Cell : The Unit of Life


Cell : The Unit of Life


Study of Cell = Cytology

 Father of Cytology : Robert Hooke  The two main points of Cell theory as
(a) Discovered ‗Cell‘ (Dead cell from Bark/cork of understood today are-
Spanish oak tree in 1665 (i) all living organisms are composed
of cells and products of cells.
(b) Coined Term ‗cell‘ (cellula) in his book (ii) all cells arise from pre-existing
cells.
‗Micrographia‘.
 Robert Brown discovered ‗Nucleus‘ in 1832.
(1831 NCERT )
 Father of Microscopy : A.V. Leeuwenhoek
(a) Discovered first ‗Living cell‘
Types of cells(basis =nature of nucleus)
(b) Discovered bacteria , yeast, protozoa, sperm,
RBC etc. 1: Prokaryotic cell - naked DNA
 Cell theory : 2: Eukaryotic cell- true nucleus ,
 Proposed by Malthias Schleiden
nuclear membrane encloses DNA
(German Botanist 1838) and
Theodor Schwann (England
Zoologist 1839)
(a) All living organisms are composed of cells
and their product ( bodies of animals &
plants are composed of cells & products of
cells)

(b) Cells are structural & functional unit of life.

 Unicellular organisms are capable of

(i) independent existence and

(ii) performing the essential functions of life.

 In 1838, Malthias Schleiden, a

German botanist, examined a large
number of plants and observed that
all plants are composed of different
kinds of cells which form the
tissues of the plant.
 Theodore Schwann (1839), a
British Zoologist, studied different
types of animal cells and reported
that cells had a thin outer layer
called ‗plasma membrane‘.
 He also concluded that the presence
of cell wall is a unique character of
the plant cells.
 Cell Lineage Theory : Omnis-cellula- e-
cellula
 New cells arise from pre-existing
cells.
 Proposed by Rudolf Virchow
(1855).

 Prokaryotic cell – 0.2-2.5 μm
 Eukaryotic cell – 25 μm
 Smallest cell – Mycoplasma /
PPLO 0.3 μm in length
 Bacteria could be 3 to 5 μm.
 Largest (plant cell)-Acetabularia
(10 cm)
 Largest Cell / Animal cell - Ostrich
egg (17*15 cm)
 Largest cell (human)- Oocyte
 Longest cell(human)- Nerve cell
 Human (RBC)- 7 micron
diam.(round and biconcave)
 Human(WBC)- Amoeboid
 Cells also vary greatly in their
shape.
 They may be disc-like, polygonal,
columnar, cuboid, thread like, or
even irregular.

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 Cell : The Unit of Life
 The shape of the cell may vary with
the function they perform.
 Shapes of cells :
1. RBC (Round and Biconcave)

2 WBC(Irregular shape/Amoeboid for

phagocytosis)

 Two kind of cell on basis of

presence/absence of nuclear membrane –
Types of Cells

Procaryotic Cell Eucaryotic Cell

3. Neuron (branched & long)
No nuclear membrane around DNA Nuclear membrane surrounds DNA

DNA lies naked in cytoplasm Examples : Protista, Fungi, Plants,

Animals
Examples : Eubacteria, Archaebacteria
Blue green Algae PPLO

 Structure of a typical prokaryotic/Bacterial

cell :
4. Sperm

1. Nucleoid/Genophore/Incipient
nucleus/Prochromosome/Fibrillar nucleus
:

 Single,circular,ds-DNA (1Chromosome
/ True chromosomes absent )

