(eBook PDF) Environmental Geology:

An Earth Systems Approach, Second

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 Contents

Letter from the Authors

PART II Solid Earth Systems
Preface
and Geologic Time 33
PART I Introduction 1
CHAPTER 2 Plate Tectonics: Solid
CHAPTER 1 Dynamic Earth Systems 3 Earth in Motion 35
Earth System Science 4 Introduction 36

The Concept of Systems 6 BOX 2-1 Global and Environmental

Change: Plate Tectonics and the Evolution
Types of Systems 6
of Species 37
System Behavior 7
Feedbacks in Earth Systems 8 An Early Conundrum and the Scientific
Method 38
Earth’s Environmental Systems 9
Science, Pseudoscience, and the Scientific
The Geosphere: Earth’s Metallic
Method 40
Interior and Rocky Outer Shell 9
The Pedosphere: Where Soils Form 13 Plate Properties and Motions 40
The Hydrosphere: Earth’s Distinguishing Divergent Plate Boundaries, Spreading
Characteristic 14 Ridges, and Normal Faults 41
The Atmosphere: Earth’s Envelope Convergent Plate Boundaries, Subduction
of Gases 16 Zones, and Reverse Faults 44
The Biosphere: Where Life Exists 17 Transform Plate Boundaries and
Strike-Slip Faults 47
Earth’s Energy System 18
States of Energy 18 Piecing the Theory Together 48
Sources of Energy 20 Paleomagnetism and Proof of
Energy Budget of Earth 21 Continental Drift 49
Human Consumption of Energy 22 Magnetic Reversals and the Magnetic
Polarity Timescale 51
Human Population and Earth System
Paleomagnetism and Seafloor Spreading 52
Boundaries 22
More Evidence in Support of the Theory 52
Human Population Growth 23
Resources and Sustainable Development 24 BOX 2-2 Emerging Research: Drilling into
Pollution, Wastes, and Environmental a Subduction Zone: The NanTroSEIZE Project 54
Impact 26 The Driver of Plate Tectonics 55
Natural Disasters, Hazards, and Risks 28
BOX 2-3 Emerging Research: Our Evolving
The Anthropocene and Planetary
Understanding of the Hawaiian Hot Spot 56
Boundaries 28
Closing Thoughts 58
Closing Thoughts 30
Summary and Key Terms 58
Summary and Key Terms 30
Questions and Exercises 58
Questions and Exercises 31
Suggested Readings 59
Suggested Readings 32

vii
viii CONTENTS

CHAPTER 3 Earthquakes: Igneous Rocks 103

Their Causes, Hazards, and Risks 61 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks 107
Metamorphic Rocks 111
Introduction 62 The Rock Cycle 113
The Buildup and Release of Seismic Energy 64 Rock and Mineral Resources 114
Fault Behavior 65 Industrialization and Mineral Resources 115
Seismic Sources and Waves 67 Critical Minerals 116
Locating Earthquake Epicenters 68 Ore Deposits and Ore Minerals 116
BOX 3-1 Geologist’s Toolbox: Imaging Types of Ore Deposits 117
Earth’s Interior 70 BOX 4-2 Case Study: Rare Earth Elements:
Not Rare, But Hard to Get 118
Tectonic Loading and the Earthquake
Cycle 72 Depletion and Recycling of Mineral
Resources 124
Assessing Earthquake Hazards 75
Environmental Impacts of Mining 125
Earthquake Moment Magnitude 75
Environmental Regulation of Mining 126
Earthquake Intensity 76
Metal Cycling Through Earth Systems:
Looking for Earthquakes in
Copper Case Study 127
the Geologic Record 78
BOX 4-3 Case Study: Butte, Montana—
BOX 3-2 Case Study: Magnitude Versus From Boom Town to Superfund Site 128
Intensity: The 2010 Haiti and Chile Events 79
Closing Thoughts 133
The Potential for Future Earthquakes 82 Summary and Key Terms 133
Questions and Exercises 134
BOX 3-3 Emerging Research: The Parkfield
Earthquake and the Difficulties of Prediction 84 Suggested Readings 137

Minimizing the Risks from Earthquakes 86

BOX 3-4 Earth Science and Public Policy: CHAPTER 5 Volcanoes 139
Earthquakes and Legislation 87 Introduction 140
Closing Thoughts 89
Volcanic Eruptions 142
Summary and Key Terms 89
How Volcanoes Erupt 142
Questions and Exercises 90
Magma Types and Eruptive Styles 143
Suggested Readings 91 Shield Volcanoes, Stratovolcanoes,
and Cinder Cones 145
Craters, Calderas, and Climate 148
CHAPTER 4 Earth Materials:
Elements, Minerals, and Rocks 93 Volcanic Hazards 149
Volcanic Ash 149
Introduction 94
BOX 5-1 Earth Science and Public Policy:
Minerals: Building Blocks of the Creating Artificial Volcanic Eruptions to
Lithosphere 96 Counter Global Warming: Geoengineering
Crystallization and Mineral Structure 97 or Geo-Fantasy? 151
Major Mineral Groups 98 Volcanic Gases 152
BOX 4-1 Geologist’s Toolbox: Soft Crystals Tsunamis from Volcanic Eruptions 153
and Hard Science in the Cave of Crystals, Active, Dormant, and Extinct Volcanoes 153
Mexico 100 The Volcanic Explosivity Index 153
Determining Volcanic Threat Levels 154
Mineral Properties: Hardness and Cleavage 102
BOX 5-2 Earth Science and Public Policy:
Rocks and the Rock Cycle 103 The Prediction Challenge 157
 CONTENTS ix

Minimizing the Risks from Volcanic Closing Thoughts 187

Eruptions 159 Summary and Key Terms 187
The Lahars of Mount Rainier 159 Questions and Exercises 188
BOX 5-3 Earth Science and Public Policy: Suggested Readings 189
Volcano Databases and Volcanic Ash Advisory
Centers 161
PART III Earth’s Surface System 191
Stopping the Lava on Mount Etna 162
Closing Thoughts 163 CHAPTER 7 The Biosphere 193
Summary and Key Terms 163 Introduction 194
Questions and Exercises 164
Suggested Readings 165 Biosphere Structure and Functioning 194
Energy for Life: Photosynthesis and
Respiration 195
Nutrients and Biogeochemical Cycles 195
CHAPTER 6 Geologic Time, Trophic Levels and Food Chains 199
Environmental Change, and Earth Competition and Cooperation 200
System Cycles 167 Population Growth and Carrying Capacity 200
Introduction 168 BOX 7-1 Case Study: The Guano Era in
Peruvian History 201
Scales of Time and Earth System Cycles 169
Time and Earth System Cycles 169 Biomes, Habitats, and Ecological Niches 203
Biodiversity 205
Measuring Time: Relative and Absolute
Age Dating 169 BOX 7-2 Emerging Research: Anthropogenic
Biomes: Humanity’s Imprint on the Biosphere 206
BOX 6-1 Global and Environmental
Change: One Billion Years of Rock Cycling BOX 7-3 Case Study: Consequences of Wolf
Revealed in the Grand Canyon 170 Reintroduction into Yellowstone National Park 208
Fossils, Evolution, and Relative Geologic Ecosystem Services 210
Time 172 Environmental Goods 210
Radioactivity and Absolute Geologic Pollination of Crops and Native
Time 175 Vegetation 211
Radiometric Dating 178 Water Purification 211
BOX 6-2 Geologist’s Toolbox: How Is the Human Impacts on the Biosphere 212
Rate of Radioactive Decay Used to Date Earth Human Population Growth 213
Materials? 180
Human Impacts on Biogeochemical Cycles 216
BOX 6-3 Geologist’s Toolbox: Family Habitat Fragmentation 216
History: Radiometric Dating and the Tempo Exotic Species 216
of Human Evolution 182 Extinctions and Loss of Biodiversity 218

Global Change over Different Scales BOX 7-4 Earth Science and Public Policy:
of Time 184 Detergent Phosphates: From Good
Housekeeping Necessity to Environmental
Global Change over Historic Time Scales 184
Nuisance 219
Global Change over Short Geologic Time
Scales 185 Restoration Ecology 221
BOX 6-4 Geologist’s Toolbox: How Do Closing Thoughts 222
Scientists Date Ice Cores? 186 Summary and Key Terms 222
Global Change over Long Geologic Time Questions and Exercises 223
Scales 186 Suggested Readings 225
x CONTENTS

CHAPTER 8 Soil and Weathering

PART IV Fluid Earth Systems 267
Systems 227
Introduction 228 CHAPTER 9 Earth’s Surface Water 269
The Pedosphere: A Geomembrane Introduction 270
to Other Earth Systems 230
Physical Weathering 231 The Hydrologic Cycle 271
Chemical Weathering 233 Surface Water Distribution 272
Hydrologic Budgets 273
BOX 8-1 Global and Environmental
Change: Tectonic Uplift, Rock Weathering, BOX 9-1 Earth Science and Public Policy:
and Long-Term Climate Change 236 Surface Water Use in the Colorado River
BOX 8-2 Geologist’s Toolbox: The Unusual Basin and Long-Term Records of Runoff
Properties of Clay Minerals 240 from Tree Rings 275

Biological Processes and Their Role Drainage Basins and Streams 277
in Weathering 240 Drainage Networks and Base-Level
Soil Profiles and Soil-Forming Factors 242 Controls 277
The Interaction of Earth Systems What Happens When It Rains? 278
to Form Soil 243 Stream Stage, Discharge, and
Cycling of Nitrogen Among the Hydrographs 280
Atmosphere, Biosphere, and Stream Channel Patterns and Processes 281
Pedosphere 245
Floods 284
Pedosphere Resources: Soils, Clays, Flood Hazards 284
and Mineral Ores 245 Flood Frequency Analysis 286
The Fertile Soil 245 The U.S. National Flood Insurance
BOX 8-3 Earth Science and Public Policy: Program 287
Population-Supporting Capacities and Soil 248
BOX 9-2 Case Study: The Geologic
Clay, Laterite, and Mineral Ores 249 Record of Flooding in South Dakota’s
Black Hills 288
Soil Erosion Hazards, Land Degradation,
and Soil Conservation 250 Altered Streams 290
Soil Erosion: A Quiet Crisis 250 Dams 290
BOX 8-4 Case Study: Droughts, Land Dam Removal 293
Degradation, and the American “Dust Bowl” 252 Artificial Levees and Floodwalls 294
Soil Erosion by Water 253 Channelization 294
Land Degradation and Desertification 254 Wetlands 295
Assessing Soil Erosion 255 Characteristics and Benefits of Wetlands 295
Soil Conservation Practices 256 Protecting Wetlands 296
Mass Movement Hazards and Their Managing and Restoring Streams
Mitigation 257 and Wetlands 297
The Roles of Gravity and Water in Mass River Corridor and Wetland Restoration 297
Movement 258
Types of Mass Movement 259 BOX 9-3 Emerging Research: Stream and
Wetland Restoration: What Is Natural? 298
Causes and Prevention of Mass
Movement 261 Unchannelizing the Kissimmee River 301
Closing Thoughts 263 Water Resources and Protection 302
Summary and Key Terms 263 Freshwater Use and Virtual Water 302
Questions and Exercises 264 Surface Water Systems and Waste
Suggested Readings 266 Disposal 304
 CONTENTS xi

