Nervous System: Pathways

Afferent Nerves
carry information  spinal cord and brain

Efferent Nerves
carry information  muscles

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 Contents
• Nervous System
• EEG Block Diagram
• EEG Recording
System
EEG BLOCK DIAGRAM
EEG RECORDING SET UP
 Nervous System: Divisions

Central Nervous System (CNS)

– brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

– somatic nervous system – sensory nerves
• muscular activity
– autonomic nervous system – internal organs
• sympathetic nervous system – arouses
• parasympathetic nervous system – calms

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Nervous System: Divisions

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• Functional composition of the PNS.

Fig. 48.17
Neurons: Structure

• cell body
• dendrites
• axon
• myelin sheath

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Neurons: Structure

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 Neural Impulse

Axons
– ions/ion channel
– negatively/positively charged
– semipermeable membrane
– polarization

Resting Potential
– stable charge of an inactive neuron

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 Neural Impulse

Action Potential
– depolarization (ion channel opens)
– repolarization
– ion exchange sweeps along length of axon
– all-or-none principle
– once initiated, cannot be stopped

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Synapses and Neurotransmitters

Synapse/Synaptic Gap
– space between sending axon’s terminal buttons and
the receiving dendrite or cell body

Synaptic Transmission
– electrical impulse is converted into a chemical signal
– axon vesicle releases neurotransmitter into gap
– dendrite receptor site detects neurotransmitter

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neurotransmitter is norepinephrine, fight
or flight

E = exercise, excitement, emergency, and

embarrassment

neurotransmitter is acetylcholine

D = digestion, deification, diuresis (urinating)

 Fig. 48.20

Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 cerebrum corpus
callosum

thalamus
Pineal gland
hypothalamus
cerebellum
pituitary
pons medulla
oblongata
spinal cord
 Cerebrum
• Involved with higher brain functions.
• Processes sensory information.
• Initiates motor functions.
• Integrates information.
 Regions of the cerebrum are
specialized for different functions

• The
cerebrum is
divided into
frontal,
temporal,
occipital,
and parietal
lobes.
 Cerebral Cortex

Neocortex: outermost layer

Four Lobes:
– occipital (vision)
– temporal (hearing, language processing, memory)
– frontal (intelligence, personality, voluntary muscles)
– parietal (spatial location, attention, motor control)

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Cerebral Cortex

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 Thalamus

• Relay center for sensory tracts

from the spinal cord to the
cerebrum.
• Contains centers for sensation
of pain, temperature, and touch.
• Involved with emotions and
alerting or arousal mechanisms.
• The Reticular System, Arousal, and Sleep.
– The reticular activating system (RAS) of
the reticular formation.
• Regulates sleep
and arousal.
• Acts as a
sensory filter.

Fig. 48.21

Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 – Sleep and wakefulness produces patterns
of electrical activity in the brain that can be
recorded as an electroencephalogram
(EEG).
• Most dreaming
occurs during
REM (rapid
eye movement)
sleep.

Fig. 48.22b-d
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
 Hypothalamus
Regulates:
• autonomic control center- blood pressure,
rate and force of heart contraction, center
for emotional response and behavior
• body temperature
• water balance and thirst
• sleep/wake cycles
• appetite
• sexual arousal
• control of endocrine functioning:
Acts on the pituitary gland through the
release of neurosecretions.
Hypothalamus
Pituitary
 Midbrain
• Cerebellar peduncles
• Tectum
• Superior colliculi
• Inferior colliculi
thalamus • Substantia nigra
• Red nuclei
Posterior
m
c tu
Te

Red nucleus
Substantia nigra

Anterior
 Midbrain
• Contains ascending and descending
tracts to the cerebrum and thalamus.
• Reflex center for eye muscles.
• Also involved with processing visual
and auditory information (connects
head movements with visual and
auditory stimuli).
 Pons

• Connects the two

halves of the
cerebellum.
• Regulates breathing.
 Medulla Oblongata
• Composed of nerve tracts
to and from the brain
(these tracts cross over
left to right and right to left)
• May be regarded as an
extension of the spinal
cord
• Almost all of the cranial
nerves arise from this
region
 Medulla Oblongata
Contains control centers for
many subconscious
activities
• Respiratory rate
• Heart rate
• Arteriole constriction
• Swallowing
• Hiccupping
• Coughing
• Sneezing
 Cerebellum