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 Naked DNA — Not associated with
histone protein , nuclear membrane &
nucleolus is absent
 RNA , Non-histone proteins
(Polyamines present
2. Plasmid :
 Small , Extra-chromosomal circular
piece of ds-DNA
 self replicating
 may contain special genes like F-gene
(fertility), R-gene (Resistance), Nif
gene (Nitrogen fixation).
 Non-essential / Dispensible elements
 Cell Envelope
The cell envelope consists of a tightly bound
three layered structure i.e
1. outermost Glycocalyx
2. followed by the Cell wall
3. then the Plasma membrane.
Although each layer of the envelope
performs distinct function, they act together
as a single protective unit.
3. Glycocalyx –
a) Capsule –thick & tough , m/o
polysaccharides & polypeptides
b) Slime layer – loose & thin , m/o mainly
polysaccharides
 Protects bacteria from WBC , help in
colony formation , virulence , cell
identification etc.
4. Cell wall :
 Absent in Mycaplasma
 Composed of Peptidoglycans / Murein
(Amino acid + Sugars)
 Sugars : N-Acetyl Glucosamine (NAG)
and N-Acetyl Muramic acid NAM
5. Cell Membrane/plasma membrane:
 Structure same as in Eukaryotic cell
 Lipoproteinaceous
(a) No sterols for stability except
Mycoplasma
(b) Stability by Hopanoids
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Cell : The Unit of Life
6. Mesosome / Chondrioid:
 Discovered by F.James
 Infoldings of plasma membrane
 Central (connected with Nucleoid) and
peripheral/lateral
 Functions of Mesosomes :
a. DNA replication & Cell division
b. Enzyme of aerobic respiration
(Analagous to Mitochondria)
c. Cell wall secretion
7. Pili & Fimbriae :
 Filamentous extensions of plasma
membrane
 M/o Pilin protein (non-contractile)
 Pili - longer /thicker/1-5/cell : Transfer
of DNA (Conjugation)
 Fimbriae – shorter/thinner/300-400/cell
: Help in cell attachment
8. Ribosomes :
 Smaller 70 – S type (50-S + 30-S)
 About 15 nm by 20 nm in size
 Protein synthesis
 Polyribosomes or polysome –
 Several ribosomes may attach to a
single mRNA and form a chain
 The ribosomes of a polysome translate
the mRNA into proteins.
9. Flagella :
 If present, composed of Flagellin
protein only.
 Single stranded / Monofibrillar
 Smaller & thinner than eukaryotic
flagella
 Covering sheath membrane absent
 Rotatory movement – 360 o
 Basal body , hook & filament
10. Inclusion bodies / Storage granules-
 Storage of reserve material
 Not membrane bound
 Lie free in cytoplasm
a. Glycogen granules ( store
carbohydrates)
b. Volutin granules ( phosphate)
c. PHB (PolyHydroxy Butyrate)
granules – store fats
d. Cyanophycean granules (proteins)
11. Multiply by Amitotis :
 No chromosome formation
 No spindle formation
 Cell : The Unit of Life
 Nuclear constriction followed by multiplication meiosis seen
Cytoplasmic constriction. Membrane bound Present
organelle absent. Double membrane :
Except BGA mitochondria , plastid
Chromatophore

Single membrane : ER,

Golgi body,
Lysosomes,
Microbodies
Membrane less :
Ribosome,
Centrosome
Inclusion bodies- Deutoplasm:Non-
volutin granules living
(phosphate) inclusions:Storage
Cyanophycin bodie,Nectar , latex ,
granules (protein enzymes , Excretory
storage) bodies.
Cyclosis absent Present
No true Vacuoles True ‗sap vacuole‘
(expect Gas food vacuole,
vacuole in BGA contractile vacuole.
false vacuole)

Plasmid DNA may

- Extra chromosomal

be present
Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell DNA in mitochondria and plastid
Nuclear Present
membrane absent No sterol in plasma membrane -
Single Circular, Many linear stability to plasma membrane
DNA DNA/Chromosome
DNA not Associated with
associated with histone protein
histone protein  No cell skeletal Cytoskeletal structures
Cell well- Composed of (actin , intermediate fibre, microtubule)
Peptidoglycans cellulose(chitin)
hemicellulose pectin EUKARYOTIC CELLS
etc.
Glycocalyx - Oligosaccharide
Polysaccharide
Ribosome – 70-S 80-S Larger but 70-S
(Smaller) found in mitochondria
and plastid
Mesosomes Absent
present
Flagella –made Tubulin protein (180°)
up of flagellin
protein (360°)
Amitotis Amitotis, mitotis and

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 Cell : The Unit of Life

Centrasome are absent Centrosome present - 2

expect some lower centrioles at right angle.
plant.

Plant Cell Animal Cell

Cell wall present Absent

True sap vacuoles- large,
single and occupies central
region
Nucleus lies in peripheral
cytoplasm
Many small scattered
‗food vacuole‘ or
contractile vacuole.
Central nucleus

Multiple, small, scattered Single large

―Dictyosomes‖ ‗Golgisome‘ near
nucleus.
Lysosomes rare Lysosomes are
common.
Plastids –Contain photo Absent
synthetic pigment and
reserve food.
Storage food – Starch Storage food –
‗Glycogen‘
Mitochondria fewer Mitochondria – More
in number.