The Clean Water Act and Watershed Migration of Groundwater Pollutants 349
Management 304 BOX 10-5 Case Study: Contaminant Plume
Regulations to Protect Drinking Water 307 at Cape Cod, Massachusetts 350
The National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act 308
U.S. Laws Governing the Quality of
Droughts 309 Water Resources 352
Types of Droughts 309 Groundwater and Aquifer Restoration 353
Impacts of Droughts on Socioeconomic
Closing Thoughts 355
and Environmental Systems 310
Summary and Key Terms 355
Drought History and Global Warming 311
Questions and Exercises 356
BOX 9-4 Case Study: Water Battles in Suggested Readings 357
Wet Places: Drought and the Tri-State Water
Dispute 312
Closing Thoughts 315
CHAPTER 11 The Atmospheric
Summary and Key Terms 315
System 359
Questions and Exercises 316
Suggested Readings 318 Introduction 360
The Atmosphere: An Envelope of Gases 362
CHAPTER 10 The Groundwater Present Atmospheric Composition 362
System 321 BOX 11-1 Global and Environmental
Introduction 322 Change: The Intertwined Histories of
Atmospheric Oxygen and Life 364
Water in the Ground 323
The Water Table 323 Atmospheric Structure 366
Porosity and Groundwater Storage 324 Atmospheric Circulation and Climate 369
Permeability and Groundwater Flow 326 The Greenhouse Effect 369
Aquifers 326 Differential Heating of Earth 370
BOX 10-1 Geologist’s Toolbox: Darcy’s BOX 11-2 Geologist’s Toolbox:
Law and the Flow of Water and Contaminants Electromagnetic Radiation 372
in Rocks and Sediments 330
Tropospheric Circulation 374
Natural Groundwater Chemistry 332
Climate Zones 378
BOX 10-2 Earth Science and Public Policy:
Saving Water in the Desert 335 Storms 381
Development of Air Masses and Frontal
Groundwater as a Resource 335 Weather Systems 381
Global Distribution and Use 336 Severe Weather 383
Groundwater Resource Management 336 Tropical Storms and Hurricanes 386
BOX 10-3 Case Study: Water Resource BOX 11-3 Geologist’s Toolbox: Clouds:
Management in Los Angeles 340 Thor’s Anvil and Castles in the Air 387
Groundwater Hazards 342 Human Influence on Atmospheric
Solution Caverns and Sinkholes 342 Chemistry 390
Land Subsidence from Groundwater Acid Rain 391
Mining 342
BOX 11-4 Case Study: The Destructive
BOX 10-4 Case Study: Dead Sea Sinkholes 344 Power of Tornados 392
Intrusion of Salt Water 346 Smog 394
Ozone Depletion 396
Groundwater Pollution and Its Cleanup 347
Types and Sources of Groundwater Air Pollution and Environmental
Pollution 347 Management 398
xii CONTENTS

Legislation 398 Closing Thoughts 449

Cleanup Technologies 399 Summary and Key Terms 451
Closing Thoughts 400 Questions and Exercises 452
Summary and Key Terms 401 Suggested Readings 454
Questions and Exercises 402
Suggested Readings 403
PART V Energy, Changing Earth,
and Human-Earth Interactions 455
CHAPTER 12 The Ocean
and Coastal System 405 CHAPTER 13 Energy 457
Energy and Humans 458
Introduction 406
Earth’s Energy System 460
The Ocean Basins 408
States of Energy 460
Features of the Seafloor 409
Energy, Work, and Power 460
The Changing Ocean Basins 409
Coastlines 410 Sources of Energy 462
Sea Level Changes 411 Earth’s Energy Cycle and Budget 463
Energy Transfers and Photosynthesis 463
Seawater Chemistry 412 Resources, Energy Currency, and
The Salinity of Seawater 413 End-Use Services 464
Nutrients in Seawater 414
Dissolved Gases and pH in Seawater 414 Petroleum: Crude Oil and Natural Gas 465
Origin of Petroleum 465
Ocean Structure and Circulation 416 Finding, Extracting, and Refining
Vertical Structure of the Oceans 416 Petroleum 468
Circulation in the Surface Mixed Layer 417 Peak Oil and Gas: How Long Will
BOX 12-1 Global and Environmental Crude Oil and Natural Gas Last? 470
Change: El Niño Climatic Events 420
BOX 13-1 Earth Science and Public Policy:
Circulation in the Deep Ocean 420 The Essential Trade-off between Fossil Fuels
and the Environment 472
Coastal Processes and the Hazards
of Living by the Sea 424 Unconventional Fluid Hydrocarbons:
Beaches and Waves 424 Oil Sands, Shale Oil, and Gas 474
Tides 426 Environmental Impacts Associated
Coastal Erosion and Attempts to with Petroleum Use 478
Control It 428
BOX 13-2 Earth Science and Public Policy:
Controlling Cliff Erosion 430
Deepwater Drilling and Well Blowouts 482
Tsunamis 431
Human Impacts on the Seas 436 Coal 484
Waste Disposal and Polluted Runoff Origin of Coal 485
Along Continental Shelves 436 Global Distribution of Coal Deposits 486
Coal Production and Reserves 487
BOX 12-2 Earth Science and Public Policy:
Coal Mining 487
Who Owns the Seas? 438
Environmental Impacts of Mining
Plastics in the Sea 443 and Burning Coal 488
BOX 12-3 Case Study: Chesapeake Bay BOX 13-3 Geologist’s Toolbox: Visualizing
and Population Growth 444 Mountaintop Removal in 3-D with Remote
Sensing and Lidar 490
Ocean Acidification 447
Protecting the Oceans 447 Carbon Capture and Storage 493
 CONTENTS xiii

Geothermal Energy 495 Global Climate Models 554

Nuclear Energy 497 Closing Thoughts 556
The Nuclear Fuel Cycle 497 Summary and Key Terms 557
Fission and Fusion 501 Questions and Exercises 558
Nuclear Power Plant Safety 502 Suggested Readings 559
Nuclear Waste 502
Renewable Energy 504 CHAPTER 15 Humans and the
Solar Energy 504 Whole Earth System: Living in the
Wind Energy 507 Anthropocene 561
Hydropower 510
Biomass 510 Introduction 562
Energy Efficiency and Conservation 511 Planetary Boundaries 564
BOX 13-4 Case Study: The “New Atmospheric Aerosol Loading 565
EnergyEra”: Green Buildings and The Road Biodiversity Loss 565
Taken 512 BOX 15-1 Global and Environmental
Closing Thoughts 516 Change: Tipping Points 566
Summary and Key Terms 517 Changes in Biogeochemical Cycles 566
Questions and Exercises 518 Changes in Land Use 567
Suggested Readings 519 Chemical Pollution 568
Global Freshwater Use 568
CHAPTER 14 Understanding Stratospheric Ozone Depletion 569
Climatic and Environmental Change 521 Anthropogenic Climate Change 570
Introduction 522 Evidence for a Warming Earth 571
Causes of Climatic Change 571
Climate on Terrestrial Planets 523
Earth’s Temperature and the Faint BOX 15-2 Earth Science and Public Policy:
Young Sun Problem 524 Manufacturing a Controversy 573
Mars: A Frozen Planet 526 The Case for Human Sources 574
Venus: A Runaway Greenhouse Effect 526
BOX 15-3 Emerging Research: Atmospheric
Causes of Climatic Change 527 CO2 and Temperature: Resolving a Chicken
Climate and the Evolution of Life 528 and Egg Problem 578
Influence of Plate Tectonics on Climate 530
Influence of the Oceans on Climate 532 Impacts of Rising Greenhouse Gas
Concentrations 580
BOX 14-1 Case Study: Snowball Earth 534 Greenhouse Gas Scenarios 581
Influence of Earth’s Orbital Parameters Temperature 581
on Climate 536 Sea Level Rise 583
Influence of Humans on Climate 538 Changes to the Hydrologic Cycle 587
Climatic Feedbacks 539 Impacts on Human Health 587
Ecosystem Impacts of a Warming Planet 588
Indicators of Environmental Change 541
Lessons from Former Worlds 589
Geologic Records of Climate and
Environment 541 BOX 15-4 Emerging Research:
Frozen Methane: A Climatic Bomb Waiting
BOX 14-2 Emerging Research: Earth’s
to Go Off? 590
Flickering Temperature and Climatic Seesaw 546
Climate Change Benefits 592
Biological Records of Climate and
Environment 551 Coming to Grips with the Anthropocene 592
xiv CONTENTS

Greenhouse Gas Reduction Strategies 592 Appendix 1: Classification of Biological

Geoengineering 594 Organisms A-1
Adaptations to a Warmer World 595 Appendix 2: Periodic Table of Elements A-2
International Agreements 598 Appendix 3: Units and Conversions A-3
Appendix 4: Properties of Common
Closing Thoughts 600
Minerals A-8
Summary and Key Terms 601 Glossary G-1
Questions and Exercises 602 References R-1
Suggested Readings 603 Index I-1

