K. Hoeger is a professor emeritus of the Depart-
and can be used throughout the course for students to track ment of Kinesiology at Boise State University. He remains
their diet and activity and behavior change. active in research and continues to lecture in the areas of ex-
ercise physiology, physical fitness, and wellness.
Global Health Watch with Instant Access Code.
ISBN: 978-1-111-37733-5. Printed Access Card, Dr. Hoeger completed his undergraduate and master’s degrees
ISBN: 978-1-111-37731-1. in physical education at the age of 20 and received his doctor-
Updated with today’s current headlines, Global Health ate degree with an emphasis in exercise physiology at the age
Watch is your one-stop resource for classroom discussion of 24. He is a fellow of the American College of Sports Medi-
and research projects. This resource center provides access cine and of the Research Consortium of the Society of Health
to thousands of trusted health sources, including academic and Physical Educators (SHAPE America—previously the
journals, magazines, newspapers, videos, podcasts, and American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recre-
more. It is updated daily to offer the most current news ation, and Dance). In 2002, he was recognized as the out-
about topics related to your health course. standing alumnus from the College of Health and Human
Performance at Brigham Young University. He is the recipient
Cognero Test Bank. ISBN-13: 978-1-305-26548-6. of the first Presidential Award for Research and Scholarship
Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero is a flexible, in the College of Education at Boise State University in 2004.
online system that allows you to: In 2008, he was asked to be the keynote speaker at the sev-
• author, edit, and manage test bank content from multiple enth Ibero-American Congress of Sports Medicine and Ap-
Cengage Learning solutions plied Sciences in Mérida, Venezuela, and was presented with
• create multiple test versions in an instant the Distinguished Guest of the City recognition. In 2010, he
was also honored as the keynote speaker at the Western Soci-
• deliver tests from your LMS, your classroom, or wherever
ety for Kinesiology and Wellness in Reno, Nevada.
you want
Using his knowledge and personal experiences, Dr. Hoeger
Instructor’s Companion Site. writes engaging, informative books that thoroughly address
Everything you need for your course in one place! This col- today’s fitness and wellness issues in a format accessible to
lection of book-specific lecture and class tools is available students. Since 1990, he has been the most widely read fit-
online via www.cengage.com/login. Access and download ness and wellness college textbook author in the United
PowerPoint presentations, images, instructor’s manual, vid- States. He has published a total of 60 editions of his nine fit-
eos, and more. ness and wellness-related titles. Among the textbooks writ-
ten for Wadsworth/Cengage Learning are Lifetime Physical
Fitness and Wellness: A Personalized Program, 13th edition;
Fitness and Wellness, 11th edition; Principles and Labs for
Fitness and Wellness, 13th edition; Wellness: Guidelines for a
xvi PREFACE
Healthy Lifestyle, 4th edition; and Water Aerobics for Fitness

and Wellness, 4th edition (with Terry-Ann Spitzer Gibson).
Dr. Hoeger was the first author to write a college fitness
textbook that incorporated the wellness concept. In 1986,
with the release of the first edition of Lifetime Physical Fit-
ness & Wellness, he introduced the principle that to truly
improve fitness, health, and quality of life and to achieve
wellness, a person needed to go beyond the basic health-
related components of physical fitness. His work was so well

received that every fitness author in the field immediately
followed his lead.
As an innovator in the field, Dr. Hoeger has developed many
fitness and wellness assessment tools, including fitness tests
such as the Modified Sit-and-Reach, Total Body Rotation,
Shoulder Rotation, Muscular Endurance, Muscular Strength for the fitness and wellness textbooks. Her innovations in this
and Endurance, and Soda tests. Proving that he practices area since the publication of the first edition of Lifetime Physi-
what he preaches, he was the oldest male competitor in the cal Fitness & Wellness in 1986 set the standard for fitness and
2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah, at the age of wellness computer software used in this market today.
48. He raced in the sport of luge, along with his then-17-year- Sharon is a coauthor of five of the seven fitness and wellness
old son Christopher. It was the first time in Winter Olympics titles. She also served as chef de mission (chief of delega-
history that father and son competed in the same event. In tion) for the Venezuelan Olympic Team at the 2006 Winter
2006, at the age of 52, he was the oldest competitor at the Olympics in Turin, Italy. A former gymnast, she now partic-
Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy. In 2011, he raced in the 800-, ipates in a variety of fitness activities to enjoy good health
1,500-, and 5,000-meter events in track and field at the World and maintain a high quality of life.
Masters Athletic (Track and Field) Championships held in
Sacramento, California. At different times in 2012, 2013, and
2014, he reached All-American standards for his age group by
USA Track and Field including 800-meter, 1,500-meter, and
1.0-mile events.
Sharon A. Hoeger is vice president of Fitness & Wellness,
Inc., of Boise, Idaho. Sharon received her degree in computer
science from Brigham Young University. In the 1980s, she
served as a computer science instructor at the University of
Texas of the Permian Basin. She is extensively involved in the
research process used in retrieving the most current scientific
information that goes into the revision of each textbook. She
is also the author of the software that was written specifically
PREFACE xvii
Husband and wife have been jogging and strength training Steve Hsu, University of Southern California
together for more than 37 years. They are the proud parents
Danielle Roman, University of Southern California
of five children, all of whom are involved in sports and life-
time fitness activities. Their motto: “Families that exercise Jackie Sgambati, Coastal Carolina University
together, stay together.”
Brooke Towner, Coastal Carolina University
The authors also acknowledge the valuable assistance of
Acknowledgments Amber L. Fawson and Cherie I. Hoeger, both freelance writ-
The completion of the tenth edition of Principles and Labs ers for Fitness & Wellness, Inc, for their significant contribu-
for Physical Fitness was made possible through the contribution with the research, updates, and writing of this new
tions of many professionals throughout the country. In par- edition.
ticular, we express our gratitude to the reviewers of the
ninth edition; their valuable comments and suggestions are
sincerely appreciated.
1
Why Physical
Fitness?
“To give anything less than your best is to sacrifice the gift.”
—Steve Prefontaine
OBJECTIVES
• Understand the health and fitness consequences of physical inactivity.
• Identify the major health problems in the United States.
• Learn how to monitor daily physical activity.
• Learn the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans.
• Describe the difference between physical activity and exercise.
• Define physical fitness and list the components of health-related and skill-related fitness.
• Differentiate health-fitness standards and physical-fitness standards.
• Point out the benefits and the significance of participating in a lifetime exercise program.
• List national health objectives for the year 2020.
• Determine if you can safely initiate an exercise program.
• Learn to assess resting heart rate and blood pressure.
Visit www.cengagebrain.com to access course

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2 PRINCIPLES AND LABS FOR PHYSICAL FITNESS
Real Life Story | Jeremy’s Experience