Cytokinesis by ‗cell By ‗Furrow‘ method

plate‘ method (centripetal)
(centrifugal)

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 Cell : The Unit of Life
 Term Cytoplasm –Strasburger
 Cytoplasm is the main arena of cellular
activities in both plant and animal cells
 Protoplast = Cell - Cell wall

 Cell Wall :
 Absent in animal cell and gametes of
plants.
 Outermost, non-living, permeable, rigid
covering of plant, fungal and algae
cells.
 First seen by ‗Robert Hooke‘
 It provide rigidity, shape and protection.

 Plant cell wall : Cellulosic macrofibrils, In

matrix (cement) of hemicellulose, pectin,
lignin , proteins etc.
 Algae cell wall : Cellulosic macrofilorils, In
matrix of hemicellulose, pectin, galactans,
mannans , calcium carbonate minerals
 Fungal cell wall : Chitin 90% + Cellulose
(10%) macrofibrils, In matrix of
hemecellulose, pectin etc.

 Middle lamella :
 ‗Cementing layer‘ b/w two adjacent
plant cells (holds or glues the different
neighbouring cells together. )
 Formed at end of cell division.
 Made up of 90% calcium pectate and 10
% Mg pectate
 Precussor is ‗Cell plate‘ (pure pectin)
 It is precussor of cell wall i.e. cell wall  The cell wall of a young plant cell, the
material is laid down. primary wall is capable of growth, which
 Fruit become soft on ripening due to gradually diminishes as the cell matures and
dissolution of middle lamella. the secondary wall is formed on the inner
(pectinase enzyme activity) (towards membrane) side of the cell.
 Note : Sometimes, Tertiary wall also present
(in some Gymnosperms) made up Xylans.

 Plasmodesmata :
 Cell wall formation : Occurs in 2 layers
mainly

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 The cell wall and middle lamellae may be
traversed by plasmodesmata which connect
the cytoplasm of neighbouring cells.
 They are ―Cytoplasmic bridge‖ between
2 adjacent plant cells
 They contain Desmotubules (ER tubule)
which pierce primary wall & transport
substance across 2 adjacent plant cell.
 Term ‗Plasmodesmata‘ - by Strasburger
 Vacuole :
 True vacuoles are found only in
eukaryotic cells
 False vacuole – Gas vacuole in BGA /
Purple & Green photosynthetic Bacteria
 Functions of Sap Vacuole :
1. Provide turgidity to cell
2. Store & concentrate waste product
3. Provide coloration to flower (due to
anthocyannins)
VACUOLES
 The vacuole is the membrane-bound
space found in the cytoplasm.
 It contains water, sap, excretory product
and other materials not useful for the
cell.
 The vacuole is bound by a single
membrane called tonoplast.
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Cell : The Unit of Life
 In plant cells the vacuoles can occupy
up to 90 per cent of the volume of the
cell.
 In plants, the tonoplast facilitates the
transport of a number of ions and other
materials against concentration
gradients into the vacuole,
 hence their concentration is
significantly higher in the vacuole than
in the cytoplasm.
 In Amoeba the contractile vacuole is
important for excretion.
 In many cells, as in protists, food
vacuoles are formed by engulfing the
food particles.
 Plasma Membrane/Cell
membrane/Plasmalemma :
 Outer, living,
semipermeable/selectively permeable
covering of all living cell.
 Discovered by Schwann (1838)
 Term cell membrane – Nageli &
Cramer (1855)
 Term ‗Plasmalemma‘ – JQ Plowe
(1931)
 Lipoproteinaceous in nature
 The ratio of protein and lipid varies
considerably in different cell types.
 Human RBC : Lipid = 40% and Protein
= 52%
 Glycocalyx : Oligosaccharides sugar
form cell coat on outer surface of cell
membrane.
 Function : Cell attachment & Cell
identification
 Composition of cell membrane :
Lipid 40%, protein 52% and
Carbohydrate 8%.
1. Sandwich Theory :
 Danielle and Davson (1935)
 Two layers of lipid sandwiched between
two protein layers.
 Total thickness 75 Ao
2. Unit membrane / Trilaminar membrane
model –
 By Robertson (1959)
 P-L-L-P (20:35:20 Angstrom)
 He applied P-L-L-P structure to all
biomolecules