W hen the first edition of this book was released in
1998, Earth’s human population numbered just
under 6 billion, the average Chinese citizen bicycled to
work, the United States appeared to be running out of
oil and natural gas, and carbon dioxide levels in the
atmosphere were around 365 parts per million volume
(ppmv). Sixteen years later, another billion people live
on the globe, a growing Chinese middle class is buy-
ing automobiles, major advances in extractive technol-
ogy have led to a new oil and gas boom in the United
States, and atmospheric carbon dioxide has risen to
400 ppmv. The combination of the larger human pop-
ulation and our increasingly affluent lifestyle is putting
enormous strains on Earth’s systems. As a result of our
activities, the polar ice caps are melting at an increas-
ing rate, habitat loss, and exotic species invasions have
damaged ecosystems, and an erratic hydrologic cycle is
generating ever more extreme weather phenomena. At
the same time that human impacts on the globe have
mounted, the pace of environmental disasters appears
to have quickened. The earthquakes, tsunamis, hur-
ricanes, tornados, floods, wildfires, and droughts that
have killed hundreds of thousands of people and dis-
placed tens of millions more at the beginning of the
new millennium are unspeakable tragedies and point
toward an increasing vulnerability of the human popu-
lation to geological hazards.
The complexity of the environmental crises that
confront us in the 21st century necessitate an Earth
system science approach if we are to find ways to un-
derstand and address them. The flooding of the city of
New Orleans by Hurricane Katrina in 2005 is a per-
fect example. Fully comprehending that event requires
understanding not only the atmospheric conditions
that gave rise to the hurricane, but also the fluvial and
biologic processes that built the Mississippi River del-
ta wherein the city lies, and the impact of dam con-
struction upstream, which has starved the delta of the
sediment it needs to stay above the Gulf of Mexico’s
waves. Nor can we comprehend the disaster without
understanding the subsidence that has occurred as a re-
sult of adjustment of Earth’s crust to the delta sediment
load and as a result of groundwater pumping, both of
which have caused New Orleans to slip below sea level
over the past century. We also can’t forget oil and gas
exploration, which has sliced canals through coastal
Letter from the Authors
wetlands, allowing salty ocean water to travel inland
and impact brackish and freshwater marshes so that
land loss brings hurricane storm surge ever closer to
the city. As this one example shows, atmosphere, hydro-
sphere, pedosphere, biosphere, and lithosphere all were
involved in conjunction with human activity to produce
the costliest environmental disaster in United States his-
tory, and all must be considered in an integrated and in-
terdisciplinary approach. It is just this sort of approach
that underpins the text of this book and that we believe
will guide humanity toward a better future.
We see truly hopeful outcomes of the past two de-
cades in the growth of the sustainability movement,
itself deeply rooted in Earth system science. The real-
ization that seemingly small, mundane actions can lead
to regional, continental, or even global consequences
when multiplied by many millions or billions of actors
is a direct outgrowth of advances in our understand-
ing of the numerous processes that generate Earth’s cli-
mate. This awareness led to deployment of solar panels
and wind turbines around the world, to development
of “green” building standards in the United States and
other nations, to higher fuel and energy efficiency re-
quirements for vehicles and appliances, and to the
growth of local and organic agriculture movements,
though much work remains to be done to create a sus-
tainable world.
Although the rate of human population growth has
slowed, the addition of another 2 billion people is pro-
jected by mid-century. It is vitally important that we pre-
pare now for this future by doing all we can to promote
resiliency in our societies and their adjacent ecosystems.
It is with this preparation in mind that we have written
the second edition, as who is better to carry out our
unfinished work than our students? We hope that they
take away from this text an enhanced understanding of
how our planet operates, of how to protect themselves
and their societies from natural disasters, and of how to
minimize their impacts on Earth systems through wise
use of resources. We also hope they take away a sense of
awe and reverence for the amazing world we live in. As
the first generation of people born during the Internet
and social networking era, they have the potential to
enact sweeping global changes, and we call upon their
boundless energy to carry out a positive transformation
in how we live on Earth!
xv
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CONTENT AND ORGANIZATION
The courses we teach at Franklin and Marshall College
and Vassar College have evolved over the years to meet
what we see as critical needs in introductory geoscience
education. Given that most of our students will not
take another Earth science course, we seek to impress
on them the importance of understanding how Earth
works, how humans affect the environment, and the
characteristics of different natural hazards. Having just
a little bit of knowledge on these topics can help stu-
dents make informed decisions as adults about where
to avoid buying a home, whether to support nuclear
power or non-nuclear alternative energy resources, and
how to respond as voting citizens to the threats of glob-
al climate change. In developing our course, we found
no textbook that consistently weaves together basic
concepts of Earth system science and environmental
geoscience, though, as we noted above, such a weaving
together is essential to address many of the environmen-
tal problems we face today. To compensate, we created,
tested in class, and refined a set of course materials so
comprehensive that they evolved, with the urging and
advice of many colleagues, into the first edition of this
book.
We have learned that our colleagues in the envi-
ronmental geosciences want in a textbook many of the
same things we wanted: information on scientific and
systems thinking; information on individual systems
such as soils, surface water, groundwater, atmosphere,
oceans, and energy; and information on interpreting
and predicting environmental change. These topics are
treated thoroughly in this textbook. At the same time,
we are careful to select and cover the fundamentals of
physical geology that are essential to understanding the
Earth system and contemporary environmental and re-
source issues. The second edition remains true to our
original goals but has been thoroughly updated to re-
flect advances in knowledge made in the past 16 years.
• Part I presents the concept of systems in general
and the various Earth systems in particular, with
emphasis on reservoirs and flows, system behavior,
feedbacks, and cycling of matter and energy. We
also introduce the topic of human population
growth, renewable versus nonrenewable resources,
and the different factors that contribute to human
environmental impacts. The chapter concludes
Preface
with a discussion of planetary boundaries
advocated by sustainability scientists, a recent idea
that frames much of our writing about resources
throughout the text. We come back to these
boundaries throughout the book, pointing out
those situations in which humans appear to have
driven environmental systems toward or perhaps
even beyond tipping points that are likely to lead
to quite different planetary conditions in the
future.
In our own teaching, we find that focusing on the
evolution, processes, resources, hazards, waste prob-
lems, and policy issues for one environmental system at
a time is preferable to saving all discussion of environ-
mental topics for the end of the course. Therefore, Parts
II, III, and IV concentrate on individual systems and
their relationships to one another and incorporate con-
tent on hazards, resources, and relevant policy issues.
• Part II, Solid Earth Systems and Geologic Time,
consists of five chapters covering plate tectonics,
mineral and rock-forming processes, the resources
and hazards of the lithosphere, and how we use
the rock record to make inferences about Earth’s
history. We also have situated a discussion of
the scientific method within the context of the
development of plate tectonic theory, using the
history of geological thought to bring alive the
process of scientific discovery.
• Part III, Earth’s Surface Systems, contains two
chapters on the biosphere and pedosphere.
While discussion of the biosphere was woven
throughout the first edition, the explosion of
research in biogeochemical cycles, geobiology,
and geomicrobiology that has occurred since that
book was released merited an expanded treatment
in the current edition, and we have therefore
given the biosphere a stand-alone chapter. Here
we address the nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon
cycles, trophic levels and food chains, populations,
and ecosystem services relevant to such topics as
climate stabilization and water purification. This
treatment of the solid earth and biosphere leads
naturally to a chapter on the pedosphere in which
we discuss weathering, soil-forming processes, soil
erosion and its prevention, and the hazard of mass
wasting.
xvii
xviii PREFACE

• In Part IV, we address Earth’s fluid systems, the
hydrosphere and atmosphere. We begin with
chapters on surface water and groundwater, first
discussing the processes that distribute water
between reservoirs and govern its movement. Next
comes discussion of hazards such as flooding,
channel instability, and drought, as well as water
pollution and environmental laws and regulations
designed to improve water quality. We then move
to the atmosphere and the oceans, which provide
the foundations for understanding the climate
system and human impacts on climate in the final
section of the book. In addition to addressing basic
composition and circulation of these systems, we
discuss hazards such as severe weather, tsunamis,
and coastal erosion, as well as pollution problems
such as acid rain, ozone depletion, and ocean
acidification. The Montreal protocol receives
attention as an example of successful international
cooperation in dealing with an environmental crisis.
• Part V, Energy, Changing Earth, and Human-Earth
Interactions, considers the driving mechanisms
of all processes and change on Earth, with three
chapters: energy as a system; causes and geological
evidence of past environmental change; and what
it means to be living in what many scientists now
refer to as the Anthropocene. In the last chapter
we return to the idea of planetary thresholds for
stability, giving particular attention to the issue
of global warming.
PEDAGOGICAL APPROACH
We are keenly aware of the need to present scientific in-
formation in a way that captures the interest of students
who are taking environmental geology as their first
and perhaps only college science course. Throughout
all chapters, we emphasize issues relevant to everyday
experience and use frequent examples and case studies.
Explanations are written clearly and with a minimum of
technical jargon; they are enhanced by vividly rendered
and carefully labeled diagrams of structures and pro-
cesses, selected tables and graphs, maps, and impressive
photographs.

NEW TO THIS EDITION

W e have added two categories of boxes designed to demonstrate the connections

between content in chapters and current issues in the news, and to highlight
state-of-the-art research in Earth sciences.

Earth Science and Public Policy Boxes

We present case studies in which research on Earth system processes has been in-
strumental in formulating public policy or law to deal with a variety of environ-
mental problems. Examples include the adoption by the California legislature of the
Alquist-Priolo Earthquake Fault Zoning Act, which aims to minimize earthquake
damage through stringent development requirements, the gradual banning by most
state legislatures of detergent phosphates to protect aquatic ecosystems, and ordi-
nances enacted by cities in the American Southwest to conserve dwindling water
supplies, among others. We also
address the role of special interests
BOX 3-4 EARTH SCIENCE AND PUBLIC POLICY
and the news media in disseminat-
ing misinformation about global Earthquakes and Legislation
climate change.
A
t 6 A.M. on February 9, 1971, a magnitude 6.6 earth- In 1975, California took another step toward earth-
quake rocked the San Fernando Valley of Southern
California when a slip of about 1 m occurred on a thrust
quake preparedness by creating a seismic safety com-
mission.64 Made up of geologists, structural engineers,
fault lying beneath the valley.62 The event caused 65 deaths, seismologists, emergency management professionals, fire-
more than 2000 injuries, and $505 million in property fighters, members of social services agencies and other
damage. Many of the deaths occurred when a Veterans relevant disciplines, the commission conducts research and
Administration Hospital, several freeway overpasses, and makes recommendations to help the state legislature and
part of the Olive View Hospital collapsed. Landslides trig- the governor in crafting laws to reduce earthquake impacts,
gered by the earthquake caused additional damage to enhance public preparedness, and monitor seismic events.
buildings, railways, pipelines, and dams, and shaking was Many of the building code requirements discussed in this
felt as far away as western Arizona. chapter are a result of the commission’s work.
In response to the devastation, the California legislature

Emerging Research Boxes
We profile recent and on-going research projects designed to address fundamental
questions for which we presently have few or no answers. The purpose of these
boxes is to make it clear to students that Earth science is a young discipline in which
discoveries are made on a daily basis
and to which they can contribute should
they decide to continue in the discipline.
Examples of projects discussed in these
boxes include the San Andreas Fault
Observatory at Depth, an instrumented
borehole drilled into the Parkfield sec-
tion of the fault to study the conditions
required for and the characteristics of
slip, studies of the amount of methane
being released from melting permafrost
as a result of global warming of the Arc-
tic, and our evolving understanding of
the Hawaiian hotspot, which has appar-
ently migrated over time, rather than, as
was assumed in the first edition of this
book, being fixed in position. Awareness
of this last point is requiring reinter-
pretation of previously agreed-on plate
tectonic movements, an example of the
scientific method in action!
Citations
Recognizing the importance
of citing our sources in
teaching science students, we
now include comprehensive
citations to allow students
to explore further topics of
interest to them.
BUILDING ON THE
FIRST EDITION
This edition of Environmen-
tal Geology retains several
features used successfully in
the first edition.
Chapter Openers
Each chapter begins with a
case study relating the sub-
ject of the chapter to Earth
systems and environmental
issues. For example, Chapter 1, “Dynamic Earth Systems,” begins with an open-
ing story about the shrinking glaciers of Mount Kilimanjaro and the worldwide
causes and effects of this phenomenon on Earth’s interconnected systems. A
chapter outline gives the student both a preview of the content and a review
device, and a list of goals establishes a context for the chapter.
PREFACE xix
BOX 3-3 EMERGING RESEARCH
The Parkfield Earthquake and the Difficulties of Prediction
T
he town of Parkfield, California, lies along the San
Andreas fault, midway between Los Angeles and San
Francisco. Earthquakes with a magnitude of about 6 shook
36° 10'N
the area in 1857, 1881, 1901, 1922, 1934, and 1966,
or on average, every 22 years (Figure 1). Mapping of offset
M6, 1966 Earthquake
features indicated that roughly the same area along the fault
slipped in each event. These facts led the U.S. Geological
36° 00'N SAFOD
Survey (USGS) to plan an experiment to determine whether
reepmeterr
Creepmeter
earthquakes might in fact be predictable.
Latitude
2-color EDM
Beginning in 1985, USGS scientists installed equip- 35° 50'N Continuous GPS
ment to measure every conceivable precursor of an earth- Continuous GPS
(install 11/00)
quake and also deployed a network of seismic stations to
46
Dilatometer
Tensor Strain
record the next event (Figure 2). On the premise that
faults might slip due to changes in fluid pressure that could
Water Well
Calnet
35° 40'N
lubricate the fault zone, geologists installed groundwa- Strong Motion
UPSAR
ter wells that they could use to monitor water levels. Tilt
meters and creep meters were installed to keep track of
GEOS
UCB HRSN
tiny vertical and horizontal motions that might foreshadow
Magnetometer
Resistivity
an impending rupture. Likewise, surveying benchmarks 35° 30'N
were installed across the fault to allow for repeated mea-
120° 40'W 120° 30'W 120° 20'W 120° 10'W
surements between points, in an attempt to determine
Longitude
Figure 2 Because of the frequency of earthquakes here, the
whether the ground moved before an earthquake. Chinese
scientists had found that earthquakes are sometimes pre-
Parkfield area has a large number of instruments to monitor
ground motion, groundwater level, and other parameters.
ceded by changes in electrical conductivity of the ground
we need to examine the smaller systems that interact
within the whole planetary system. In this chapter we:
✔ Discuss the integrative field of Earth system
science.
✔ Examine the concept of systems and their
components.
✔ Identify the forces that drive Earth’s processes and
examine how feedback mechanisms either amplify
or regulate them.
✔ Consider the field of environmental geology and
the scope of this book.
xx PREFACE