I was a multi-sport athlete in high school. I played soccer, foot- know we drank way too much, we didn’t exercise, and my grades
ball, basketball, and ran track. I was not the best athlete on suffered as a result. I shouldn’t have been so shocked when I
these teams and I didn’t have a chance to make a college team, saw my final grades. To add insult to injury, it really hit home
but I sure loved sports and athletic competition. To earn extra when I signed up for the fitness and wellness class and found
money for college, I worked for a fast food chain that summer. I out I had gained more than 15 pounds since high school gradua-
was so busy that I didn’t do any fitness activities or play sports tion. My fitness test results showed I was not even in an average
that summer and I ate too much junk food which caused me to fitness category for most components.
gain some weight. Later in college,
I am so glad the fitness course was a required class, as I was
it took some time to get used to
able to correct my lifestyle before it spiraled out of control and I
my new surroundings and the
wasted more time in college. I started to exercise on an almost
new-found freedom from my
daily basis and I learned so much about nutrition and healthy
home life. My friends kept
eating. Parties and alcohol were no longer important to me. I had
stressing that I needed to enjoy
a life to live and prepare for. It felt so good to once again become
college life as much as possi-
fit and eat a healthy/balanced diet. I rearranged my activities so
ble and not worry so
that schoolwork and fitness were right at the top of my list. I
much about academics.
stopped procrastinating on my schoolwork and I was doing cardio
We went to a lot of par-
© iStockphoto.com/bo1982
five times a week and lifting twice per week. My goal is to keep
ties and watched sport-
this up for the rest of my life. I now understand that if I want to
ing events. There was
enjoy wellness, I have to make fitness and healthy living a top
always plenty of alcohol
priority in my life.
at these activities. I
FAQ
risk of many chronic diseases. And although good fitness often
motivates toward adoption of additional positive lifestyle behav-
iors, to maximize the benefits for a healthier, more productive,
happier, and longer life we have to pay attention to all seven di-
mensions of wellness: physical, social, mental, emotional, occu-
pational, environmental, and spiritual. These dimensions are in-
terrelated, and one frequently affects the other. A wellness way of
Why should I take a fitness and wellness life requires a constant and deliberate effort to stay healthy and
course? achieve the highest potential for well-being within all dimensions
of wellness.
Most people go to college to learn how to make a living, but a fit-
ness and wellness course will teach you how to live—how to truly If a person is going to do only one thing to
live life to its fullest potential. Some people seem to think that improve health, what would it be?
success is measured by how much money they make. Making a
good living will not help you unless you live a wellness lifestyle that This is a common question. It is a mistake to think, though, that
will allow you to enjoy what you earn. You may want to ask yourself: you can modify just one factor and enjoy wellness. Wellness re-
Of what value are a nice income, a beautiful home, and a solid requires a constant and deliberate effort to change unhealthy be-
tirement portfolio if at age 45 I suffer a massive heart attack that haviors and reinforce healthy behaviors. Although it is difficult to
will seriously limit my physical capacity or end life itself? work on many lifestyle changes all at once, being involved in a
regular physical activity program, proper nutrition, and avoid-
Will the attainment of good physical fitness be ance of addictive behavior are lifestyle factors to work on first.
sufficient to ensure good health? Others should follow, depending on your current lifestyle
behaviors.
Regular participation in a sound physical fitness program will
provide substantial health benefits and significantly decrease the
CHAPTER 1 • WHY PHYSICAL FITNESS? 3
MyProfile: General Understanding of Fitness and Wellness
To the best of your ability, please answer the following ques- II. Cardiorespiratory endurance, strength, power, flexibility,
tions. If you do not know the answer(s), this chapter will guide agility, and speed are the basic components of health-
you through them. related fitness. ___ True ___ False
I. The minimum requirement in the U.S. Federal Physical Ac- III. My current blood pressure is _____ / _____ mm Hg which
tivity Guidelines is that you accumulate _____ minutes of is classified as (check one): __normal, __pre-hypertension,
moderate-intensity aerobic activity or _____ minutes of __hypertension.
vigorous-intensity aerobic activity on a weekly basis. IV. Are you aware of potential risk factors in your life and per-
sonal family health history that may increase your chances
of developing disease? _____ Yes _____ No
The current sedentary pattern of life seen in most developed Figure 1.1 Causes of death in the United States for selected years.
countries has led to a widespread global interest in health
100
and preventive medicine programs. Thus, over the past four
decades there has been a large increase in the number of 90
people participating in organized fitness and wellness pro-
80
grams. From an initial fitness fad in the early 1970s, fitness
and wellness programs are now a trend that is very much 70
part of the American way of life. The growing number of Percent of all deaths
participants is attributed primarily to scientific evidence 60
linking regular physical activity and positive lifestyle habits 50
to better health, longevity, quality of life, and total
well-being. 40
Research findings in the past few years have shown that 30
physical inactivity and a negative lifestyle seriously threaten
health and hasten the deterioration rate of the human body. 20
Physically active people live longer than their inactive coun-
10
terparts, even if activity begins later in life. Estimates indi-
cate that more than 234,022 deaths in the United States 0
yearly are attributed to physical inactivity.1 Similar trends 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2010
are found in most industrialized nations throughout the Year
world. Influenza and
pneumonia Cancer
The human organism needs movement and activity to Cardiovascular
grow, develop, and maintain health. Advances in modern Tuberculosis disease
technology, however, have almost completely eliminated the Accidents All other causes
necessity for physical exertion in daily life. Physical activity
is no longer a natural part of our existence. We live in an au- Source: National Center for Health Statistics, Division of Vital Statistics.
tomated society, where most of the activities that used to re-

