Chapter 13: Respiratory System
 The Pharynx (throat):
PART 1: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
 Functional Anatomy of the
Respiratory System
 Organs of the respiratory system
includes the nose, pharynx, larynx,
trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli
and the lungs
 Upper respiratory tract= nose to larynx
 Lower respiratory tract= trachea to
alveoli
 The Nose:
 The olfactory receptors is at the
superior part of the nasal cavity, just
above the ethmoid bone
 Respiratory mucosa= mucosa lining
the remaining nasal cavity where
mucus is produced and ciliated cells
are present
 The conchae have mucosa-covered
projections that increase surface
area of mucosa exposed to the air
 The nasal cavity is separated from
the palate
 Hard palate= supported by bone
 Soft palate= not supported by bone
cartilage
 Has three regions from superior to
inferior:
1. Nasopharynx= from nasal cavity to the
oropharynx
2. Oropharynx= near the mouth area
3. Laryngopharynx= to enter the larynx
 Tonsils= lymphatic tissue found at the
pharynx
 Tonsils in the pharynx region:
1. Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid)(in the
nasopharynx)
2. Palatine tonsils (in the oropharynx)
3. Lingual tonsils (base of the tongue)
 The Larynx (voicebox):
 Inferior to the pharynx
 Formed by eight hyaline cartilages and
the epiglottis (an elastic cartilage)
 The epiglottis protects the opening of
the larynx by preventing food from
entering the larynx
 If food enters the larynx, a cough reflex
is triggered to prevent the food from
continuing entering the lungs
 The Trachea (Windpipe):
 Walls are C-shaped rings of hyaline
 The rings have two functions:
1. The open part is to allow the esophagus
to expand
2. The solid part support the trachea walls
to keep it open despite the pressure
changes during breathing
 Bronchi:
 Left and right bronchi= branches of
the trachea
 Right bronchi= wider, shorter and
straighter than the left bronchi
 The Lungs:
 Apex of the lungs= towards the clavicle
 Base of the lungs= resting on the
diaphragm
 Left lung= 2 lobes
 Right lung= 3 lobes
 The surface is covered with the
pulmonary pleura (or visceral pleura)
(innermost)
 Walls of the thoracic cavity are lined
with parietal pleura (outermost)
 Pleural membranes produce pleural
fluid for easy gliding; the fluid is in the
pleural cavity
 The Bronchial Tree:
 The bronchi subdivides into bronchioles
 Respiratory zone includes: respiratory
bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar
sacs and alveoli
 The remaining respiratory passages are
called conducting zone structures
 The terminal bronchiole  respiratory
bronchiole  alveoli
 Alveoli:
 Walls are a single layer of simple
squamous epithelial cells
 Alveoli pores: connects neighboring air
sacs to provide an alternative route
 Respiratory membrane (air-blood
barrier)= formed by the alveolar and
capillary walls, their fused basement
membranes and some elastic fibers
 Respiratory system has alveolar
macrophages for bacteria, carbon
particles and other debris
 There are cuboidal surfactant-secreting
cells in the alveolar walls, they produce
a lipid molecule called surfactant
 Respiratory Physiology:
 Respiration occurs in four events:
1. Pulmonary ventilation (breathing):
Movement of air into and out of the lungs
2. External respiration: Gas exchange between
the pulmonary blood and alveoli takes place
3. Respiratory gas transport: Oxygen and
carbon dioxide are transported to and from the
lungs to the tissue cells of the body
4. Internal respiration: This is the gas exchange
that occurs between the blood and cells in the
body
 Mechanics of Breathing:
 Breathing depends on volume changes
in the thoracic cavity
 Rule= Volume changes lead to pressure
changes, which lead to the flow of
gases to equalise the pressure
 Breathing has two phases= inspiration
and expiration
Partial vacuum in the lungs causes air to flow
 Inspiration:
 Contraction of the diaphragm and
external intercostals= thoracic cavity
size increases
 Contraction of the diaphragm makes it
move inferiorly
Inspiration summary
 Contraction of the external intercostals
lifts the rib cage forward, increasing the
dimensions of the thorax
 Increased Intrapulmonary volume
(volume in lungs)= decreased gas
pressure, producing a partial vacuum
(pressure less than atmospheric
pressure outside the body), causing the
air to flow into the lungs until
intrapulmonary pressure equals
atmospheric pressure
Contraction of external intercostals and
diaphragm increases intrapulmonary
volume
Increased intrapulmonary volume decreases
gas pressure, producing a partial vacuum
(where pressure in lungs is less than
atmospheric pressure outside the body)
into the lungs
Air will continue flowing until
intrapulmonary pressure is equal to
atmospheric pressure
  Expiration:
 Relaxation of the diaphragm and
external intercostals = thoracic
cavity size decreases
 Decreased thoracic cavity size=
increased intrapulmonary pressure
to the point it is greater than
atmospheric pressure, causing the
gas to flow out until pressure
equalises
 Intrapleural pressure is always
negative to prevent lungs from
collapsing
Relaxation of the diaphragm and external
intercostals decreases intrapulmonary volume
Decreased intrapulmonary volume = increased
intrapulmonary pressure, to the point it is
higher than the atmospheric pressure
Intrapulmonary pressure > atmospheric
pressure causes air to flow out until
intrapulmonary pressure is equal to
atmopsheric pressure
Expiration summary