Art Program
Precipitation onto land Precipitation into oceans
Geologist Emily Cooper assisted in the devel- (119,000 km3/yr) Atmospheric
water: (458,000 km3/yr)
opment of the new art program. Diagrams Evaporation and
transpiration from land
12,900 km3
EVAPORATION
are vividly rendered and thoroughly labeled, (72,000 km3/yr)

making geologic structures and processes

clear and easily remembered. EVAPORATION

PRECIPITATION TRANSPIRATIO
N
Flow charts are constructed for clarity
and visual interest, and they make concepts RUNOFF PRECIPITATIO
N
such as budgets, reservoirs, and fluxes easy INFILTRA
TION
to understand. Su
S
ggrro
ou
urrffaacce ru
und
un no
dwater ff and
Evaporation from oce
(505,000 km3/yr)
ans
(47,000 di3scharge
Color photographs and digital images km /yr)

provide striking illustrations, from the minis-

cule to the majestic, of the material presented
Continental water:
in the text discussion. 47,971,710 km3

Figure 1-14 Earth’s hydrologic

cycle consists of the processes (and Oceanic water:
Real-World Examples fluxes) of precipitation, evaporation, 1,338,000,000 km3
transpiration, infiltration, and runoff
Chapters include frequent examples of how from one reservoir to another. Primary
reservoirs are the oceans, continental
Earth scientists are solving environmental water (lakes, streams, wetlands, and
groundwater), and the atmosphere.
problems. For example, scientists have used
the geologic record to determine the charac-
teristics of natural streams and wetlands prior to centuries of disturbance through
logging, mining, agriculture, and damming. These reconstructions are useful in res-
toration projects designed to enhance ecosystem services and value.

Boxes Provide Deeper Discussions

A program of boxed features enhances the text with interesting Case Studies of actual
events, Geologist’s Toolboxes that describe technical skills, and thought-provoking es-
says on Global and Environmental Change, Earth Science and Public Policy, and
current-day profiles of Emerging Research.
BOX 3-2 CASE STUDY

Magnitude Versus Intensity: The 2010 Haiti and Chile Events

T he difference between earthquake magnitude and

intensity could not have been made clearer than by the
example of two earthquakes that occurred early in 2010.
Maule, Chile
−216 −108
08
BOX 2-1 GLOBAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
Distance Along Strike, 018o (km)

0 108 216

Plate Tectonics and the Evolution of Species

120

100
60

60
Distance Along Dip (km)

90

90

On January 12, a magnitude 7.0 strike-slip earthquake

on the Enriquillo–Plantain Garden fault, one of two faults
that define the plate boundary between the Caribbean and
50

0 30
D rifting continents have dramatically influenced the
30
evolution of animal and plant species on Earth.
Perhaps the most striking example of this influence can and South America were
leozoic era to the early Mesozoic,
ago, from the late Paleozoic
ralia, Antarctica, Africa, and North
the continents of Australia,
BOX into
re assembled 3-1 theGEOLOGIST’S
superconti- TOOLBOX
North American plates, struck the nation of Haiti.35 The −50
be seen in the fauna of Australia. About 200 million years nent Pangaea (Figure 1). About 100 million years ago,
epicenter lay immediately west of the capital city of Port- Rupture Front Contours
urrs Plotted Every 5s (continued )
Imaging Earth’s Interior
au-Prince, home to nearly 15% of the country’s popula- Slip (cm)

tion. The shaking collapsed 97,294 homes and damaged

another 188,383 in and around Port-au-Prince, killing
0 200 400 6600 800 1000 1200 1400
North American Land Mammals
mals
l E
arthquakes and the development of the science of
seismology have enabled us to determine the structure
of Earth’s interior, a place we will never be able to visit
at least 222,570 people and injuring 300,000 more Haiti
Distance Along Strike, 264o (km)
Epoch North American Age directly. As scientists set up seismometers at numerous
(Figure 1). An estimated 1.3 million people were left 0 11 0 22 32 43
Pleistocene locations, they began to notice something rather odd: No
homeless. With the presidential palace destroyed and 12
1 S waves appeared on seismograms at locations greater than
30

many government ministers killed, the international com-

Distance Along Dip (km)

2 104°
munity stepped in to provide aid, but debris that clogged
6
Pliocene Dasypodidae Glypt
Gly
lypptaway
lypt
yp todo
odont
odon
odonti
do
dont
donti
don
onti
on
ont
ntid
Glyptodontidaettiifrom
da
dae
daaee earthquake hypocenters. Likewise, no
P waves were found at angles between 104° and 140° from
Million years ago

3
streets hampered these efforts for weeks. Many people 0
Land bridge established
4 (3 my) Megatheriidae the hypocenters. These findings indicated that Earth had
died from lack of food, water, or medical care. The near-
a complex internal structure that was not homogeneous (a) Homogeneous Earth
total devastation of the capital city will require decades of −6 5
throughout.
reconstruction, a catastrophic blow to the Western Hemi- 6
sphere’s poorest nation. urs
Rupture Front Contourss Plotted Every 5s If Earth’s interior were made of a uniform material,
7 Slip (cm)
seismic rays—lines drawn perpendicular to the spheri-
0 100 2200
0 300
Miocene
400 500
8 cally propagating seismic wave fronts—would be per-
Figure 2 Comparison of ffault ruptures9 for the Chilean and fectly straight (Figure 1). Such a planet would be highly
Haitian earthquakes of 20 2010. The Chilean rupture (M 0 w 8.8)20 40 L improbable
d bridge
Land bridge
idg because the force of gravity should cause
was the result of about 50 50% more slip on a much greater Numbers fault
of genera
upt
area than the Haitian rupture (Mw 7.0). Rupture area is the material at the interior of the planet to be denser than that
product of fault rupture le length (x-axis) and distance along the at the surface. In a planet with increasing density toward
fault plane’s dip (y-axis). s). C Colors indicate the amount of slip the interior, seismic rays would travel along a curved path.
on different parts of the ru rupture plane. (Finite Epochfault modelsSouth by American Age
Gavin Hayes, USGS National na Earthquake0Information Center)
The reason for this can be illustrated by thinking of a straw
Pleistocene in a glass of water. Light energy is bent when passing from (b) Density Increasing with Depth
1
air into water, causing the straw to appear bent when in
On February 27, a magnitude 2 8.8 subduction-zone
Pliocene fact it is perfectly straight. The same thing happens to seis-
Million years ago

earthquake occurred off the west coast 3 of Chile where the Land bridge established mic energy as it passes through rocks of different densities, Key
Nazca Plate subductss b beneath the4 South American Plate (3 my) a phenomenon known as refraction. Earthquake
(see Figure 2-3). Though oug it ruptured a much larger area In our layered planet, the difference in density between epicenter
5
P wave
(Figure 2) and released sed more than 500 times as much the mantle (3.3–5.7 g/cm3) and the core (10–13 g/cm3)21
6 S wave
energy as the Haitian quake, qu fewer than 600 people were causes so much refraction that seismic rays cannot travel to 104° 104°
7 36 Camelidae
killed and only 12,000 00 were injured.Miocene In part, the lower certain locations. Another factor governing the propaga-
casualty numbers are att attributable to 8 the location of popu-
tion of seismic energy is the physical state of the matter.
140° 140° P-wave shadow zone
Figure 1 Nearly 100,000 homes collapsed and close to lation centers relative to the hypocenter. 9 The Chilean earth- S waves travel through materials by deforming their shapes,
200,000 were damaged in the vicinity of Haiti’s capital city, S-w e
quake occurred offshore ore and at a depth of 35 km, 0
while 20 the 40 60 80 100 a ve s h a d o w z o n
Port-au-Prince, during the 2010 magnitude 7.0 earthquake. Numbers of genera
whereas P waves propagate by alternately compressing and
Homes on this slope were destroyed or severely damaged. Haitian earthquake occurred ccu directly beneath a populated Equidae then extending
Gomphotheriidae
Gomp
Gom
Gompho
Gomph
Go
G ompho
omph
om
omp
ompho
mph
mp
m ph h therii
therethe
theri
tth
he
herii
her
erii
rrii amaterial
iiiidae
da
d ae
e through which they move. (c) Actual Earth
(AP Photo/Albuquerque Journal, Adolphe Pierre-Louis) area at a depth of onlyy 13 1 km. The vastly different casualty Liquids have no distinct shape, so S waves are incapable
S
South meric
merican
i an Land
American L d Mammals
M
Mamm
ammal ls
als Figure 1 (a) Seismic rays in a homogeneous Earth, (b) seismic
of traveling through them, a fact that led to the discovery
rays in an Earth with increasing density toward the interior,
Figure 1 When a land bridge, the Isthmus of Panama, was For the first time, marsupial that Earth’s
pial mammals i South
in S th outer
A core
America is composed of a liquid. The angle
i came and (c) seismic rays in a zoned Earth, showing P- and S-wave
uplifted between North and South America, many animals in contact with placental mammals. l As
A a result
beyond lt off Sthis
which thiwaves “Great
“G aret no longer recorded also indi- shadow zones.
migrated south, including llamas, elephants, bears, deer, dogs, American Interchange,” the number of genera (plural of genus)
and rabbits. The smaller number of species that migrated n South America, and less so in North core.
increased substantially in cates the size of the molten
north included armadillos, sloths, porcupines, and opossums. America, after the land bridge Because liquids are compressible, P waves are able to
ridge was established. more rapidly through solids than through liquids. It was
pass through the outer core, but the transition from liquid these two lines of evidence that led Danish seismologist
to solid causes them to refract strongly, leading to the 104° Inge Lehmann to hypothesize in the 1930s that Earth had a
to 140° shadow zone. In addition, P waves move much solid inner core.22 Based on two models of Earth—one with
 PREFACE xxi