quire strenuous exertion can be accomplished by machines in the incidence
with the simple pull of a handle or push of a button. This of chronic dis- Health A state of complete well-being, and
epidemic of physical inactivity is the second greatest threat eases such as hy- not just the absence of disease or infirmity.
to U.S. public health and has been termed Sedentary Death pertension,
Sedentary Death Syndrome
Syndrome, or SeDS (the number-one threat is tobacco coronary heart
(SeDS) Term used to describe deaths that
use—the largest cause of preventable deaths). disease, athero-
At the beginning of the 20th century, life expectancy sclerosis, strokes, are attributed to a lack of regular physical
for a child born in the United States was only 47 years. The diabetes, cancer, activity.
most common health problems in the Western world were emphysema, and Life expectancy Number of years a person
infectious diseases, such as tuberculosis, diphtheria, influ- cirrhosis of the is expected to live based on the person’s
enza, kidney disease, polio, and other diseases of infancy. liver (see birth year.
Progress in the medical field largely eliminated these dis- Figure 1.1).
eases. Then, as more North American people started to en- According to the Chronic diseases Illnesses that develop
joy the “good life” (sedentary living, alcohol, fatty foods, World Health and last a long time.
excessive sweets, tobacco, drugs), we saw a parallel increase Organization
4 PRINCIPLES AND LABS FOR PHYSICAL FITNESS
(WHO), chronic diseases account for 60 percent of all increased by 1 year, the news is not all good. The data show
deaths worldwide.2 that people now spend an extra 1.2 years with a serious ill-
As the incidence of chronic diseases climbed, we recog- ness and an extra 2 years experiencing disability. Mortality
nized that prevention is the best medicine. Consequently, a has been postponed, because medical treatments allow peo-
fitness and wellness movement developed gradually in the ple to live longer with various chronic ailments (cardiovas-
1980s. People began to realize that good health is mostly cular disease, cancer, diabetes, etc.).
self-controlled and that the leading causes of premature Several factors may account for the current U.S. life ex-
death and illness in North America could be prevented by pectancy ranking: the extremely poor health of some groups
adhering to positive lifestyle habits. We all desire to live a (such as Native Americans, rural African Americans, and
long life, and a healthy lifestyle program focuses on enhanc- the inner-city poor), the low level of daily physical activity,
ing the overall quality of life for as long as we live. the high incidence of tobacco use and coronary heart dis-
There are three basic factors that determine our health ease, fairly high levels of violence (notably homicides), and
and longevity: genetics, the environment, and our behavior. the obesity epidemic. Furthermore, a recent report by the
Although we cannot change our genetic pool, we can exert Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
control over the environment and our health behaviors so (OECD) found that while the United States far outspent ev-
that we may reach our full physical potential based on our ery other country in health care cost per capita, it also easily
own genetic code. How we accomplish this goal will be had the highest rates of obesity of all 36 OECD countries.3
thoroughly discussed through the chapters of this book. Life expectancy for men in the United States is almost
five years lower than in women. For years it has been as-
sumed that the difference is based on biology, but most
Life Expectancy likely the gender gap is related to lifestyle behaviors most
Based on WHO data, the United States ranks 33rd in the commonly observed in men. Around 1980, the gender gap
world for life expectancy (Figure 1.2). Japan ranks first in in life expectancy was almost 8 years. This decrease in the
the world, with an overall life expectancy of 82.6 years. gender gap is thought to be due the fact that women are in-
While the United States was once a world leader in life ex- creasingly taking on jobs, habits, and stressors of men such
pectancy, over recent years, the increase in life expectancy as smoking, drinking, and employment outside the home.
in the United States has not kept pace with that of other de- Men, nonetheless, still report higher stress on the job
veloped countries. and are less likely to engage in stress-management pro-
Currently, the average life expectancy in the United grams. Also, 95 percent of employees in the ten most dan-
States is 78.7 years (76.3 years for men and 81.1 years for gerous jobs are men. Furthermore, men’s health is not given
women). While in the past decade alone life expectancy has the same degree of attention in terms of public health poli-
cies. Fewer programs are available that specifically target
men’s health issues. Thus, men need to take a more proac-
Figure 1.2 Life expectancy at birth for selected countries: tive role for their own health and public health policies.
2005–2015 projections.
“Masculinity” itself is also partially to blame. Men are
less likely to visit a physician when something is wrong and
Japan 79 86
are less likely to heed preventive care visits to be screened
Switzerland 80 85 for potential risk factors such as hypertension, elevated cho-
Spain 79 85 lesterol, diabetes, obesity, substance abuse, and depression
or anxiety. Chronic diseases in men are often diagnosed at a
France 78 85
later stage, when a cure or adequate management is more
Canada 80 84 difficult to achieve.
Germany 78 83 Men typically drive faster than women and are more
likely to engage in risk-taking activities. Of all road traffic
United Kingdom 79 82
fatalities among countries studied in the most recent OECD
United States 76 81 report, a disparate 74% of victims were men.
Argentina 72 79 Although life expectancy in the United States gradually
Mexico 72 78
increased by 30 years over the past century, scientists from
the National Institute of Aging believe that in the coming
Brazil 71 78 decades the average lifespan may decrease by as much as
United Arab Emirates 75 77 five years. This decrease in life expectancy will be related
65 70 75 80 85 90
primarily to the growing challenges of inactivity and obesity.
Years According to current estimates from the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, 35.7 percent of the adult popula-
Dark color is men; light color is women. tion in the United States is obese. As a nation, we are seeing
Source: United Nations, “Social Indicators: Indicators on Health,” http://unstats.un.org/unsd/
the consequences of these numbers unfold. The latest statis-
demographic/products/socind/health.htm, downloaded January 9, 2012. tical update from the American Heart Association reported
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pressed too far, derogates from Dante’s greatness and mars the
unity of the poem. In Dante the poet and the practical man—teacher,
prophet, politician, philosopher, reformer—are inseparable; more
often purely doctrinal themes become so fused in his imagination, so
identified with his personality, that the result is lyrical and great
poetry.
Title.—Dante unquestionably called his work simply Commedia,
which he wrote Comedia and pronounced Comedìa (Inf. xvi. 128,
xxi. 2). The epithet divina first appears in the sixteenth-century
editions; but it would be almost as pedantic to discard it now as it
would be, except when reading the word where it occurs in the
poem, to return to the original pronunciation, comedìa.[28]
Metrical Structure.—Each of the three parts, or cantiche, is
divided into cantos: the Inferno into thirty-four, the Purgatorio into
thirty-three, the Paradiso into thirty-three—thus making up a hundred
cantos, the square of the perfect number. Each canto is composed of
from one hundred and fifteen to one hundred and sixty lines, forming
thirty-eight to fifty-three terzine, a continuous measure of three
hendecasyllabic lines, woven together by the rhymes of the middle
lines, with an extra line rhyming with the second line of the last
terzina to close the canto:
ABA, BCB, CDC, DED ... XYX, YZY, Z.
The normal hendecasyllabic line is the endecasillabo piano, in which

the rhyme has the accent upon the penultimate syllable (rima piana,
trochaic ending). Occasionally, but rarely, we find the endecasillabo
sdrucciolo, with the rhyme accentuated on the antepenultimate
syllable (rima sdrucciola, dactylic ending), or the endecasillabo
tronco, with the accent on the final syllable (rima tronca). Italian
prosody regards both these latter forms (which appear to have
twelve and ten syllables respectively) as lines of eleven syllables.[29]
The terza rima seems to be derived from the serventese
incatenato (“linked serventese”), one of the rather numerous forms of
the Italian serventese or sermontese, a species of poem introduced
from Provence in the first half of the thirteenth century. The
Provençal sirventes was a serviceable composition employed mainly
for satirical, political, and ethical purposes, in contrast with the more
stately and “tragical” canzone of love. Although the Italians extended
its range of subject and developed its metres, no one before Dante
had used it for a great poem or had transfigured it into this superb
new measure, at once lyrical and epical. In his hand, indeed, “the
thing became a trumpet,” sounding from earth to heaven, to call the
dead to judgment.
Sources.—The earlier mediaeval visions of the spirit world, of
which the most famous are Irish in origin, bear the same relation, in
a much slighter degree, to the spiritual content of the Commedia as
the Provençal sirventes does to its metrical form. Even if Dante was
acquainted with them (and there are episodes occasionally in the
poem which recall the vision of Tundal or Tnuthgal), he was
absolutely justified in asserting, in Purgatorio xvi., that God willed
that he should see His court “by method wholly out of modern use”:
Per modo tutto fuor del moderno uso.
Such ideas, even in special details, were common property. Dante