3. Fluid Mosaic Model of Cell membrane –
 By Singer and Nicolson (1972)
 Most recent and accepted model
 ―Protein icebergs floating in the sea of
phospholipid molecules"(quasi fluid
nature )
 Lecithin - Main phospholipid
(Amphipathic hydrophilic /polar head
and hydrophibic /non polar tail )
 The cell membrane is composed of
lipids that are arranged in a bilayer.
 Also, the lipids are arranged within the
membrane with the polar head towards
the outer sides and the hydrophobic tails
towards the inner part.
 This ensures that the non-polar tail of
saturated hydrocarbons is protected
from the aqueous environment
 The lipid component of the membrane
mainly consists of phosphoglycerides.
 Cholesterol between tails (for stability )
 Two kinds of membrane proteins ( Ease
of extraction)
A) Extrinsic / Peripheral (30%) – lie on
both surface of membrane egSpectrin
(provide shape to RBC)
B) Intrinsic / Internal (70%) - partially
or totally buried in the membrane eg-
Permease
 Glycocalyx/cell coat- only on outer side
of PM
 The fluid nature of the membrane is
also important from the point of view of
functions like
 cell growth
 formation of intercellular junctions
 Secretion
 Endocytosis
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Cell : The Unit of Life
 Cell division etc.
 Cause of fluidity - Phospholipid
molecule movement (lateral within
layer & Flip-flop movement between
two layers )
 Cause of stability
a) Cholesterol in animal cells
b) Hydrophobic interactions between
amino acids of proteins and tails of
lipids
maintain stability of structure of PM
 Quasi-fluid nature of lipid enables
lateral movement of proteins within the
overall bilayer.
 This ability to move within the
membrane is measured as its fluidity.
 Semi-permeability of PM is lost in
Boiling water / Alcohol / Benzene
 Calcium regulates permeability
 Two kinds of membrane transport
1: Passive transport –
 No energy (ATP) expenditure
 Higher to lower concentration
 Along concentration gradient
(a) Simple diffusion-gas exchange ,
Vitamin A/D/E/K
(b) Osmosis (water transport)
(c) Facilitated diffusion (carrier
required for polar molecules) –
GLUT (Glucose Transporter in
mucosa of intestine , muscle , liver
cells)
2: Active transport –
 Cell : The Unit of Life
 Energy expenditure
 Against concentration gradient
(a) Primary / Direct (ATP use) active –
Sodium-potassium pump
(b) Secondary active
(c) Bulk transport

 Secondary / Indirect / Co-transport active –

 ATP used indirectly
 Eg- SGLT (Sodium Glucose Linked
Transporter - Intestinal mucosa cells)

 Bulk transport –  RER is frequently observed in the cells

 Endo & Exocytosis actively involved in protein synthesis and
 By formation of carrier vesicles in PM secretion. They are extensive and continuous
 Eg- Food absorption in Amoeba with the outer membrane of the nucleus.
Cholesterol absorption  The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the
major site for synthesis of lipid. In animal
cells lipid-like steroidal hormones are
ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM synthesised in SER.
 The endomembrane system include
endoplasmic reticulum (ER), golgi complex,
lysosomes and vacuoles.
 Since the functions of the mitochondria,
chloroplast and peroxisomes are not
coordinated with the above components,
these are not considered as part of the
endomembrane system.

Endomembrane system / GERL SYSTEM

 Proposed by Novikoff
 ER , Golgibody, Lysosome , Vacuole.

1) ER
 Discovered & named by ‗Porter‘
 Poorly developed or absent in rapidly
dividing cells / embryonal cells / sperms
/ ovum / Mature RBCs
 Two types- Ribosomal ER (RER) and
Smooth ER (SER)
 Three forms - cisternae, tubules,
vesicles
 ER divides the intracellular space into
two distinct compartments, i.e., luminal
(inside ER) & extra luminal (cytoplasm)
compartments.
 The ER often shows ribosomes attached
to their outer surface.
 The endoplasmic reticulum bearing
ribosomes on their surface is called
rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER).
 In the absence of ribosomes they appear
smooth and are called smooth
endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
 Larger subunit of Ribosome is attached
to ER with glycoproteins – Ribophorins
I & II
FUNCTIONS –
 Protein synthesis (RER )
 Enzyme precursors of Lysosomes (RER)
 lipid synthesis(SER)
 Adipose / fat cells (SER)
 Adrenocortical cells( SER)
 Store calcium ion in muscle (SER)
 Detoxification (SER of liver)
 As cell endoskeleton
 Reformation of nuclear membrane
 Forms Plasmodesmata
 Origin of Golgi body / Microbodies