Section Summaries
New lithosphere forms along rifts at mid-ocean
spreading centers on divergent boundaries, and old A list of the important ideas is provided at
lithosphere is destroyed at subduction zones along con-
vergent boundaries. The amounts of lithosphere created
the end of each major section in a chapter
and destroyed are equal, keeping the lithosphere system to encourage students to pause, think about
in a steady state and ensuring that Earth’s size remains
the same over time.
what they have read, and ensure that they
Plate boundaries are zones of active rock deformation,
understand the material before going on to
faulting, and folding. Faulting occurs at shallow depths the next section.
(generally less than 10 to 30 km), where rocks are cool
and brittle, whereas folding generally occurs at greater
depths, where rocks are warmer and more ductile.
The three basic types of faults are normal, reverse,
and strike-slip. Although each may occur at all types of
plate boundaries, normal faults are dominant at divergent
boundaries, where crust is stretched and pulled apart;
reverse faults are dominant at convergent boundaries,
where crust is compressed and d shortened; and strike-slip
faults are dominant at transform CLOSING
rm plate THOUGHTS
boundaries, where
crustal blocks slip horizontally
y pastWeeach other.
began by discussing the possible causes of rap- to determine cause and effect and to predict future
idly shrinking glaciers atop the highest mountain outcomes.
in Africa, Mount Kilimanjaro. This example shows The scale of human impact on Earth is relatively
how Earth scientists investigate interconnected Earth small in comparison with that of geologic processes
systems. Greenhouse gases emitted from activities such as volcanism, continental drift, waxing and wan-
that include burning fossil fuels for energy lead to ing ice ages, or mountain building, yet humans are
global warming that, in turn, can cause glacial ice by no means an insignificant force. The signatures
masses to shrink and change the fluxes and stocks of human activities can be detected worldwide, from
of water in Earth’s hydrosphere. We also examined extinct species to wholesale changes in land cover or
the ways in which scientists investigate Earth pro- the composition of our atmosphere. Whether or not the
cesses, using a multitude of tools and an overarching ongoing anthropogenic changes in the cycling of matter
view of Earth as a dynamic system. By systematically and energy on Earth result in an environment in which
examining each of the parts and processes within our we can live sustainably and within planetary boundary
planet’s various subsystems, Earth scientists are able thresholds remains to be seen.

Closing Thoughts
This unique feature is a short essay in which the authors reflect on the chapter and
identify significant links to human affairs. Closing Thoughts gives the authors the
opportunity to share with students their thoughts about the wide-ranging implica-
tions of an environmental problem, from the philosophic to the economic, and to
contrast those implications with the scientific aspects.

Chapter Summary, Key Terms, Questions, Exercises, and Readings

Chapters end with a traditional Summary that complements the earlier end-of-
section summaries; a list (with page numbers) of the Key Terms highlighted in bold-
face type within the chapter; a set of Review Questions that helps students under-
stand and remember important ideas; a set of Thought Questions that encourages
students to apply what they have learned to questions not specifically addressed in
the chapter; a set of Exercises that encourages students to solve quantitative prob-
lems and explore their own environment; and a list of Suggested Readings, accessible
to the interested nonscientist, that enhances the major topics of the chapter.

Appendices and Glossary

At the end of the book are four helpful appendices and a glossary. Appendices in-
clude the Linnaean classification system, a periodic table of the elements, a conver-
sion table of metric units and their English equivalents, and a list of the properties of
common minerals. The comprehensive glossary includes definitions of environmen-
tal geosciences terms that may be unfamiliar to students.

ALTERNATE VERSIONS
W. H. Freeman partners with CourseSmart to provide a low-cost subscription to the
text in e-Book format. CourseSmart e-Books can be read online or offline, as well as
via free apps for an iPad, iPhone, iPod Touch, Android device, or Kindle Fire. Stu-
dents are able to take notes, highlight important text, and search for key words. For
more information, or to purchase access to the e-Book, visit www.coursesmart.com.
xxii PREFACE
SUPPLEMENTS
Instructors can access resources for Environmental Geol-
ogy at www.whfreeman.com/environmentalgeology.
• Test Bank Questions Fifty multiple-choice
questions for each chapter are offered in the
Test Bank, available for download at the
Environmental Geology site.
• Images All images from the book are available for
instructors to download.
• Answers to End-of-Chapter Questions
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to acknowledge the contributions of
the following people in helping us track down infor-
mation, assisting in understanding technical details,
and reading drafts: Joseph Allen, Don Anderson, Roger
Anderson, Katey Walter Anthony, Wally Broecker, Joel
Cohen, Mary Ann Cunningham, Mary De Jong, Kevin
Dennehy, Eric Durell, Curtis Ebbesmeyer, Erle Ellis,
Yehouda Enzel, David Gillikin, Flora Grabowska, David
Groenfeldt, Alistair Hall, Douglas Karson, James Kast-
ing, Lora Koenig, Joseph Krisanda, Brian McAdoo, Joe
Nevins, Jim O’Connor, Roger Pielke, Jr., Bill Schlesinger,
Jodi Schwarz, Jeremy Shakun, Neil Sturchio, Bill Sunda,
John Taber, Jeff Walker, and Mike Wallace.
Kirsten Menking would also like to thank Nadine
Reitman and Cara Hunt for their assistance in doing
research.
Dorothy Merritts would like to thank the follow-
ing people for their help across many areas of research:
Robert Walter (F&M College), Johannes Lehmann, Alan
Bussaca, Jon Major (USGS), John Ewert (Cascades Vol-
cano Observatory), Christopher L. Sabine (Pacific Ma-
rine Environmental Laboratory), Maria Hower, Kayla
Schulte, Jane Woodward (Stanford University), Karl
Knapp (Stanford University), Justin Ries (Northeastern
University), and Stephen Martel (University of Hawaii).
Andrew de Wet would like to thank Carol de Wet,
Stan Mertzman, Chris Williams, and Rob Sternberg for
answering questions related to figures, and Cameron
de Wet for his editorial assistance.
The authors also wish to thank the following peo-
ple who reviewed the manuscript of the second edition.
Their contributions to this book have been invaluable.
Joseph L. Allen, Concord University
Zsuzsanna Balogh-Brunstad, Hartwick College
Callan Bentley, Northern Virginia Community College
Scott Brame, Clemson University
Nathalie N. Brandes, Lonestar College
Charles Brown, George Washington University
George Buchanan, Montgomery County Community
College
W. B. Clapham, Jr., Cleveland State University
Jennifer Rivers Cole, Northeastern University
Jim Constantopoulos, Eastern New Mexico University
Anna Cruse, Oklahoma State University
Dennis C. DeMets, University of Wisconsin–Madison
Joseph E. Doyle, Bridgewater State College
Robert R. Elkin, Miami University Hamilton
Dennis Fries, Somerset Community College
Joshua C. Galster, Montclair State University
Tom Gardner, Trinity University
John B. Gates, University of Nebraska–Lincoln
Julian W. Green, University of South Carolina Upstate
Anne Larson Hall, Emory University
Bryce Hoppie, Minnesota State University
Paul F. Hudak, University of North Texas
Andrew C. Kurtz, Boston University
Julie Maxson, Metropolitan State University
Erich Osterberg, Dartmouth College
Alberto Patiño Douce, University of Georgia
Carol A. Prombo, Washington University–St. Louis
Kent Ratajeski, University of Kentucky
Karen L. Savage, California State University Northridge
Conrad Shiba, Centre College
Leigh Stearns, University of Kansas
Christine Stidham, Stony Brook University (SUNY)
Kevin Svitana, Otterbein University
Susan Swanson, Beloit College
Finally, the authors wish to thank the staff of W. H.
Freeman: Kate Parker, publisher, Bill Minick, acquisi-
tions editor, Brittany Murphy, development editor,
Amy Thorne, media and supplements editor, Kerry
O’Shaughnessy, project editor, Julia DeRosa, produc-
tion manager, and Courtney Lyons, assistant editor.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
DOROTHY MERRITTS
is a geologist with exper-
tise on streams, rivers,
and the impact of humans
and geologic hazards on
landscape evolution. In
the western United States,
she conducted research
on the San Andreas Fault
of coastal California, and
her international work fo-
cuses on fault movements
in South Korea, Indonesia,
Australia, and Costa Rica.
Her primary research in

the eastern United States is in the Appalachian Moun-
tains and Piedmont, particularly in the mid-Atlantic re-
gion, where she is investigating the role of climate change
and human activities in transforming the valley bottom
landscapes and waterways of Eastern North America.
Recently she partnered with other scientists and policy
makers from multiple state and national government
agencies to develop and test a new approach to stream
and wetland restoration. She is a professor in the Depart-
ment of Earth and Environment at Franklin and Mar-
shall College in Lancaster, Pennsylvania. She is an author
or co-author of more than 70 scientific articles, and the
editor and contributing writer for numerous scientific
books and field guides.
KIRSTEN MENKING
is an environmental
Earth scientist in the
Department of Earth
Science and Geogra-
phy at Vassar College.
Her research interests
include using lake
sediments to unravel
Earth’s history of cli-
matic change, linking
this history to atmo-
spheric and hydrolog-
ic processes through
a combination of nu-
merical modeling ex-
periments and collec-
tion of weather and stream discharge data, analyzing
the evolution of landforms in response to climatic and
tectonic processes, and studying the impacts of urban-
ization on streams. She has published journal articles
documenting glacial–interglacial cycles in the Sierra
Nevada mountains and adjacent Owens Valley of Cali-
fornia, determined the climatic conditions necessary
to produce a Pleistocene lake in the now-dry Estancia
Basin of New Mexico, and un-covered a centuries-long
mid-Holocene drought in New York’s Hudson River
valley. Her current research involves quantifying the
amount of road salt entering the groundwater system,
PREFACE xxiii
a topic of concern both for people dependent on well
water and for aquatic ecosystems.
ANDREW DE WET is
a classically trained
geologist specializing
in Geographic Infor-
mation Systems (GIS)
and remote sensing and
their application to en-
vironmental problems
on Earth and geologi-
cal processes on Mars.
He holds an honors
degree in geology from
the University of Natal
(now the University of
Kwazulu-Natal), South
Africa, and a doctorate
ffrom Cambridge
b d University, England. He has done field
work in South Africa, Greece, the United Kingdom,
Mongolia, Chile, Antarctica, and the United States. He
teaches environmental geology, GIS and Natural Re-
sources, and an interdisciplinary course on compara-
tive planetology with a focus on Mars. He served as
director of the Keck Geology Consortium for three
years and has led Keck Geology research projects nu-
merous times. Professor de Wet’s capacity for visualiz-
ing complex systems has clarified concepts and inspired
students to better understand the interconnectedness of
natural systems. Through his travels across seven con-
tinents he has acquired a deep knowledge of geologi-
cal and environmental conditions, which he transcribes
into dynamic graphics portraying natural and anthro-
pomorphic processes. He has published articles on
geological pedagogy in the Journal of Geological Edu-
cation and on shared faculty positions in the Journal
of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering
and Geotimes. He is a member of the Geological Soci-
ety of America and the American Geophysical Union.
He is involved in a long-standing collaboration with
researchers at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center
and publishes on environmental issues and planetary
geology.
this page left intentionally blank
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 166. Mr. Barton and some others of Mr. Rittenhouse’s friends had
repeatedly recommended to him to visit England: the former,
particularly, often urged him to it, and for the reasons assigned in the
text. That he had, himself, long contemplated that voyage, is
apparent from the extract of his letter to Mr. Barton, of the 15th of
March 1771, already quoted; and his last mentioned letter to the
same gentleman shews, that, nearly a year afterwards, he still had
that object steadily in view.