transformed the mediaeval vision of the world beyond the grave into
a supreme work of art, making it the receptacle for all that was
noblest in the thought and aspiration of the centuries down to his
own day. If a hint or two came from Ibernia fabulosa, as Ariosto calls
Ireland, the main suggestion was Roman; and Virgil was his imperial
master in very fact, as he was his guide by poetical fiction (Inf. i. 82-
87): “O honour and light of the other poets, may the long study avail
me, and the great love, that has made me search thy volume. Thou
art my master and my author; thou alone art he from whom I took the
fair style that hath gained me honour.”
The influence of Virgil pervades the whole poem, and next to his
comes that of Lucan. Ovid was mainly a source of classical
mythology (frequently spiritualised in Dante’s hands); the
contribution of Horace, Statius, and Juvenal is slighter. And Dante
was as familiar with the Bible as with the Aeneid and the Pharsalia;
indeed, one of the most salient characteristics of the Commedia is
the writer’s adaptation of the message of the Hebrew prophets to his
own times in the language and with the consummate art of the Latin
poets. In its degree, the influence of Boëthius is as penetrating as
that of Virgil; Orosius has contributed as much history as has Livy.
The philosophy of the poem is naturally coloured by Aristotle, studied
in the Latin translations as interpreted by Albertus Magnus and
Aquinas. Augustine and Aquinas (more generally the latter) are the
poet’s chief theological sources; his mysticism has derived
something from Richard of St. Victor and Bonaventura as well as
from Dionysius. But he deals with his matter with independence, as a
poet, in the light of his own spiritual experience, his own imaginative
interpretation of life and history, his own observation of nature.
Though versed in a super-eminent degree with most of the
knowledge, sacred and profane, possible to a man of his epoch, and
well-read to an almost incredible extent when the circumstances of
his life are considered, Dante’s main and direct source of inspiration
lay, not in books, but in that wonderful world of the closing Middle
Ages that lay open to his gaze, as from a celestial watch-tower of
contemplation: “The little space of earth that maketh us so fierce, as
I turned me with the eternal Twins, all appeared to me from the hills
to the sea” (Par. xxii. 151-153).
Virgil and Beatrice.—The end of the poem, as the Epistle to
Can Grande shows, is to remove those living in this life from the
state of misery, and lead them to the state of felicity. In the individual,
this will be accomplished by opening his eyes to the nature of vice;
by inducing him to contrition, confession, satisfaction; by leading him
to contemplation of eternal Truth. In the universality, it can only be
effected by the restoration of the Empire and the purification of the
Church. The dual scheme of the Monarchia reappears in the
Commedia, but transferred from the sphere of Church and State to
the field of the individual soul. In the allegorical sense, Virgil may be
taken to represent Human Philosophy based on Reason; Beatrice to
symbolize Divine Philosophy, which includes the sacred science of
Theology, and is in possession of Revelation. But, primarily, Virgil
and Beatrice (like the other souls in the poem) are living
personalities, not allegorical types. Allegory may be forgotten in the
tender relation between Dante and Virgil, and, when that “sweetest
father” leaves his disciple in the Earthly Paradise to return to his own
sad place in Limbo, there is little of it left in Beatrice’s rebuke of her
lover’s past disloyalty; none when she is last seen enshrined in glory
beneath the Blessed Virgin’s throne.
There is then a universal and a personal meaning to be
distinguished, as well as the literal and allegorical significations. The
Divina Commedia is the tribute of devotion from one poet to another;
it is the sequel to a real love, the glorification of the image of a
woman loved in youth; the story of one man’s conversion and
spiritual experience. Nor can we doubt that the study of the imperial
poet of alma Roma helped Dante to his great political conception of
the destiny of the Empire, even as Philosophy first lifted him from the
moral aberrations that severed him from the ideal life (Purg. xxiii.
118). But, at the same time, Dante represents all mankind; as Witte
remarks, “the poet stands as the type of the whole race of fallen
man, called to salvation.”
Dates and Epoch.—Although the vision is poetically placed in the
spring of 1300, during the Pope’s jubilee and shortly before Dante’s
election to the priorate, the actual date of composition of the poem—
as far as concerns the first two parts—is still uncertain and disputed.
There are at present two principal theories. According to the one
(very strongly held by Parodi), the Inferno was composed shortly
before the advent of Henry of Luxemburg, the Purgatorio during his
Italian enterprise. According to the other, not only the Paradiso, but
the whole poem was written after the death of the Emperor, and
must therefore be regarded as the work of the closing years of the
poet’s life. On the former hypothesis, the allusion to the death of
Clement V., in Inf. xix., must be taken as an indefinite prediction or a
later insertion. It is possible to adopt a compromise between the two
views. The poem may have been begun some time between 1306
and 1308, and portions of the Inferno and Purgatorio composed
before the catastrophe of 1313. After the death of the Emperor,
Dante may well have revised and completed these two canticles.
Boccaccio tells us—and the statement is confirmed (for the
Paradiso) by a sonnet of Giovanni Quirino—that the poet was wont
to send his work in instalments to Can Grande before any copies
were made for others. There is no evidence of any circulation before
1317, when some lines from Inf. iii. appear among the papers of a
notary at Bologna.[30] The first Eclogue shows that, by 1319, the
Inferno and Purgatorio had been, so to speak, published, and the
Paradiso was in preparation; Boccaccio’s story of the finding of the
last thirteen cantos confirms the belief that this final canticle, which
crowns the poet’s whole life-work, was only completed shortly before
Dante’s death. Dante is in the position of a man who is now relating
to the world the vision vouchsafed to him many years before. Hence
everything that happened after April 1300 is spoken of as future and
by way of prophecy, beginning with Ciacco’s account in Inf. vi. of the
famous faction fight of May Day in that year. With two exceptions—
Frate Alberigo and Branca d’Oria (Inf. xxxiii.), whose souls went
down to Hell before their bodies died—every spirit met with in the
ecstatic pilgrimage is represented as having died before April 1300.
But Dante anticipates the certain damnation of some who, though
living in 1300, were dead when he wrote the poem; Corso Donati,
Popes Boniface and Clement, and a few less notorious sinners as
Carlino de’ Pazzi. In one instance, that of Venedico Caccianemico
(Inf. xviii.), he seems to have supposed a man dead in 1300 who in
reality lived a few years later.
Time.—Dante’s conferences with the dead open at sunrise on
Good Friday, in his thirty-fifth year. He would impress upon us that
his visionary world is no mere dreamland, but a terrible reality, and
therefore his indications of time are frequent and precise. For
poetical purposes, he seems to represent this Good Friday as an
ideal Good Friday, March 25th, which was believed to have been the
actual date of the Crucifixion on the thirty-fourth anniversary of the
Annunciation (cf. Inf. xxi. 112, and the “three months” from Christmas
Day in Purg. ii. 98). In reality, it fell upon April 8th in 1300; and, when
Dante in his pilgrimage through Hell would mark the time by
reference to moon and stars, he perhaps has recourse to the
ecclesiastical calendar, in which the Paschal full moon was on
Thursday, April 7th (see Dr. Moore’s Time-References in the Divine
Comedy):
E già iernotte fu la luna tonda,
“And already yesternight the moon was round” (Inf. xx. 127); the
night of Maundy Thursday, that he has passed “so piteously” when
the poem opens.
2. The “Inferno”
Cantos I. and II.—At break of day on Good Friday, Dante, in his
thirty-fifth year, after a night of agonised wanderings, would fain
issue from the dark wood into which he has, as it were in slumber,
strayed. This tangled forest represents at once his own unworthy life
and the corruption of human society; both the “sin of the speaker” (§
28) and the “state of misery of those living in this life” (§ 15) of the
Epistle to Can Grande. He would climb the “mountain of delight”
which, for the individual, represents the state of felicity, and, for
mankind in general, the goal of civilisation; mystically, it is the
mountain of the Lord, to which only the innocent in hands and the
clean of heart shall ascend. But he is impeded by a swift and
beautiful leopard; terrified by a lion; driven back by a hideous she-
wolf. The three beasts are derived from Jeremiah (v. 6), where they
stand for the judgments to fall upon the people for their sins; here
they symbolise the chief vices that keep man from the felicity for
which he is born (Conv. iv. 4): Luxury in its mediaeval sense of Lust,
Pride, Avarice or Cupidity in its widest meaning. The comparatively
modern interpretation which would see in the beasts the three great
Guelf powers that opposed the Empire—the republic of Florence, the
royal house of France, the secular power of the Papacy—is now
generally discarded.
From this peril Dante is delivered by the spirit of Virgil, who bids
him take another way. The power of the wolf will extend until the
Veltro or greyhound comes, who will deliver Italy and hunt the wolf
back to Hell. The advent of this Deliverer is mysteriously announced
(Inf. i. 100-111), and seems to be repeated in other forms at intervals
throughout the poem (Purg. xx. 10-15, xxxiii. 37-45; Par. xxvii. 61-
63). There can be little doubt that Virgil refers to a future Emperor,
who shall re-establish the imperial power and make Roman law
obeyed throughout the world, extirpate greed, bring about and
preserve universal peace in a restored unity of civilisation. His
mission will be the realisation of the ideals of the Monarchia, and will
work the salvation of Italy who will be restored to her former
leadership among the nations. At the same time, there may possibly
be a remoter reference to the second coming of Christ. This double
prophecy would have a certain fitness upon the lips of Virgil, who
was believed to have sung mystically of the first coming of Christ in
the fourth Eclogue (cf. Purg. xxii. 64-73), as well as of the foundation