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2) Golgi body – absent in mature RBC
 Discovered & named by ‗Camello
Golgi‘ IN BRAIN CELLS OF owl
 Camillo Golgi (1898) first observed
densely stained reticular structures near
the nucleus. These were later named
Golgi bodies after him.
 Functional unit - Cisternae
(flat membranous sac 0.5 - 1.0 micron ,
stacked together near nucleus)
 They consist of many flat, discshaped
sacs or cisternae of 0.5μm to 1.0μm
diameter.
 These are stacked parallel to each other.
 Varied number of cisternae are present
in a Golgi complex.
 The Golgi cisternae are concentrically
 arranged near the nucleus
1) distinct convex cis or the forming
face
2) concave trans or the maturing face.
3)
 The cis and the trans faces of the
organelle are entirely different, but
interconnected.
 Dictyosome in plants & Invertebrate
cells
( Multiple , small , scattered in
cytoplasm)
 Zone of exclusion
1. Packaging & secretion of
substances
2. Carbohydrate synthesis ( pectins ,
oligosaccharides etc)
3. Glycoprotein & glycolipid
formation ( Glycosylation –
Glycosyl transferase enzyme
present)
4. Cell plate formation during cell
division
5. repair of cell wall
6. form lysosomes
7. forms cap of sperm(acrosome)
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Cell : The Unit of Life
8. yolk synthesis in eggs
(Vitellogenesis)
 The golgi apparatus principally
performs the function of packaging
materials, to be delivered either to the
intra-cellular targets or secreted outside
the cell
 Materials to be packaged in the form of
vesicles from the ER fuse with the cis
face of the golgi apparatus and move
towards the maturing face.
 This explains, why the golgi apparatus
remains in close association with the
endoplasmic reticulum.
 A number of proteins synthesised by
ribosomes on the endoplasmic
reticulum are modified in the cisternae
of the golgi apparatus before they are
released from its trans face.
 Golgi apparatus is the important site of
formation of glycoproteins and
glycolipids.
Lysosome
 Discovery – Christian-de-Duve
 Originate from golgi body (90%) and
ER(10%)
 These are membrane bound vesicular
structures formed by the process of
packaging in the golgi apparatus.
 Common in animals ,absent in RBC
 Rare in plants – Maize root & Tobacco
endosperm
 Marker enzyme – Acid Phosphatase
 Contain digestive acid hydrolytic
enzymes-40-50 kinds at pH- 4-5
(hydrolases – lipases, proteases,
carbohydrases)
 Called ‗Suicidal bags of cell‘
 Membrane stabilizerscholesterol ,
heparin, chloroquine, cortisol
 Membrane labilizers - vitamin A &E ,
X - rays, UV -rays, bile salts, sex
hormones
 Functions
(a) Intracellular digestion
(b) Phagocytosis / germ killing by
WBCs
(c) Osteoclastic activity of Bone cells
(provide shape to bone)
(d) Recycling of Cell organelles