167. In a preceding letter, Mr. Barton had sent him some

Mathematical Problems, for solution. These had been furnished by a
schoolmaster, in Mr. Barton’s neighbourhood; who, although reputed
a pretty good mathematician, possessed but a small share of genius
or invention, while he had a large portion of confidence in his own
abilities. In noticing these problems, Mr. Rittenhouse could not
refrain from shewing some little irritation: he thought the
communications too trifling, too destitute of originality, or too useless,
to merit his attention; and, accordingly, he thus expressed himself on
the occasion, in a letter dated Feb. 3, 1772:

“I entreat you not to insist on my measuring heads with any

pragmatical schoolmaster, who is heartily welcome, for me, to divert
himself with his x. y. z’s, at which he may be very expert, and yet be,
as you say, both ignorant and conceited. His first question, however,
may be answered by any young algebraist: the second and third are
more difficult, and will admit of various answers. The fourth contains
four observations, picked out, (and carelessly enough, several of the
figures being wrong,) of a set made on the comet of 1682, which I
shewed your son William in about half a dozen different books; you
will find them in Dr. Halley’s Astronomical Tables. Every thing relating
to this comet has long ago been settled by Dr. Halley; so that, to give
a complete answer to the question, I need only transcribe from him:
but you cannot conceive how much I despise this kind of juggle,
where no use is proposed. If your schoolmaster will give me but
three good observations (I do not want four) of the comet of 1769, I
will accept them with thanks, and soon undertake the laborious task
of determining its orbit, which we yet know nothing about.”
 To this Mr. Barton replied, in a vein of good-humoured pleasantry:

“I imagine you have mistaken me, with regard to the mathematical

questions. They were not sent as trials of your abilities: but, for
reasons with which W. B. is acquainted, and which I have desired
him to give you, in order to afford you a laugh. I shalt never “insist”
on your “measuring heads” with a “schoolmaster,” of any kind;
because I know full well, already, that your head is longer than all the
heads of the whole tribe. Had you known what diversion your
solutions would have afforded me, you would have sent them.”

168. It is not improbable, that about the time of writing the letter of
the 3d of Feb. 1772, from which extracts are given in the text, he
began to think seriously of marrying again. Both his natural
disposition and his habits endeared to him the comforts of domestic
society; and these he could not enjoy in a single state, his two only
children being infants. He therefore married, in December 1772; at
which time he was only in the forty-first year of his age. The lady he
chose as his companion, was a sensible, prudent and valuable
woman; whose family were members of the religious society of
Friends, and with whose brothers Mr. Rittenhouse had long been
intimately acquainted. By that marriage there was but one child, a
daughter, who died in her infancy. Mrs. Rittenhouse survived her
husband little more than three years. She died in October, 1799.

169. See the preceding note.

170. The first law of Pennsylvania, for removing rocks, sandbars

and gravel, from the bed of the river Schuylkill, so as to render it
passable with rafts, boats, and other small river-craft, was passed
the 14th of March 1761.

172. The Marks, &c. are particularly described in the Pennsylvania

Act of Assembly, passed the 29th of Sept. 1779, entitled “An Act to
establish and confirm the Boundary Line between this state and the
state of New-York.”
 173. The Law, referred to in the preceding note, states the extent
of their further progress in the business at that time, which was
inconsiderable.

In September 1772, the Philosophical Society announced in the

public prints, the receipt, by them, of sundry communications: among
which were various astronomical observations, made in Canada, by
this gentleman and two other military officers, from June 1765, to
May 1770, (captain Holland being, at that period, surveyor-general of
the district of Quebec.) These observations were communicated to
the society by Mr. Rittenhouse; but, having been received after the
first volume of the Society’s Transactions was published, their
publication in the subsequent volumes was by some means omitted.
 174. Although Mr. Ellicott’s commission bears date the 16th of
June, 1786, his appointment took place some months sooner. On the
3d of April, in that year, Mr. Rittenhouse wrote him thus:—

“Dear Sir,

“By direction of Council” (the Supreme Executive Council of

Pennsylvania,) “I wrote some time ago to the gentlemen appointed
by the state of New-York for running the northern boundary of this
state. I have received their answer; which is, that they will meet us at
Philadelphia on the 20th of this month, in order to concert measures
for carrying that business into execution. It will be necessary for you
to attend, and I shall confidently expect you—’till then, I must defer
many things I have to say to and settle with you: perhaps copying
the Nautical Almanack may wait until I see you. Hurry of business
will not permit me add more, than that I am,

Dear Sir,
Your very humble serv’t.
Dav. Rittenhouse.”
“Andrew Ellicott, Esq.
Baltimore.”

And on the 29th of September, in the succeeding year, he

addressed another letter on the subject of this boundary, to Messrs.
Ellicott and Porter, jointly; wherein he says:

“Your packet came safe to hand, about three weeks after the date
of the letters. I am much obliged to you for the intelligence it
contains; you have succeeded beyond my expectation, and I have
no longer any doubt of your completing the line this season. I should
have been glad, if, to the account of your work, you had added some
description of the country: but my curiosity must wait till your return.”

Mr. Rittenhouse continued in commission, for the establishing of

this line, until its entire completion: but his non-attendance with the
other commissioners in the actual running of the line, in the year
1787, was prevented by his being then engaged in fixing the
territorial boundary between the states of Massachusetts and New-
York. In the letter, last quoted, is this paragraph:—“Dr. Ewing and
myself were absent seven weeks, on the line between New-York and
Massachusetts, in which time we happily completed it, to the
satisfaction of all parties; and, with this business, I have bid adieu,
forever, to all running of lines.”

175. Dr. Rush has been led into a mere mistake of the date on this
occasion; probably, by an hasty perusal of the confirmatory law, of
Sept. 29, 1789. He states, in his eulogium, that it was the year 1786,
in which Mr. Rittenhouse “was employed in fixing the northern line
which divides Pennsylvania from New-York: his services on that
business were originally employed in 1774, He did, indeed, again act
as a commissioner, in the year 1786, and it was on the 16th day of
June, in that year, that Mr. Ellicott was commissioned to complete, in
conjunction with Mr. Rittenhouse, what the latter had begun to
execute eleven years and an half before the last mentioned date.

176. “In order to carry on the parallel of latitude with as much

expedition and economy as possible,” says Mr. Ellicott, “we
dispensed with the method of tracing a line on the arc of a great
circle, and correcting into the parallel; as pursued by Messrs. Mason
and Dixon, in determining the boundary between this state”
(Pennsylvania,) “and the state of Maryland, and which we followed in
completing their line in the year 1784. We commenced our
operations by running a guide-line, West, with a surveying compass,
from the point mentioned on the Delaware” (the one which was fixed
by Dr. Rittenhouse and Capt. Holland, in the year 1774,) 20¼ miles;
and there corrected by the following zenith lines” (laid down in the
sequel,) “taken, at its western termination, by a most excellent
Sector, constructed and executed by Dr. Rittenhouse.”

177. The Liturgy of the Church of England was first translated into
the Mohawk language, in the year 1714. Another translation was
made under the direction of three clergymen of that church; namely,
the Rev. Mr. William Andrews, Dr. Henry Barclay, and Dr. John
Ogilvie: This was printed in the year 1769; but the place where it was
printed does not appear. In the year 1787, an handsome edition of
the English Book of Common Prayer, with a translation into the
Mohawk language by captain Joseph Brant, was published in
London.

178. Mr. Rittenhouse is not mentioned in the petition, by name.

This was unnecessary: for it was universally known, that it could
apply to no other person in America, so unquestionable and pointed
are its allusions to him; and that, perhaps, no other Astronomer then
living, so well merited the high encomiums on his philosophical
abilities, which it contains.

179. Joseph Galloway and Samuel Rhoads, Esq’rs. the other vice-
presidents of the society, were then members of the general
assembly; and Dr. Franklin, the president, had not at that time
returned from England. Mr. Rittenhouse was, at the same time, one
of the curators of the society; as he was, also, during the year 1772.

180. That eminent mathematician and astronomer, Mr. Roger

Cotes,[180a] in an excellent preface to his edition of Sir Isaac Newton’s
Mathematica Principia Philosophiæ Naturalis, has explained the true
method of philosophising; shewn the foundation on which the
Newtonian system was built; and refuted the objections of the
Cartesians, and all other philosophers, against it. In this preface, Mr.
Cotes has ably answered those, who contended, that gravity or
attraction, in the system of Newton, was not a clearer principle, nor
one more fit to explain the phænomena of nature, than the occult
qualities of the peripatetics: for, there were still philosophers, such as
they were, who persisted in that absurd opinion! “Gravity,” said the
objectors, “is an occult cause; and occult causes have nothing to do
with true philosophy.” To which Mr. Cotes made this lucid reply:
—“Occult causes are not those whose existence is most clearly
demonstrated by observation and experiment; but those only whose
existence is occult, fictitious, and supported by no proofs. Gravity,
therefore, can never be called an occult cause of the planetary
motions; since it has been demonstrated from the phænomena, that
this quality really exists. Those rather have recourse to occult
causes, who make vortices to govern the heavenly motions; vortices,
composed of a matter entirely fictitious, and unknown to the senses.
But, shall gravity therefore be called an occult cause, because the
cause of gravity is occult, and as yet undiscovered? Let those who
affirm this, beware of laying down a principle which will serve to
undermine the foundation of every system of philosophy that can be
established. For causes always proceed, by an uninterrupted
connexion, from those that are compound, to those that are more
simple; and when you shall have arrived at the most simple, it will be
impossible to proceed further. Of the most simple cause, therefore,
no mechanical solution can be given; for if there could, it would not
be the most simple. Will you then call these most simple causes
occult, and banish them from philosophy? You may so; but you must
banish at the same time the causes that are next to them, and those
again that depend upon the causes next to them, till philosophy, at
length, will be so thoroughly purged of causes, that there will not be
one left whereon to build it.”

The great doctrine of gravitation and attraction, the substratum of

the Newtonian philosophy, is amply verified by numerous
observations and experiments. Whether that which constitutes the
principle of gravity be, in itself, an incorporeal or spiritual substance,
or a materia subtilis, some very subtile kind of ethereal fluid, is a
question which does not at all affect the actual existence of such a
power. “We know,” as is observed by a great astronomer[180b] of our
own time, “that all the bodies in our system are retained in their
courses by such a power” (the power of attraction.) “And,” he adds,
“it is a very singular instance of the unerring wisdom of the Creator,
that the law which this power observes is such, that notwithstanding
the mutual attractions of the bodies, the system will never fall into
ruin, but is capable of preserving itself to all eternity. “Moreover,”
continues the same profound writer, “the mutual attraction which
takes place between distant bodies could not, of itself, either
produce their motion about the sun, or the rotation about their axes:
it required an external impulse to operate in conjunction with it, to
produce these effects; an act, which nothing but the arm of
Omnipotence could accomplish.” “An invisible power pervades the
whole system, and preserves it. In the effects produced by man, we
see the operation of the cause; but “the ways of the Almighty are
past finding out.” “Hence,” says our author, “in whatever point of view
we take a survey of our system, we trace the Power, Wisdom, and
Goodness of the Creator: his Power, in its formation; his Wisdom,
in the simplicity of the means to produce the ends; and his
Goodness, in making those ends subservient to our use and
enjoyment. Thus we are led by our enquiries into the structure of the
universe, to the proofs of the existence and attributes of a Supreme
Being, who formed and directs the whole. Arguments of this kind
produce conviction which no sophistry can confound. “Every man
may see it; man may behold it afar off.” Let not therefore the ignorant
declaim against those pursuits which direct us to a knowledge of our
Creator, and furnish us with unanswerable arguments against the
infidel and the atheist.”