of Rome and her Empire in the Aeneid. It has frequently been
supposed that Dante identified the Veltro with some definite person;
of the various claimants to this honour Can Grande della Scala is,
perhaps, the least improbable. In any case, whatever the nationality
of the deliverer, the Empire of Dante’s dream was, in fact as well as
name, Roman (cf. Epist. v.).
Human Philosophy can lead man from moral unworthiness and
guide him to temporal felicity; there are judgments of God to which
human reason can attain. Therefore Virgil will guide Dante through
Hell and Purgatory, that he may understand the nature of sin and the
need of penance to fill up the void in the moral order; after which a
worthier soul will lead him to Paradise and the contemplation of
celestial things. Dante’s sense of unworthiness keeps him back, until
he learns that Virgil is but the emissary of Beatrice, to whom in turn
Lucia (St. Lucy) has been sent to Dante’s aid by a noble Lady in
Heaven—evidently the Blessed Virgin Mary, who may not be named
in Hell, and who symbolises Divine Mercy, as Lucia does illuminating
Grace. Thus encouraged, Dante follows his guide and master upon
“the arduous and rugged way.” Aeneas had been vouchsafed his
descent to the shades to learn things that were the cause of the
foundation of the Empire and the establishment of the Papacy (Inf. ii.
20-27); Dante shall learn things which may prepare men’s hearts for
the restoration of the imperial throne, and the cleansing of the papal
mantle from the mire of temporal things. St. Paul was caught up into
paradise “to bring confirmation to that faith which is the beginning of
the way of salvation” (ibid. 29-30); Dante shall follow him to lead men
back to the purity of that faith, from which they have wandered.
Ante-Hell.—It is nightfall on Good Friday when Dante reads the
terrible inscription on the infernal portal (Inf. iii. 1-9): “Leave all hope,
ye that enter.” The sense of the whole inscription is hard to him, but
Virgil gently leads him in. In the dark plain of Ante-Hell, disdained
alike by Mercy and by Justice, are those “who lived without blame
and without praise,” mingled with the Angels who kept neutral
between God and Lucifer. Here the pusillanimous, who, taking no
side in the struggle between good and evil, would follow no standard
on earth, now rush for all eternity after a banner, “which whirling ran
so quickly that it seemed to scorn all pause.” Further on towards the
centre, flowing round the mouth of Hell itself, is Acheron; where the
souls of the lost assemble, and are conveyed across by Charon in
his boat. Unconsciously borne across, Dante with Virgil now stands
on the verge of the abyss, hearkening to the gathering thunder of
endless wailings.
Structure and Moral Topography of Hell.—Hell is a vast pit
or funnel piercing down to the centre of the earth, formed when
Lucifer and his Angels were hurled down from Heaven. It lies
beneath the inhabited world, whose centre is Jerusalem and Mount
Calvary; its base towards the surface, and its apex at the centre. It is
divided into nine concentric circles, the lower of which are separated
by immense precipices—circles which grow more narrow in
circumference, more intense and horrible in suffering, until the last is
reached where Lucifer is fixed in the ice at the earth’s centre, at the
furthest point from God, buried below Jerusalem, where his power
was overthrown on the Cross (cf. Inf. xxxiv. 106-126).
“There are two elements in sin,” writes St. Thomas Aquinas: “the
conversion to a perishable good, which is the material element in sin;
and the aversion from the imperishable good, which is the formal
and completing element of sin.” In Dante’s Purgatory the material
element is purged away. In his Hell sin is considered mainly on the
side of this formal element, its aversion from the Supreme Good; and
its enormity is revealed in the hideousness of its effects. The ethical
system of the Inferno, as set forth in Canto xi., combines Aristotle’s
threefold division of “dispositions” opposed to mortality into
Incontinence, Bestiality, Malice (Ethics vii. 1), with Cicero’s distinction
of the two ways by which injury is done as Violence and Fraud (De
Officiis i. 13). Dante equates the Aristotelian Bestiality and Malice
with the Ciceronian Violence and Fraud respectively. Thus there is
the upper Hell of sins proceeding from the irrational part of the soul,
divided into five circles. The lower Hell of Bestiality and Malice is the
terrible city of Dis, the true kingdom of Lucifer, in which, after the
intermediate sixth circle, come three great circles, each divided into
a number of sub-divisions, and each separated by a chasm from the
one above; the seventh circle of Violence and Bestiality; followed by
two circles of Malice—the eighth of simple fraud, and the ninth of
treachery. There is some doubt as to how far Dante further equates
this division with the seven capital sins recognized by the Church.
Although actual deeds are considered in Hell, rather than the sinful
propensities which lead to them, it seems plausible to recognise in
Incontinence the five lesser capital sins: Luxury, Gluttony, Avarice,
Sloth (though the treatment of this vice in the Inferno is
questionable), and Anger; and to regard the whole of the three
circles of the city of Dis as proceeding from and being the visible
effects of Envy and Pride, the sins proper to devils according to St.
Thomas—seen in their supreme degree in him whose pride made
him rebel against his Maker, and whose envy brought death into the
world. As an alternative, it may be held that Dante began the Inferno
with the intention of basing its ethical system upon the seven capital
sins, but abandoned it in favour of a more ample treatment, and that
the earlier design has been preserved only in the passage through
the upper circles.[31]
Limbo.—In “the first circle that girds the abyss,” Dante sees in
Limbo the unbaptised children and the virtuous heathen; without
hope, they live in desire; free from physical torment, they suffer the
pain of loss. Here Dante differs from Aquinas, who distinguishes the
Limbo of the Fathers from the Limbo of the Infants, and who
represents unbaptised children as not grieving at all for the loss of
the Beatific Vision, but rather rejoicing in natural perfection and a
certain participation of the Divine Goodness. The example of
Rhipeus in the Paradiso shows that Dante could have saved any of
the ancients whom he chose, without any violence to his creed. “Any
one,” says Aquinas, “can prepare himself for having faith through
what is in natural reason; whence it is said that, if any one who is
born in barbarous nations doth what lieth in him, God will reveal to
him what is necessary for salvation, either by internal inspiration or
by sending a teacher.” The reception of Dante by the five great
classical poets as sixth in their company is his own affirmation of
poetical succession; for the first time a poet in modern vernacular
has attained equality with the masters of antiquity who “wrote poetry
with regulated speech and art” (V. E. ii. 4). With them he enters the
noble castle of Fame, from which the light of wisdom shone upon the
pagan world; within are all the wise and virtuous spirits of antiquity,
even Aristotle, “the master of those who know,” whose philosophical
authority is for Dante supreme (Inf. iv. 131). Here, too, are certain
moderns that “worshipped not God aright”; the Saladin, and
Averroës “who made the great comment.”
Upper Hell.—Out of Limbo Dante and Virgil descend into the
darkness of the second circle, where the carnal sinners are whirled
round and round, “through the nether storm-eddying winds.” At its
entrance snarls Minos, a type of the sinner’s disordered and terrified
conception of Divine Justice. The Virgilian “Mourning Fields” of the
martyrs of love are transformed into a region of active torment, and
when, in a lull in the storm, Francesca da Rimini pours forth her
piteous story in lines of ineffable pathos, the colouring becomes that
of Arthurian romance (Inf. v.). Down again through the third circle of
putrid rain and snow, where Cerberus (like the other hellish torturers,
merely the effect of the sin, and the sinner’s own creation) tortures
the gluttonous (Inf. vi.), and the fourth, where Plutus, demon god of
wealth, guards the avaricious and prodigal butting at each other for
all eternity, Dante is led to the dark waters of Styx, shortly after
midnight, as Friday is passing into the early hours of Saturday (Inf.
vii. 97-99). The marsh of Styx represents the fifth circle. Fixed in the
slime below are souls, made visible only by the bubbles from their
sighs: “Sullen were we in the sweet air, that is gladdened by the Sun,
carrying heavy fumes within our hearts: now lie we sullen here in the
black mire” (Inf. vii. 121-124). These souls are usually identified as
the accidiosi, or slothful. The material element in Sloth is lack of
charity; the formal element is sadness, the sadness which takes
away the spiritual life and withdraws the mind from the Divine Good.
Some commentators think that the slothful are placed in the Ante-
Hell, and that these sad souls are those guilty of sullen or sulky
anger, in contrast to the violent anger of those fiercer spirits who,
naked and miry, are rending each other on the surface of the marsh,
over which the poets are ferried by Phlegyas, the boatman of Dis, as
Charon of Upper Hell. The Florentine, Filippo Argenti, who bandies
bitter words with Dante during the passage, connects Anger with
Pride (Inf. viii. 46) and with Bestiality (ibid. 62-63). As Anger leads to
violence and fraud for the sake of vengeance, so Phlegyas conveys
them to the entrance of the city of Dis, glowing red with eternal fire.
The City of Dis.—The gate of the city is defended by fiends,
while the Furies appear upon the turrets, girt with greenest hydras
and with serpents for hair, calling upon Medusa to come and turn
Dante to stone. The Furies are symbols of hopeless remorse, and
Medusa of the despair which renders repentance impossible. “A
guilty deed is the death of the soul; but to despair is to go down into
Hell” (St. Isidore, cf. Virgil’s words to Dante, Inf. ix. 55-57). Virgil can
guard Dante from her, but he cannot open the gates; for the city of
Dis is the mediaeval counterpart of the Virgilian Tartarus, through
which the Sibyl could not lead Aeneas. With the sound of mighty
tempest a messenger of Heaven passes the Styx with dry feet, and
opens the portal with a little rod; he is a figure drawn from Mercury in
the Aeneid (iv.), but here transformed to an Angel, akin to those two
terrible beings who summon the dead to rise in Luca Signorelli’s Last
Judgment.[32] Within the gate, round the circuit of the walls and at