Polymorphic (4 types)
(a) Primary – newly pinched off from GB ,
inactive enzymes
(b) Secondary/ Heterophagosome – primary
lysosome + food , active enzymes
(c) Tertiary/Residual–
 contains undigested waste
 accumulation cause diseases like
Gauchers / Tay-sachs / Hurlers etc
(d) Autophagosome – recycling of old ,
worn out cell organelles
MICROBODIES
Many membrane bound minute vesicles called
microbodies that contain various enzymes, are
present in both plant and animal cells.
Single membrane bound
1) Sphaerosome (Plant Lysosome)
 Discovery – Perner
 Only in plant cells
 Storage of lipid
 Found in maize root and tobacco
endosperm
 k/a Plant lysosome
2) Peroxisome
 Discovery – Tolbert
 Both plant and animal
 Enzyme Catalase/ Oxidase
 Role in Glycolate metabolism /C2 cycle
/photorespiration (glycolate oxidase
enzyme)
 Role in Urate metabolism /Uric acid
synthesis (Purine oxidase)
 matrix. The cristae increase the surface
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Cell : The Unit of Life
3) Glyoxisome
 Discovery - Beaver
 Only in plants and some fungi
 Found in oily seeds
 Role in ‗Glyoxylate cycle‘ (fat into
sugar - Gluconeogenesis)
 Enzyme for beta -oxidation of fatty
acids
 Semi-autonomous organelle (double
membrane)-mitochondria and plastid
 Cell within cell
 Semi-autonomous (own DNA and
ribosome , produce own proteins)
 Single circular naked , dsDNA and 70-
s ribosome
 Called ‗ Bacterial Endosymbionts‘
1: Mitochondria
 Discovery – kollikar , Named –Benda
 Largest animal cell / cell organelle(1 to
4.1 micron length , 0.2-1 micron avg 0.5
diam. )
 Shape , size number varies with cell
 Number depends on physiological
activity of cell
 Maximum in flight muscle and cardiac
muscle
 Single mitochondria in microsterias,
trypanosome, chlamydomonas
 Absent in prokaryote and mature human
RBC
 Sausage shaped or cylindrical
 Each mitochondrion is a double
membrane-bound structure with the
outer membrane and the inner
membrane dividing its lumen distinctly
into two aqueous compartments, i.e., the
outer compartment and the inner
compartment.
 Perimitochondrial space / outer
compartment
 Matrix / inner compartment
 The outer membrane forms the
continuous limiting boundary of the
organelle. (more lipids , less proteins &
enzymes , more permeability due to
Porins)
 The inner membrane forms a number of
infoldings called the cristae towards the
area.

 The two membranes have their own
specific enzymes associated with the
mitochondrial function.
 Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic
respiration. They produce cellular
energy in the form of ATP, hence they
are called ‗power houses‘ of the cell.
 Role in Thermogenesis
 Role in beta oxidation of fatty acids
/protein synthesis
 The matrix also possesses single
circular DNA molecule, a few RNA
molecules, ribosomes (70S) and the
components required for the synthesis
of proteins.
 The mitochondria divide by fission.
 F1/Fo/oxisome /elementary particles -
ATP synthesis (ATP synthetase and
ATPase )
 Inner membrane -some enzyme of
aerobic respiration (succinic
dehydrogenase, cytochrome oxidase)
 Matrix - circular DNA ,70s ribosome
and most enzyme of TCA / KREBS
cycle (Except SDH)
 relatively less permeable.
2: Plastid
 Found in all plant cells and in
euglenoides
 Discovery- HAECKEL ,named -
SCHIMPER
 Bear some specific pigments, thus
imparting specific colors to the plants.
 Largest organelle of plant cell (5-10
micron length , average 5 micron)
Three types (Basis-type of pigments)
A: Green chloroplasts –
 chlorophyll A and B pigment
 some carotenoids
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Cell : The Unit of Life
 responsible for trapping light energy
essential for photosynthesis
 ‗Kitchen of cell ‗(photosynthesis)

B: coloured chromoplasts-
 Fat soluble carotenoid pigments like
carotene,
xanthophylls(more),chlorophyll some
 This gives the part of the plant a yellow,
orange or red colour.
 Help in pollination & seed dispersal
C: White /Colourless leucoplasts –pigments absent
, store food products / nutrients , 3 types
(a) Amyloplast store carbohydrates like
starch (eg. Potato , wheat)
(b) Elaioplast - store oils & fats (castor
endosperm)
(c) Aleuroplast/Proteoplast/Proteinoplaststo
re proteins (maize endosperm)
CHLOROPLASTS
 All plastid are interconvertable
 These are lens-shaped, oval, spherical, discoid or
even ribbon-like organelles having variable
length (5-10mm) and width (2-4mm).
 Number varies from 1 per cell of
Chlamydomonas, a green alga to 20-40 per cell
in mesophyll
 Majority of the chloroplasts of the green plants
are found in the mesophyll cells of the leaves.
 The chloroplasts are double membrane bound.
Of the two, the inner chloroplast membrane is
 The space limited by the inner membrane of the
chloroplast is called the stroma.
 Thylakoids - number of organised flattened
membranous sacs , present in the stroma.
(Term by Menke)
 Granum –
 Thylakoids are arranged in stacks (2-
100 ) like the piles of coins , 40-60
grana in each chloroplast
 Site of light reaction of photosynthesis
 Stroma lamellae / Fret / Intergranal
thylakoids- flat membranous tubules ,
connecting the thylakoids of the different
grana.