 Respiratory Volumes and
Capacities:
 Tidal volume (TV): normal, quiet
breathing; about 500mL of air in and
out of lungs
 Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV):
amount of air that can be taken in
forcibly above tidal volume
 Expiratory reserve volume (ERV):
amount of air that can be forcibly
exhaled beyond tidal volume
 Residual volume (RV): air that still
remains in the lungs and cannot be
voluntarily expelled
 Vital capacity (VC): sum of TV, IRV and
ERV
 Inspiratory capacity (IC): sum of TV and
IRV
 Functional residual capacity (FRC): sum
of ERV and RV
 Total lung capacity (TLC): sum of all of
the above
 Dead space volume: air that enters the
respiratory tract but never reaches the
alveoli
 These respiratory capacities are
measured with a spirometer
 Non-respiratory Air Movements:
 Situations that can move air into or out
of the lungs than the norm, e.g.
coughing, sneezing, laughing and crying
 They modify the normal rhythm
 Respiratory Sounds:
 Bronchial sounds: sounds heard from
the air rushing through the trachea and
bronchi
 Vesicular sounds: sounds heard when
air fills the alveoli; they are soft
murmurs
 Wheezing: a whistling sound
(abnormal)
 Crackle: bubbling sound (abnormal)
 Rales: abnormality due to the presence
of mucus in the bronchial walls or lung
passages
 External Respiration, Gas
Transport and Internal
Respiration:
 External respiration: gas exchange
between alveoli and blood
 Internal respiration: gas exchange
between tissue cells and blood
 All gas exchange follows the laws of
diffusion
 External Respiration:
 Oxygen diffuses into the blood while
carbon dioxide diffuses out at the
alveoli
 Carbon dioxide is released because in
the capillaries, its concentration is
higher than in the alveoli so it will
diffuse out from the blood and into the
alveoli
 Gas Transport in the Blood:
 Oxyhemoglobin= oxygenated RBC
 Oxygen is also transported via plasma
 But carbon dioxide is more soluble in
plasma than oxygen
 Carbon dioxide is enzymatically
converted and transported in plasma in
the form of a bicarbonate ion
 Before carbon dioxide is released out
into the alveoli, it must be released
from its bicarbonate ion form by:
1. Bicarbonate ions must enter RBC
2. It must combine with hydrogen ions to form
carbonic acid
3. Carbonic acid splits to form water and
carbon dioxide
 Internal Respiration:
 Exchange of gases between blood and
tissue cells is the opposite of what
happens in the lungs
 In the blood, oxygen leaves and carbon
dioxide enters
 Carbon dioxide combines with water to
form carbonic acid which releases
bicarbonate ions
 The enzyme that helps speed up the
reaction is carbonic anhydrase
 Control of Respiration:
 Neural Regulation: Setting the Basic
Rhythm:
 Phrenic nerves and intercostal nerves:
regulates the activity of the respiratory
muscles, diaphragm and external
intercostals
 Medulla and pons: controls the
respiratory rhythm and depth
- The medulla has two respiratory centers:
First is the Ventral Respiratory Group (VRG).
VRG has inspiratory and expiratory neurons
that alternately send impulses to control
rhythm of breathing
1.1. The Inspiratory neurons of VRG stimulate
the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles
via phrenic and intercostal nerves during quiet
breathing
1.2. The Expiratory neurons of VRG stop the
stimulation of the diaphragm and external
intercostal muscles so exhalation can occur
- It is the VRG that maintains eupnea= normal
quiet breathing rate of 12 to 15
respirations/minute
 Second medullary center is the Dorsal
Respiratory Group (DRG)
- It communicates with the VRG to help modify
breathing rhythms
 The pons respiratory centers also
communicate with VRG to modify the
timing between inhalation and
 exhalation, such as in sleeping or
exercising.
 Non-neural factors influencing
respiratory rate and depth:
1. Physical factors:
- Talking, coughing and exercising can
modify rate and depth of breathing
2. Volition (conscious control):
- Voluntary control of breathing is limited
because if breath is held, the respiratory
centers will ignore messages from the
cortex when oxygen supply in the blood is
low
 Common features: patients have
smoking history; have dyspnea;
coughing
 Chronic bronchitis:
- Mucosa of the lower respiratory passages are
inflamed and produces excessive mucus
- The mucus impairs ventilation and gas
exchange, increasing risk of lung infections
 Emphysema:
- Walls of the alveoli are destroyed (less
elastic), leaving them enlarged and unable to
recoil
- Lungs also become less elastic, making
patients more exhausted to exhale air
2. Squamous cell carcinoma: arises from the
epithelium of the larger bronchi
3. Small cell carcinoma: it is where
lymphocyte-like cells in the main bronchi to
grow aggressively and metastasise
 Treatments for lung cancer include:
1. Surgery (only if the cancer cells
metastasised)
2. Radiation therapy
3. Cancer vaccines (to stimulate immune
system)

3. Emotional factors:  Lung cancer:

- Watching horror movies or being in a  Due to carcinogens from cigarettes
stressful situation can also modify rate and  Smoking damages the cilia and goblet
depth of breathing cells from doing their job of protecting
the lungs from irritants and bacteria

 Respiratory Disorders:
 Common types of lung cancer are:
1. Adenocarcinoma: originates from the
 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
nodules in peripheral lung areas and develops
(COPD):
from bronchial glands and alveolar cells
 It is chronic bronchitis and emphysema