the same level as the last circle, the sixth circle confines the Heretics
and Epicureans in burning tombs. They seem to hold this
intermediate position in accordance with the teaching of St. Thomas
that Infidelity, if reduced to one of the capital sins, must be regarded
as arising from Pride, but may come also from cupidity or some
fleshly illusion; and, in a passage in the Convivio (ii. 9), Dante
appears to reduce one form of Heresy to bestialitade. Farinata degli
Uberti, the Ghibelline hero of Montaperti, heroic even in Hell, rises to
address his fellow countryman; and, from the same blazing
sepulchre, Cavalcante de’ Cavalcanti, fondly believing that it is
height of genius alone that leads Dante thus scathless through this
blind prison, seeks vainly to see his own Guido with him. Emperor
and Pope should lead man to blessedness; but Frederick II. and
Pope Anastasius are buried here with the rest (Inf. x. 119, xi. 8). The
horrible stench that rises from the abyss forces Dante to delay his
descent; and, in the pause, Virgil explains the moral structure of Hell,
equating the Ciceronian with the Aristotelian division of vice (Inf. xi.),
as already indicated, and adding a special explanation of how Usury,
the breeding of money from money, is a sin against nature, and
violence against the Diety.
Seventh Circle.—They descend the precipice into the seventh
circle, at the entrance to which the Minotaur, emblem of Violence
and Bestiality, gnaws himself in bestial rage, on the top of the ruin
formed by the earthquake when the Redeemer entered Hell. Since
we are now within the Devil’s city, fiends begin to appear as
torturers, but in this seventh circle they take bestial forms, or forms
which are half-bestial and half-human. There are three rounds in this
circle. In the first, Phlegethon, the river of boiling blood, the violent
against others are immersed to varying depths, and tormented by
the Centaurs (Inf. xii.). Murderers and tyrants are here; and
Benvenuto supposes that the Centaurs are types of their own
hireling soldiers, the instruments of their cruelty upon earth. In the
second round, the violent against themselves (Inf. xiii.) are punished
in the pathless wood of the Harpies; the suicides, imprisoned in trees
and preyed upon by these monsters, are regarded as bestial sinners,
because, properly speaking, a man cannot hate himself; the
destroyers of their own substance, similarly considered, are hunted
by black hell-dogs. Yet in this round is one of the noblest souls in the
Inferno, Piero della Vigna, still defending the memory of the imperial
master who caused his death. Enclosed by the wood is a third round,
the burning plain (Inf. xiv.), where the violent against God are
subjected to a slow rain of dilated flakes of fire. Capaneus, the
typical blasphemer, is tortured even more by his own fury than by the
flaming shower. It is in this round that Dante learns what Virgil tells
him is the most notable thing he has yet seen in his pilgrimage (Inf.
xiv. 88): the infernal rivers are produced by the tears and sins of all
human generations since the golden age, and flow from rock to rock
down the circles of Hell, back to Lucifer at the earth’s core (ibid. 103,
etc.). “The tears extorted from the sinners, the blood shed by tyrants
and murderers, all the filth of the sinful world, flow down below by
secret conduits, and are then transformed into instruments of
torment” (Witte). There are few things in literature more poignant
than Dante’s cry of recognition: Siete voi qui, ser Brunetto (Inf. xv.
30), “Are you here, Ser Brunetto?” Nor is there, perhaps, anything
that gives us a more terrible conception of Dante’s claim to be the
“preacher of justice,” than the fearful doom he has inflicted upon “the
dear and kind paternal image” of the sage who had taught him how
man makes himself eternal, and upon the great Florentine citizens of
the past, whose deeds and honoured names he had ever “rehearsed
and heard with affection” (Inf. xvi. 58-60). In the last group of this
round are the Usurers, “on the utmost limit of that seventh circle,”
where violence passes into fraud (Inf. xvii. 43); and it is worthy of
note that the poet finds examples of this sin, not among the
persecuted Jews, but in the noble houses of Padua and Florence.
Malebolge.—A yawning abyss, down which the blood-stained
Phlegethon dashes with deafening noise, reaches from the seventh
to the eighth circle, Malebolge, the realm of Malice. Lured up by the
cord which Dante has girt round him and abandons, Geryon,
“unclean image of fraud,” a combination of the mythological monster
with the apocalyptic Angel of the bottomless pit, bears Dante and
Virgil to the place below. Malebolge is divided into ten valleys, with a
gulf in the centre. Since they punish Fraud, de l’uom proprio male,
“the vice peculiar to man,” the demon tormentors have usually
something of the human form (the serpent torturers of the thieves
are an exception)—degraded Angels partaking of humanity’s lowest
features. Disgusting though many details of this circle may seem to
modern taste, they are only terribly realised images of the sins
themselves. Panders and seducers (Inf. xviii.), flatterers, simoniacs
(xix., Pope Nicholas III.), diviners and sorcerers (xx.), barrators or
sellers of justice in public offices (xxi. and xxii.), hypocrites (xxiii.),
thieves (xxiv. and xxv.), fraudulent counsellors (xxvi. and xxvii.),
sowers of scandal and schism (xxviii.), falsifiers of every kind (xxix.
and xxx.)—each class occupies one of the ten valleys of Malebolge,
and to each is awarded a special form of punishment representing
the crime, observing the contrapasso (Inf. xxviii. 142), the law of
retribution. In the meanwhile the sun has risen in the world above,
though this makes no difference in Hell where the sun is silent (Inf.
xx. 124); it is the morning of Holy Saturday for the Church; the bells
have been rung again after the silence of Good Friday, and the
Gloria in excelsis sung in anticipation of the morrow’s feast—while
Dante is rebuking Pope Nicholas for simony, and hearkening to
Guido da Montefeltro’s bitter tale of Pope Boniface’s treachery (Inf.
xxvii.). There are few nobler utterances of mediaeval Catholicity than
that famous outburst of Dantesque indignation in Canto xix., against
the unworthy and simoniacal holders of the papal chair, though
restrained by the “reverence for the Great Keys.” In one instance
only does Dante seem in personal danger, and, curiously enough, it
is in the region of the Barrators (Inf. xxi. and xxii.), with whose sin his
ungrateful countrymen had tried to render him infamous; Virgil
himself is almost deceived, that is, Dante’s reason is bewildered and
his philosophy at fault; but, although hunted as a criminal, not a drop
of the boiling pitch lights upon him, nor do the rakes and hooks of the
“Evil-claws” as much as graze his skin. Here and there images from
external nature relieve the horror: the country shining white with the
hoar-frost before the spring (xxiv. 1-15); the fire-flies gleaming below
the hill after the long summer day (xxvi. 25-30). The two cantos
depicting the fate of the fraudulent counsellors (xxvi. and xxvii.)
seem on a different plane from the rest; the sense of increasing
degradation in the passage downwards through Malebolge is
checked; the story of the last voyage of Ulysses with its spiritual
nobility and imaginative splendour, the whole episode of Guido da
Montefeltro with its dramatic intensity, are among the greatest
creations of poetry. But so repulsive is much of the matter of
Malebolge that Dante represents his own moral sense as becoming
clouded; in the last valley he listens without disgust, almost with
pleasure, to an unsavoury quarrel between the Greek Sinon and the
coiner Adam of Brescia (Inf. xxx.), until a sharp rebuke from Virgil
restores him to himself: Chè voler ciò udire è bassa voglia, “for to
wish to hear that is a base desire.”
Ninth Circle.—In the centre of Malebolge yawns a huge chasm,
like an immense well, where the precipice falls to the ninth and last
circle. Like towers round the margin of this pit appear the upper parts
of captive Giants, both of Scripture and mythology; Nimrod,
Ephialtes, Briareus—the Paladins of the Emperor of Hell defending
the last and most secret chamber of his palace. The Giants connect
this last circle with Pride (Purg. xii. 28-36), as the mention of Cain
does with Envy (Purg. xiv. 133), and Lucifer himself with both Pride
and Envy (Inf. vii. 12; Purg. xii. 25; Par. ix. 129, xix. 46, etc.).
Treachery is a gigantic version of fraud, by which “is forgotten that
love which nature makes, and also that which afterwards is added,
giving birth to special trust” (Inf. xi. 61-63); hence the guardians of
this circle are monstrosities in magnified human shape. Antaeus (Inf.
xxxi.), less guilty, and therefore less fettered than the others, hands
Virgil and Dante down into this last circle, where the traitors are
eternally consumed in the river Cocytus, which is frozen to a vast
dark lake of ice, sloping down to Lucifer. Nowhere else is Dante so
utterly pitiless. Hardly can we recognise the man who had fainted
with pity at the story of Francesca (Inf. v. 141) in the ruthless
inquisitor, who is ready to add to the torture of Bocca degli Abati (inf.
xxxii. 97), but will not stretch out his hand to afford a moment’s
alleviation to Frate Alberigo de’ Manfredi (Inf. xxxiii. 149).
There are four concentric rings in this ninth circle, increasing in
pain as they diminish in circumference. In Caina (Inf. xxxii. 58), the
treacherous murderers of their kindred are chattering with their teeth
like storks. In Antenora (88), traitors to country or party are still more
deeply frozen into the ice. Bocca degli Abati, who betrayed the
Guelfs to the Ghibellines at Montaperti, is side by side with Buoso da
Duera, who, five years later, betrayed the Ghibellines to the
lieutenant of Charles of Anjou. Frozen into one hole, Count Ugolino
della Gherardesca is gnawing the head of Archbishop Ruggieri of
Pisa; and the terror and pity of Dante’s lines have made the tale of
the dying agonies of the old noble and his children perhaps the most
famous episode in the Commedia. The terrible imprecation against
Pisa adapts Lucan’s curse upon Egypt after the murder of Pompey
to the different geographical conditions of the Tuscan city.[33] In
Tolomea (Inf. xxxiii. 124), those who slew treacherously, under mask
of hospitality, have only their faces showing above the ice, their tears
frozen into a crystalline mask; on earth their bodies ofttimes still
seem to live, tenanted by a demon until their time is full, while the
soul has already gone down into the ice. In Giudecca (xxxiv. 117) are
souls of traitors to their lords and benefactors: “Already I was there