 The membrane of the thylakoids
enclose a space called a lumen.
 Chlorophyll pigments are present in
thylakoids
 Stroma –
 Small, double-stranded circular DNA
molecules
 70-S ribosomes
 enzymes required for the synthesis of
carbohydrates (C3 /Calvin cycle/ dark
reaction of photosynthesis) and proteins
 RuBisCO enzyme present in stroma
Note –
Agranal chloroplast are seen in Green Algae and
Bundle sheath cells of leaves of C4 plants
 Transformation of plastids During
ripening , Tomato & Chillies/Capsicum
–  Common RNA – 5-s
Young fruit Green chloroplast →
mature fruit Red chromoplst
 Ribosome / Palade particles (protein factory
/engine of cell)
 granular structures
 first observed under the electron
microscope as dense particles
 by George Palade (1953).
 Found in both prokaryote and eukaryote
(absent in mature RBC)
 Smallest cell organelle
 Organelle within organelle ( present
inside mt. and chloroplasts)
 RNP particles (ribonucleo protein
particles) = rRNA + proteins
 Not surrounded by any membrane
 Occurrence –
 Free floating in cytoplasm
 Polysome
 Bound to Surface of RER(80-s)
 Mitoribosomes (70-s)
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Cell : The Unit of Life
 Plastidoribosomes (70-s)
 Eukaryotic ribosomes - 80S
 Prokaryotic ribosomes - 70S
 Here ‗S‘ stands for the sedimentation
coefficient (Rate of sedimentation) ; it
indirectly is a measure of density and
size
 Expressed as - Svedberg unit
 Two sub units (combine in presence of
Mg 2+, 0.001 M conc. , 1-2 mM)
 Larger-dome , smaller-cap shaped
 80-S = 60-S + 40-S 70-S = 50-S + 30-
S
 Dimer formation (0.01 M Mg 2+ , >1-2
mM)
 70s ribosome (prokaryote
/Mt./chloroplast)-
 55 kinds of proteins +23 s /16s/5s
rRNA
 RNA 60 :Proteins 40
 80s ribosome (eukaryote)-
 73 kinds of protein + 28s /18s/5.8s/5s
rRNA
 RNA 40 :Proteins 60
 23s and 28s rRNA - Ribozyme /
Peptidyl transferase
 Assembly of subunits /synthesis of
rRNA except 5s - inside nucleolus
 Cytoskeleton(protein fibres )
An elaborate network of filamentous
proteinaceous structures present in the
cytoplasm is collectively referred to as the
cytoskeleton
FUNCTIONS –
1. Mechanical support
2. Motility
3. Maintenance of shape of the cell.
Three kinds-
1: Micro filaments
 Thin (7 nm)