But, to return more immediately to the doctrine of gravitation:

Some experiments had been made by M. Boguer and M. de la
Condamine, so long since as the year 1738, upon the Chimboraso in
South-America, in order to test the Newtonian theory of gravity, by
examining the attraction of mountains; and the result accorded with
that theory. With a view, however, to establish the principle more
completely, the experiments of Messrs. Boguer and Condamine
having been made under so many disadvantages, as rendered the
result not sufficiently accurate to be entirely depended on, similar
experiments were made upon the Mountain Schehallien in Scotland,
by Dr. Maskelyne, at the request of the Royal Society, and under the
patronage of his sovereign, the present king, who liberally undertook
to defray the expenses. From observations of ten stars near the
zenith, he found the difference of latitudes of the two stations on the
opposite sides of the mountain to be 54″, 6; and by a measurement
of triangles, he ascertained the distance of the parallels to be 4364,
4 feet, corresponding, in that latitude, to an arc of the meridian of
42″, 94, which is 11″, 6 less than by observation: its half therefore,
5″, 8, is the effect of the attraction of the mountain; and from its
magnitude, compared with the bulk of the whole earth, Dr.
Maskelyne computed the mean density of the latter to be about
double that of the mountain. “Thus,” to use the words of Mr. Vince,
“the doctrine of Universal Gravitation is firmly established.” The
reader will find Dr. Maskelyne’s deductions from this experiment, in
Vince’s Complete System of Astronomy, vol. ii. p. 100 and seq.

180a. This extraordinary man, who was the first Plumian professor of
astronomy and experimental philosophy at Cambridge, was born July 10, 1682,
and died prematurely June 5, 1716.

180b. The Rev. Mr. Vince, A. M. F. R. S. Plumian Professor of Astronomy and

Experimental Philosophy, in the University of Cambridge. See his Complete
System of Astronomy, vol. ii. p. 291.

181. The essay signed M. W. is dated from that place.

182. In the beginning of these observations of Mr. Rittenhouse, on

“J. W.’s” piece, he says—“I am one of those who are ready to
subscribe to the general maxim, That perfection is not to be found in
any thing human; and therefore do not suppose the Newtonian
philosophy to be so perfect as not to admit of amendment: But I must
confess, that almost all the attempts to controvert that philosophy,
which I have met with, amount to nothing more than so many proofs,
that those who made them did not understand it. Of this kind, are the
objections started by your correspondent, J. W.”

183. Alluding, probably, to Metaphysicians; for, neither Mr. M. W.

nor Dr. J. W. was distinguished as a Mathematician.

184. Dr. Franklin was president of that convention.

185. Dr. Ramsay, who published his History of the American

Revolution at the close of the year 1789, after observing that the
policy of Great-Britain, in throwing the inhabitants of her ancient
colonies on the American continent out of her protection, induced a
necessity of establishing independent constitutions for themselves,
makes these judicious remarks:—“The many errors that were at first
committed by unexperienced statesmen, have been a practical
comment on the folly of unbalanced constitutions and injudicious
laws.”

186. The articles of confederation were not finally ratified by

congress until the 9th of July, 1778. “After eleven years experience,”
as Dr. Morse has observed, “being found inadequate to the purposes
of a federal government,” the present constitution of the United
States was formed at Philadelphia, in the summer of 1787, by that
wise, liberal and patriotic assembly, in which the illustrious
Washington presided.

187. “War never fails,” as Dr. Ramsay has justly observed, “to
injure the morals of the people engaged in it. The American war in
particular,” continues that historian, “had an unhappy influence of this
kind. Being begun without funds or regular establishments, it could
not be carried on without violating private rights; and in its progress,
it involved a necessity for breaking solemn promises, and plighted
public faith. The failure of national justice, which was in some degree
unavoidable, increased the difficulties of performing private
engagements, and weakened that sensibility to the obligations of
public and private honour, which is a security for the punctual
performance of contracts.”

This is a melancholy but faithful representation of some of the

injurious impressions made on the moral sentiments and feelings of
the people of this country, by the revolutionary war: evils inseparable
from warfare; and such as necessarily spring from a state of things,
alike destructive of social order and the refinements of society, as
repugnant to the precepts of religion, the dictates of natural justice
and the mild suggestions of benevolence.

188. This large and thriving borough, said to be the greatest inland
town in the United States, was, for a short time, (though very short,
indeed,) the seat, or rather place of refuge, of the American
congress; the members of which, having separated on the near
approach of the British army, eight days before their occupation of
the capital, re-assembled at Lancaster the 27th day of the same
month. Lancaster, which is situated at the distance of sixty-four miles
from Philadelphia, in a direction nearly west, was at first conceived to
be a place of safety: but, for their more perfect security, congress
convened, three days afterwards, at York in Pennsylvania, a
considerable county-town about twenty-two miles westward from
Lancaster, and from each of which places, the intervening great river
Susquehanna is about equidistant.

189. His active mind derived much of its happiness from its
continual employment. It appears, that, while engaged in the duties
of his office, at Lancaster, in the latter part of the year 1777, he made
the calculations for an Ephemeris, called “Father Abraham’s Pocket-
Almanack, for the year M.DCC LXXVIII;” the late Mr. John Dunlap,
the publisher, (who was, during many years, an eminent printer in
Philadelphia,) having, in his advertisement of it, announced to the
public, that “The Astronomical Calculations of this Almanack were
composed by David Rittenhouse, A. M.” Mr. A. Ellicott made
calculations for Pennsylvania and Maryland Almanacks, several
years after Mr. Rittenhouse declined to continue them.

It is believed that our Astronomer made the calculations for

“Father Abraham’s Almanack,” and probably some others, for
several years: but mostly in the earlier part of his life. And, as it was
no disparagement to the talents of a Franklin to publish “Poor
Richard’s Almanack,”[189a] (which the Doctor long continued to print,)
so it was none to the genius and abilities of a Rittenhouse, that he
employed himself, occasionally, in making calculations of an useful
nature for these Ephemerides.
189a. Not only the astronomical calculations of this once well-known and
highly esteemed Ephemeris, but its poetry also, (which is said to have possessed
a considerable share of merit,) were the productions of Jacob Taylor, Esq. an old
English gentleman, who, for some time, executed the office of Surveyor-General of
Pennsylvania. Franklin was the printer and publisher of this Ephemeris: but many
of the productions of his pen, which appeared in it, and, among the rest, his “Way
to Wealth,” contributed towards rendering it a very popular publication, of its kind.
Franklin commenced the publication of “Poor Richard’s Almanack,” in the year
1732, when he was but twenty-six years of age.
 190. “At no period of the war,” says chief-justice Marshall the
historian, “had the American army been reduced to a situation of
greater peril, than during the winter at Valley-Forge.” “More than
once they were absolutely without food. Even while their condition
was less desperate in this respect, their stock of provisions was so
scanty, that there was seldom at any time in the stores a quantity
sufficient for the use of the troops for one week. Consequently, had
the enemy moved out in force, the American army could not have
continued in camp. The want of provisions would have forced them
out of it; and their deplorable condition with respect to clothes,
disabled them from keeping the field in the winter. The returns of the
first of February (1778) exhibit the astonishing number of three
thousand nine hundred and eighty-nine men in camp unfit for duty,
for want of clothes. Of this number, scarcely a man had a pair of
shoes. Even among those returned capable of doing duty, very many
were so badly clad, that exposure to the colds of the season must
have destroyed them. Although the total of the army exceeded
seventeen thousand men, the present effective rank and file
amounted to only five thousand and twelve. The returns throughout
the winter do not essentially vary from that which has just been
particularly stated.”

Such was the miserable condition of the American army, at the

date of the above returns! It was, indeed, sufficiently desperate in
appearance, to have appalled the stoutest heart; and it required the
magnanimity, as well as the virtue of a Washington, to conquer
such difficulties and rise superior to them.

191. This sister of Mrs. Rittenhouse was the widow of Colonel

Caleb Parry, a gallant officer in the American service, who was killed
at the battle of Long-Island in July, 1776.

192. John Jacobs, Esq.—This gentleman was a brother of Mrs.

Rittenhouse.

193. Israel Jacobs, Esq.—Another brother of Mrs. Rittenhouse.

 194. This eclipse, which happened on the 24th day of June, 1778,
was observed in Philadelphia, by Dr. Rittenhouse, the Rev. Dr. W.
Smith, John Lukens, Esq. and Mr. Owen Biddle, at the College in
that city. The result of the joint observations made by those
gentlemen on that occasion, as drawn up by Dr. Smith, but never
before published, will be found in the Appendix. W. B.

195. To this lady, who is yet living, Mr. Barton was married in the
year 1776. She remains his widow, and enjoys the very affectionate
respect of Mr. Barton’s descendants and relatives, to which her great
worth and many virtues justly entitle her.

196. Colonel Samuel J. Atlee, formerly a parishioner of the Rev.

Mr. Barton, had written two letters to him, to inform him of his son’s
arrival. The second of these only had got to hand, and was
acknowledged at the same time as Mr. Rittenhouse’s. Col. Atlee,
who was a steady friend of Mr. Barton’s family, was a valuable officer
in the American army, in the earlier period of the war; and afterwards
served as a delegate in congress, for the state of Pennsylvania.

The difficulty of Mr. Barton’s returning to Pennsylvania, and which

he alludes to, in his letter to Mr. Rittenhouse, arose from the terms of
his passport to New-York, from the Supreme Executive Council of
Pennsylvania: it permits him to go to New-York, “not to return.” A
letter which Mr. Barton wrote to John De Hart, Esq. of Elizabeth-
Town in New-Jersey, on the 30th of January, 1779, will sufficiently
explain the conscientious scruples which actuated the writer’s
conduct; and they were such as, it is presumed, will have weight,
when dispassionately and liberally considered.