(and with fear I put it into verse) where the souls were all covered,
and shone through like straw in glass. Some are lying; some stand
upright, this on its head, and that upon its soles; another, like a bow,
bends face to feet” (Inf. xxxiv. 10-15); silent and immovable, in
agonised and everlasting adoration in the court of the Emperor of the
dolorious kingdom, who, gigantic and hideous, “from mid-breast
stood forth out of the ice.” The most radiant of God’s Angels has
become the source of evil, the symbol of sin’s hideousness. His
three faces, red, yellow-white, black, are an infernal parody of the
Power, Wisdom, Love of the Blessed Trinity. Under each face are
two huge bat-like wings, whose helpless flappings freeze all the lake
of Cocytus. Tormented by his teeth and claws are the three arch-
traitors: Judas Iscariot, who betrayed the Divine Founder of the
Church; Brutus and Cassius, who murdered the imperial founder of
the Empire. The condemnation of the two latter is an instance of
how, while accepting the testimony of his sources as to facts, Dante
preserves independence of judgment concerning their moral value;
in Lucan’s Pharsalia, Brutus and Cassius are the destined avengers
of right, the champions of Roman liberty, Brutus bearing the
character with which we are familiar in Shakespeare.
Out of the Depths.—It is the night of Easter Eve in our world
(Inf. xxxiv. 68) when the poets leave the accursed place. Virgil
carries Dante like a child, for man will readily submit himself to the
guidance of reason and philosophy when once the nature of sin has
been thoroughly comprehended. Down by Lucifer’s shaggy sides,
they pass the centre of the universe (lines 76-81, 106-117). Virgil
turns with Dante completely round (conversion from sin), so that they
find themselves in a chasm left at Lucifer’s fall, below the opposite
hemisphere to that which man inhabits. But here it is morning (lines
96, 105, 118), the morning of Easter Eve of the southern
hemisphere, which is twelve hours behind the time of its antipodes.
[34] Through this space, opposite to “the tomb of Beelzebub,” a
rivulet descends, bringing the memory of sin that has been purged in
Purgatory back to Lucifer. By a strange and arduous way, typical of
the persevering struggle out of vice, Dante with his guide mounts
upwards to the clear air; and, on the shores of Purgatory in the
southern hemisphere, they “issued forth to rebehold the stars.”
Like the Redeemer of mankind, Dante has been dead and buried
part of three days, and it is not yet daybreak on Easter Sunday, “in
the end of the sabbath, as it began to dawn toward the first day of
the week.”
3. The “Purgatorio”
Structure and Allegorical Meaning.—Purgatory is a steep
mountain of surpassing height, on the only land rising out of the sea
in the southern hemisphere. Like Hell, it was formed when Lucifer
and his followers were cast out of Heaven. To escape him the earth
rushed up to form this mountain, and left void the cavern through
which Dante ascended (Inf. xxxiv. 125). It is the exact antipodes of
Jerusalem and Mount Calvary, rises beyond atmospheric changes,
and is crowned by the Earthly Paradise, scene of man’s fall and
symbol of blessedness of this life.
In the literal sense the Purgatorio is the essential Purgatory of
separated spirits, expiating and exercising, paying the debt of
temporal punishment that remains after the guilt has been forgiven;
purging away the material element of sin, after the formal element
has been remitted. In the allegorical sense it represents the moral
purgatory of repentant sinners in this world; and has for subject man,
by penance and good works, becoming free from the tyranny of vice,
attaining to moral and intellectual freedom. Thus it becomes a
symbol of the whole life of man from conversion to death; man, no
longer sunk in ignorance and sin, as in the Inferno; not yet soaring
aloft on heights of impassioned contemplation, as in the Paradiso;
but struggling against difficulties and temptations, making amends
for misuse of Free Will, conforming with the practices of the Church,
and obeying the imperial authority, until the time comes to pass to
the blessedness of another world.
Dante’s open-air treatment of Purgatory seems peculiar to him.
Very wonderful is the transition from the dark night of Hell to the
“sweet colour of oriental sapphire,” where the star of Love comforts
the pilgrim soul, and the four stars of the Southern Cross, which
symbolise the cardinal virtues, make all the sky rejoice in their flame
—until Easter Day dawns, and from afar the poet “knew the
quivering of the sea” (Purg. i. 117). Throughout this second Cantica
the sun is our guide by day, and at night the stars are over our head;
we behold the glory of sunrise and of sunset as upon earth, but with
added beauty, for it is attended by celestial songs and the softly
beating wings of angelic presences. Dante spends part of four days,
with three nights, in this portion of his pilgrimage; for Purgatory is the
symbol of the life of man, and the life of man has four periods. At the
end of each day Dante rests and sleeps; before dawn on each day,
except the first, a vision prepares him for the work of the day—the
work which cannot begin or proceed save in the light of the sun, for
man can advance no step in this spiritual expiation without the light
of God’s grace. But the fourth day does not close, like the other
three, in night; for it corresponds to that fourth and last stage of
man’s life, in which the soul “returns to God, as to that port whence
she set out, when she came to enter upon the sea of this life” (Conv.
iv. 28).
There are three main divisions of the mountain. From the shore to
the gate of St. Peter is Ante-Purgatory, still subject to atmospheric
changes. Within the gate is Purgatory proper, with its seven terraces
bounded above by a ring of purifying flames. Thence the way leads
up to the Earthly Paradise; for by these purgatorial pains the fall of
Adam is repaired, and the soul of man regains the state of
innocence.
Ante-Purgatory.—In Ante-Purgatory Dante passes Easter Day
and the following night. Here the souls of those who died in
contumacy of the Church are detained at the foot of the mountain,
and may not yet begin the ascent; and the negligent, who deferred
their conversion, and who now have to defer their purification, are
waiting humbly around the lower slopes. For here purgation has not
yet begun; this is the place where time makes amends for time
(Purg. xxiii. 84).
Upon the face of Cato, the guardian of the shore and mountain, so
shines the light of the four mystical stars, that he seems illumined
with the very light of the sun of Divine Grace (Purg. i. 37-39). Cato,
“the severest champion of true liberty,” “to kindle the love of liberty in
the world, gave proof of how dear he held her by preferring to depart
from life a free man, rather than remain alive bereft of liberty” (Mon.
ii. 5). He was one of those who “saw and believed that this goal of
human life is solely rigid virtue” (Conv. iv. 6). Thus from Lucan’s
Pharsalia, Dante has recreated this austere and glorious figure to be
the warden of the spiritual kingdom where virtue is made perfect by
love and true liberty attained.
At sunrise the white-robed and white-winged Angel of Faith brings
the ransomed souls over the ocean from the banks of the Tiber,
where the redeemed gather, as the lost do upon the shores of
Acheron (Purg. ii.). The In exitu Israel of their psalm signifies
mystically, in Dante’s allegory, the passing of the holy soul from the
bondage of this corruption to the liberty of eternal glory (Epist. x. 7).
His own song of love on the lips of Casella has peculiar fitness at the
entrance of the realm of hope and purgation; for, in the eyes of that
mystical lady, of whom Love discourses, is the anticipation of
Paradise, and yet she is the example of humility—the humility in sign
of which Dante has girded himself with a rush. As they turn towards
the ascent, the excommunicated draw near, led by Manfred; cut off
from the body of the Church by the Pontiff’s curse, they were
reunited to its soul by tardy repentance. The episode of Manfred is a
counterpart to that of Celestine in the corresponding canto of the
Inferno. Dante would clearly show the difference of God’s judgment
from that of man. The figure of the canonised pope-hermit, whom the
world extolled as a perfect type of Christian renunciation, and who
died in the odour of sanctity, is contrasted with that of the worldly
king who died excommunicate, and whose name was tainted with
suspicion of incest and parricide: “Horrible were my sins, but Infinite
Goodness has such wide arms that it takes whatever turns to it”
(Purg. iii. 121-123).
Through a narrow gap they begin the ascent, which is so hard at
the outset, but grows ever lighter as man ascends. Among the
negligent through indolence, Belacqua seems as lazy as upon earth
(Purg. iv.); but his laziness is now its own punishment. At midday
Virgil’s swift rebuke (Purg. v. 10-15) cures his pupil of one fatal
obstacle to following philosophy in the search of moral and
intellectual liberty—human respect. Among those cut off by violent
deaths is Buonconte da Montefeltro, the story of whose fate, Canto
v., is in designed contrast with the soul’s tragedy that came from his
father’s lips out of the torturing flames of Malebolge (Inf. xxvii.). The
lacrimetta of the dying knight—the “little tear” that saved his eternal
part from the fiend (Purg. v. 107)—has become one of the priceless
pearls in the treasury of the world’s poetry. All these souls ask for
remembrance in prayer, that their delay may be shortened, and
Virgil’s explanation centers upon the power of love to reach for
expiation from beyond the grave (vi. 37-39). In these earlier cantos
of the Purgatorio, there are constant traces of the deep impression
made upon Dante by the story of Palinurus, the pilot of Aeneas, in
Books v. and vi. of the Aeneid.
The Valley of the Princes.—They come to the solitary and lion-
like soul of Sordello, whose loving greeting to his Mantuan
countryman gives occasion to Dante’s superb and famous outburst
of Italian patriotism: Ahi serva Italia, di dolore ostello (Purg. vi. 76 et
seq.); which shows a striking correspondence with the great passage
where Lucan laments the overthrow of Roman liberty at Pharsalia
(Phars. vii. 440 et seq.). The part of Sordello is very similar to that of
Musaeus in the Aeneid, Book vi.; he leads Virgil and Dante to the
Valley of the Princes, which corresponds to Elysium, the verdant vale
where Aeneas met Anchises. Dante probably reconstructed the
troubadour’s personality from his own famous poem on the death of
Blacatz, a Provençal hero of the thirteenth century, in which he
upbraids and derides the kings and princes of Christendom,