• Controls and coordinates

muscular activity.
• Important in equilibrium,
posture and movement.
Excitatory and Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials
 Postsynaptic Potentials
The 2 types of postsynaptic potentials are:
• EPSP (excitatory postsynaptic potentials)
– depolarizing graded potentials
– causes the membrane potential move towards threshold
which increases the chances that an AP will be initiated
• IPSP (inhibitory postsynaptic potentials)
– hyperpolarizing graded potentials
• causes the membrane potential move away from
threshold which reduces the chances that an AP will
be initiated
 Axon Termini and Chemical Synapses
• When the AP reaches the axon termini the impulse must be
transmitted to the next cell in the path to the effector
• A synapse is the junction between 2 cells where the impulse
is transmitted from one cell to another :
– Presynaptic cell (before synapse)
– Postsynaptic cell (after synapse)
– found between:
• 2 neurons
• a neuron and an effector cell (muscle or gland)
Axon Termini and Synapses
Propagation of an
Action Potential
 Propagation of an Action Potential
• Once an action potential has been initiated at the beginning
of the axon, it must “travel” (propagate) along the length of
the axon to the axon terminus
• The influx of Na+ into the cell during depolarization causes
the membrane potential in “front” of the opened Na+
channels to depolarize to threshold
• Reaching threshold opens up the Na+ channels in “front” of
the site of the action potential causing an action potential to
be created in this new location
• As the next group of Na+ channels begins to open, the ones
“behind” them are closing
• The impulse continues to propagate away from its point of
origin to the axon terminus
• “the domino effect”
 Autonomic Nervous System
• 2 antagonistic (opposing) divisions
– Sympathetic
– Parasympathetic
• control the same effectors but create opposite
responses in the effectors
• regulate heart rate, breathing rate, sweating, digestion,
blood pressure
• Action potentials in these motor neurons are initiated in the
medulla oblongata and the pons
 Function of the Sympathetic Division
• The sympathetic division is called the “fight or flight”
system
– activated when the body needs to expend energy
• Involves E activities
• exercise, excitement, emergency, and embarrassment
• Promotes necessary changes during these activities
– increases heart rate, blood pressure, respiration rate,
blood flow to skeletal muscles, glucose metabolism
– decreases the activity of and blood flow to the digestive
system organs
• Its activity is illustrated by a person who is threatened
Organization of
the Sympathetic
Division
Organization of the
Parasympathetic
Division
 Function of the Parasympathetic Division
• The parasympathetic nervous system is called the “rest and
digest” system
– activated when the body needs to conserve energy
• Involves the D activities
– digestion, defecation, and diuresis (urination)
• Promotes necessary changes during these activities
– decreases heart rate, blood pressure, respiration rate,
blood flow to skeletal muscles, glucose metabolism
– increases the activity of and blood flow to the digestive
system organs
• Its activity is illustrated in a person who relaxes after eating
a meal
Resting Membrane Potential
Basis of the Resting Membrane Potential
 Changes in the Resting Membrane Potential
• Many cells of the body use the electric potential across the
cell membrane to function
• Changes in the membrane potential from resting values are
due to the function of gated ion channels
– these channels remain closed (while a cell is at rest) until
a change in the environment of the cell (STIMULUS)
causes them to open
• The diffusion of any additional ions (beyond those that
move though leaky channels) across the plasma membrane
occurs at a faster rate than the rate of pumping of the
Na+,K+-ATPase
– this causes the cell membrane potential to deviate from
the resting value
 Deviations in the Resting Membrane Potential

• When the gated ion channels close, the cell membrane

potential returns to its resting value
 Action Potentials (APs)
• A very rapid sequence of membrane potential changes due
to the opening and closing of voltage-gated Na+ and
voltage-gated K+ channels
• There are 3 sequential phases to an AP in a neuron:
– Depolarization
• a reduction in the polarity of the membrane potential
– Repolarization
• a return of the membrane potential towards the resting
value
– Hyperpolarization
• the membrane potential reaches values more negative
than the resting value
• All APs in a neuron have the same magnitude (they are not
graded) regardless of the size of the stimulus
 Action
Potential
Propagation of an
Action Potential
 International 10/20 System of

 
Electrode Placement
• Most widely used
method.
• Electrodes are placed
relative to the underlying
area of cerebral cortex.
• Letters correspond to
brain lobe area.
                                                                   
• The "10" and "20" refer
to the 10% and 20%
interelectrode distance. 
 Types of Brain Waves
• Five types of brain waves
– Alpha
– Beta
– Theta
– Delta
– Mu
 Alpha Waves

• 8 – 13 Hertz
• Low amplitude
•
•
Relaxation
Reflecting
                                      
 Beta Waves

• 14 – 30 Hertz
• Rapid oscillations with
small amplitudes
• Alertness
• Working
 Theta Waves

• 4 – 7 Hertz
• Prominent when
dreaming or drowsy.
• Arise from emotional
stress such as
frustration.
 Delta Waves

• Less than 3.5 Hertz

• Occur during deep
sleep or other non-
attentive states of mind
• Prominent when totally
subconscious
 Mu Waves

• Resemble croquet
wickets in shape
• Associated with
physical movements or
the intentions to move.