In addressing Mr. De Hart, Mr. Barton says:—“I received your

favour of the 22d instant, by Mr. Alexander. The papers with which
you entrusted me, gave me no trouble, except that of my not being
able to serve you in the manner which was first proposed. You may
depend on their safety in my hands; subject to such directions as
you shall be pleased to give me.” “I wish for an opportunity to oblige
you, and if any should offer, I beg you will employ me without any
apology.
 “I am just informed that my son has returned to his native country,
after an absence of between three and four years. How melancholy
and distressing is my situation! separated from eight children, and
three congregations, to whom I am bound by duty, gratitude, and
every tie of affection! ‘A parent only knows a parent’s woes;’ and
such will feel for me. You are kind enough to tell me, that my son
requests me to return to my parish. What he can mean by this
request, I am totally at a loss to understand: could the matter have
been determined by my option, I should never have left my parish,
for any prospect of preferment that could offer. But no choice was left
me, but either to take the oath, or to suffer a painful separation from
my dearest connexions; as well as from a country which always had,
since I have known it, my predilection and best wishes; a country to
which, I can declare (with an appeal to heaven for the truth of the
declaration,) I never did, or wished to do, ‘any act or thing prejudicial
or injurious:’ and though my heart assures me, that many
conscientious and good men have conformed to the test-act, yet my
own conscience always revolted at the abjuration part of it, and
prevailed with me to surrender every worldly consideration, that
should come in competition, or tempt me to a violation of it. This, sir,
was the only crime (if a crime it be) for which I now suffer
banishment from all that are most dear to me; with an interdict, “not
to return again.” I cannot therefore comprehend, how I can
consistently return, before this interdict is cancelled; or some
assurance given me, that I may again unite and live quietly with my
family, without being subject to an abjuration, which I cannot take.
The proper duties and profession of a minister of the gospel should,
in my opinion, never lead him into the field of politics. In conformity to
this opinion, every man who knows me can testify, that I never
degraded my function by intermeddling, directly or indirectly, in the
present unhappy contest: so that my own scruples would be a
stricter tie upon me, than any that could be made by oaths or tests.
You will excuse my troubling you on this subject, when I tell you, that
the kind manner in which you address me has drawn it upon you.”

197. It was Mr. Barton’s intention, when he left Pennsylvania, to

embark at New-York for England or Ireland: but his ill state of health,
which soon after ensued, prevented his leaving New-York.

198. This indulgence was obtained in April, 1780, from the

Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania, chiefly through the
friendship of the late general Joseph Reed, then president of that
body; and, in pursuance of this passport, sanctioned by general
Washington, the desired interview was had with Mr. and Mrs. Barton,
at Elizabeth-Town, a very short time before the death of Mr. Barton.

199. The conditions proposed by the state of Virginia (and which

Pennsylvania considered as having a tendency to countenance
unwarrantable claims that might be made under the state of Virginia,
in consequence of pretended purchases or settlements, pending the
controversy,) were these; viz:—That the line, commonly called
Mason and Dixon’s line, be extended due west, 5° of long. to be
computed from the river Delaware, for the southern boundary of
Pennsylvania, and that a meridian, drawn from the western extremity
thereof, to the northern limits of the said states, respectively, be the
western boundary of Pennsylvania, for ever: on condition, that the
private property and rights of all persons, acquired under, founded
on, or recognized by the laws of either country, previous to the 31st
of August, 1779, should be saved and confirmed to them, although
they should be found to fall within the other; and that in the decision
of disputes thereon &c. (see act of 1st April, 1784.)

200. He died at New-York, the 25th of May, 1780, aged only fifty
years; and was interred in the chancel of St. George’s Chapel, in that
city.

201. As Mr. Barton’s deportment and services, very early in life,

evinced his devotion to the happiness of his adopted country, the
writer hopes he may be permitted, without being chargeable with
great impropriety, to adduce the following evidences, among many
which might be exhibited, of the usefulness and public spirit of a
person, who was, during a long course of years, intimately
connected with, and a confidential friend of David Rittenhouse.
 Annexed to a printed copy of “A letter, concerning the office and
duty of Protestant ministers, especially in times of public danger,
written to a clergyman on the frontiers of Pennsylvania, on general
Braddock’s defeat,”[201a] there is the following note:

“The gentleman to whom this was addressed,[201b] as well as some

ministers of other denominations, did, a few months after this, find it
necessary to appear at the head of their people, and were signally
instrumental in preventing some of the frontier counties from being
totally abandoned by their inhabitants.” See the Appendix to
“Discourses on public occasions in America: By William Smith, D. D.
Provost,” &c. who was the writer of the letter. It is dated,
“Philadelphia, August 21, 1755.”

Extract of a letter, dated London, January 10th, 1759, from the

Hon. Thomas Penn, Esq. to the Rev. Thomas Barton:—

“Since I received your last letter, I paid a visit to the present

Archbishop,[201c] and mentioned to him what you wished me to do. I
found he did not approve of your contemplated removal; but he
proposed, that twenty pounds sterling per annum should be added to
your salary: for, his grace observed, that a person so capable as you
are, to advise and assist the people in your neighbourhood,[201d]
could not be spared for any other mission: And, on that
consideration, the society[201e] had agreed to this augmentation of
your salary.”

On the 17th of June, 1767, Mr. Penn again wrote to Mr. Barton,
from London; as follows:

“I am much concerned to find, that the missionaries have suffered

so much, and that you are so uneasy in your situation as to have
asked leave to move into Maryland. The society has offered, or
intend to offer, an addition to your salary, or some other
encouragement, if you stay in Pennsylvania: and I have desired Mr.
Hamilton,[201f] who is upon his return, to talk to you on this affair,
before you take your resolution; as I hope and intend to make you a
present from me,[201g] if you do not put that design into execution.”
 201a. This letter is contained in a volume of Dr. Smith’s Sermons, &c.
published in England in two editions, in the years 1759 and 1762; and is also
comprehended in an elegant edition of the Doctor’s works, republished in
Philadelphia a few years since.

201b. The Rev. Mr. Barton.

201c. Dr. Thomas Secker, then lately translated from the diocese of Oxford to
the archi-episcopal see of Canterbury: “a name,” as the author of the Pursuits of
Literature has justly observed, “never to be uttered but with reverence, as the great
exemplar of metropolitan strictness, erudition, and dignity.” This excellent prelate,
after most worthily sustaining the highest station in the English church more than
ten years, died in the year 1768.

201d. Mr. Barton’s residence was, at that time, in Redding township, York
county, then a frontier settlement of Pennsylvania.

201e. The Society for the propagation of the Gospel in foreign parts.

201f. James Hamilton, Esquire.—This gentleman was lieutenant-governor of

Pennsylvania from the year 1748 to 1754—again, from 1759 to 1763—and
president of the proprietary and governor’s council, from the 6th of May, 1771, to
the 16th of October in the same year. He was a liberal patron of learning and
science.

“Est et Hamiltonus nomen venerabile, cujus

Intemerata fides.”——J. Beveridge, A.M.
201g. Mr. Penn actually gave to Mr. Barton, not long afterwards, the use of a
valuable farm, on which were three tenants, situated in the neighbourhood of
Lancaster. This farm, which was part of one of the proprietary-manors, Mr. Barton
held during his life.

202. While the credit of the loan-office bills of credit, emitted in

moderate sums by the assembly of Pennsylvania, was fully
supported, during the course of seventy years, the quantities of
paper-money issued at different times, by the legislative body of
Massachusetts, down to the year 1748, had then depreciated that
currency, for want of it being bottomed on sufficient funds, to one-
eleventh part of its nominal value. Fortunately, about that period, a
large sum in specie arrived from England, having been granted by
the British parliament to reimburse the monies expended by the
colonists in the expeditions against Louisburg and Canada. In
Massachusetts, this money was wisely applied by its legislature to
the redemption of the bills of credit of that colony, then in circulation;
which were sunk, in the succeeding year, at the rate of fifty shillings,
in those bills, for one ounce of silver. Thus, the mint-price of an
ounce of sterling silver being five shillings and two pence, the bills
were redeemed at the rate of nearly nine shillings and eight pence,
of their nominal value, for one shilling in English coin.

203. How different, in this respect, from that species of paper-

credit, which, during the American war, succeeded it, under the
denomination of continental money! But this had nothing but the faith
of government pledged for its redemption; while the loan-office bills
of credit were bottomed (as all government-paper ought ever to be)
on an appropriated, sufficient, and substantial fund. For want of such
a foundation, Dr. Morse remarks, that “The whole history of the
continental paper is a history of public and private frauds. Old specie
debts,” says he, “were often paid in a depreciated currency; and
even new contracts, for a few weeks or days, were often discharged
with a small part of their value. From this plenty, and the fluctuating
state of the medium, sprung hosts of speculators and itinerant
traders, who left their honest occupations for the purpose of
immense gains in a fraudulent business, that depended on no fixed
principles, and the profits of which could be reduced to no certain
calculations.” See his Geographical work.

204. Passed 26th February, 1773.

205. Passed 4th April, 1785.

206. Passed 11th April, 1793.

207. Passed 30th March, 1793.

208. Mr. Rittenhouse continued to hold the place of a trustee of the

loan-office more than ten years; but on the 1st of April, 1790, a law
was passed, by which all the powers and duties of the trustees of
that institution were transferred to, and vested in, the treasurer of the
state.

209. The loan-office system was kept up, in Pennsylvania, thirty

years after governor Pownall wrote.

210. Paper-money was not so well managed in some of the other

colonies, where it was issued in too large quantities, and its credit
not established on funds sufficiently stable and secure;[210a] a
circumstance which induced the parliament of Great-Britain to
interdict, for a time, further emissions of that sort of money, called
bills of credit, by the provincial legislatures.

Although the last emission of loan-office bills of credit, under the

colonial government of Pennsylvania, was made in the beginning of
the year 1773, the want of this succedaneum for gold and silver, as a
circulating medium of commerce commensurate to the encreased
population and trade of the country, was experienced some
considerable time before. In a letter written by the Hon. Mr. T. Penn
to the Rev. Mr. Barton, dated, London, June 17, 1767, the writer
says:

“Your account of the increase of the growth of hemp, gives me

great pleasure; and I think the demand there has been for wheat,
since the date of your letter, must have made the country people
rich, even those who were poor before: it will prevent people being
under the necessity of parting with their lands, and going to Carolina.
Their produce will always bring them money at Philadelphia,
notwithstanding there may be some more need for paper-money;
yet, when trade is brisk, it circulates faster, and a less quantity will
carry on a greater trade: however, I hope, in the next session of
parliament, we may get the law which prohibits our making any
more, repealed.”

The parliamentary restriction was, in fact, afterwards taken off; and

an effort was made, in the beginning of the year 1770, by the
legislature of Pennsylvania, to enact a loan-office law, for the
purpose of putting in circulation a further emission of paper-money:
but the measure then miscarried, in consequence of some
disagreement between the governor and the general assembly
respecting the right they severally claimed, of appointing the trustees
of the proposed loan-office.
210a. See Note 202.

211. The number of members in the Boston Academy is never to

exceed two hundred, nor to be less than forty. By being limited to so
moderate a number as the former, for the greater extreme, this
academy will be likely to select suitable persons for the honour of
fellowship, with the more discriminating circumspection.

212. Robert Patterson, Esq. Director of the Mint, and David

Rittenhouse Waters, Esq. a gentleman bred to the law, and a
grandson of the late Dr. Rittenhouse.

The decease of Mr. Waters happened soon after: he died on the

4th of September, 1813, at the premature age of twenty-two years.
Although he had just entered on the threshold of the world, this
excellent young man exhibited many proofs of extraordinary
attainments in literature and science, as well as of a superior genius.
He appeared to have inherited from his maternal grandfather,
congenial talents. In his life, his amiable disposition endeared him to
all who had an opportunity of knowing his virtues: in his death, not
only have his relatives and friends experienced an afflicting
bereavement, but his country has sustained the loss of a citizen of
great promise.

213. Although Mr. Ellicott is a native of Pennsylvania, and was a

citizen of that state until the British army took possession of
Philadelphia, in 1777, he resided in Baltimore county about eight
years after that event.

214. In the years 1767 and 1768.

215. The difference of 16′ 42″, between the latitude above

mentioned and the beginning of the 40th degree of north latitude,