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(eBook PDF) Principles and Labs for

Physical Fitness 10th Edition by Wener

Lab 5B Weight-Loss Behavior Modification Plan 205

Appendix A: Nutritive Value of Selected

Answers to Assess Your Knowledge 494

Life Expectancy 4 An Individualized Approach 29

Lifestyle as a Health Problem 5 The Joy of Fitness 30

Physical Activity and Exercise Defined 7 Exercise Safety 31

National Initiatives to Promote Healthy and Active Mean Blood Pressure 32

Lab 2B Behavior Modification Plan 73

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Getting Started and Adhering to a Lifetime Exercise Strength-Training Prescription 268

Dietary Guidelines for Muscular and Strength CHAPTER 8

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Performance Tests for Skill-Related Fitness 346 Visual Imagery 400

Team Sports 350 Autogenic Training 402

Specific Exercise Considerations 351 Meditation 402

Exercise-Related Injuries 359 Yoga 404

Exercise and Aging 361 Tai Chi 405

Preparing for Sports Participation 362 Assess Your Behavior 406

Base Fitness Conditioning 365 Assess Your Knowledge 406

Sport-Specific Conditioning 366 Notes 407

Overtraining 368 Suggested Readings 407

Periodization 369 Lab 10A Stress Events Scale 409

Assess Your Knowledge 373 Lab 10E Stress Management 419

Coping with Stress 394

Healthy Lifestyle, 4th edition; and Water Aerobics for Fitness

© Fitness & Wellness, Inc.

© Fitness & Wellness, Inc.

Visit www.cengagebrain.com to access course

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