 Solid actin (globular , contractile)
protein fibres
 Present in cytoplasm
 Function – cytokinesis in animals ,
Cyclosis , Pseudopodia formation
(Amoeboid movement)
2: Intermediate fibres
 8-10 nm , hollow ,durable fibres
Vimentin ,Lamin and Keratin protein (
rod , noncontactile) fibres
 Present in cytoplasm & Nucleus
1. Found in Desmosomes (adhering
cell junctions)
2. Hold cell organelles
3. Form nuclear basket
3: Microtubules
 25nm ,hollow tubulin protein
(globular,noncontractile) fibres in
cytoplasm
 Formation of –
(1) Cell plate
formation(Cytokinesis in
plants)
(2) Spindle fibres (Chromosomal
movement)
(3) Centriole (9+0)
(4) Cilia and flagella (9+2) – Cell
movement
CENTROSOME AND CENTRIOLES
 Term ‗Centriole‘- Theodore Boveri
 Centrosome is an organelle usually
containing two cylindrical structures called
centrioles (animal & lower plant cell)
 Absent in Neuron & oocytes
 They are surrounded by amorphous
pericentriolar materials.
 Both the centrioles in a centrosome lie
perpendicular to each other in which each
has an organisation like the Cartwheel
(9+0).
 Centrosome=Diplosome + Kinoplasm /
Centrosphere (zone of exclusion)
 They are made up of nine evenly spaced
peripheral fibrils of tubulin.
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Cell : The Unit of Life
 Each of the peripheral fibril is a triplet.
 The adjacent triplets are also linked.
 The central part of the centriole is also
proteinaceous and called the hub, which is
connected with tubules of the peripheral
triplets by radial spokes made of protein.
 The centrioles form the basal body of cilia
or flagella, and spindle fibres that give rise
to spindle apparatus during cell division in
animal cells.
Function –
1. Spindle fibre formation
2. Basal body/blepharoplast of cilia/flagella
formation
 Cilia and flagella
 Hair like outgrowths of cell membrane
 Cilia are small structures which work
like oars, causing the movement of
either the cell or the surrounding
fluid.(sensory & absorption)
 Flagella are comparatively longer and
responsible for cell movement.
 The prokaryotic bacteria also possess
flagella but these are structurally
different from that of the eukaryotic
flagella.
 The electron microscopic study of a
cilium or the flagellum show that they
are covered with plasma membrane.
 Their core called the axoneme,
possesses a number of microtubules
running parallel to the long axis.
 The axoneme usually has nine pairs of
doublets of radially arranged peripheral
microtubules, and a pair of centrally
located microtubules.(joined by Nexin
protein)
 Such an arrangement of axonemal
microtubules is referred to as the 9+2
array.
 The central tubules are connected by
bridges and is also enclosed by a central

sheath, which is connected to one of the
tubules of each peripheral doublets by a
radial spoke.
 Thus, there are nine radial spokes. The
peripheral doublets are also
interconnected by linkers.
 Energy for movement is provided by
Dyenin (ATPase activity)
 Both the cilium and flagellum emerge
from basal bodies.
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Cell : The Unit of Life
 Nucleus –
 Nucleus as a cell organelle was first
described by Robert Brown
(1831/1832) in Orchid root
celldiscovery
 Later the material of the nucleus stained
by the basic dyes was given the name
chromatin by Flemming.
 Director /Controller of cell
 Encloses genetic information
 Controls metabolic activities of cell
 Hammerling experimented on
Acetabularia to prove ‗Morphology of
cell‘ is determined by nucleus
 Normally one nucleus per cell but
variations in number are frequent
 Dikaryon - paramecium /ciliated
protozoa
 Multinucleate condition - coenocytic
(plant)& syncytial(animal)
 Absent in mature RBC of mammals &
mature phloem sieve tube elements
 Four characters of true nucleus
(Interphase when cell is not dividing):
1: Nuclear envelope
 Double membrane , that is 2 parallel
membranes , with perinuclear space(10-
50nm)
 Forms barrier between materials present
inside nucleus and that of cytoplasm
 Outer membrane - continuous with
endoplasmic reticulum & also bears
ribosomes on it.
 Degenerate at start of cell division and
reformed by ER vesicles at the end
 Nucleopores - minute pores(3000- 4000
, 10% of total surface area) interrupting

nuclear envelope , formed by fusion of
its 2 membranes.
Function - Passages through which
movement of RNA & protein molecules
take place in both directions between
nucleus & cytoplasm
2: Nucleoplasm / Nuclear matrix –
 Alkaline (7.2-7.5pH)-rich in
nucleosides (nitrogen bases)
 contains Nucleotides , DNA Polymerase
, RNAP , nucleolus and chromatin.
3:Chromatin fibres –
 Term by ‗Fleming‘
 contain genetic information of cell
 Entangled mass of Nucleoproteins
 Composition (DNA 40% , Histone 50%
, NHC 8.5% , RNA 1.5%)
 On condensation during cell division ,
forms Chromosomes
 Five type of histone (rich in Lysine &
Arginine basic amino acids , +vely
charged) proteins
(H1/H2A/H2B/H3/H4)
 H1 histone - Linker histone
 Unit of chromatin fibre
 Nucleosome (octamer/nu body/histone
core+146 bps long DNA , 1 ¾ turns )
‗Beads on string appearance‘
 Two regions- euchromatin & heterochromatin
 Condensation and coiling during cell division
 DNA – 2 nm diameter
 Nucleosome / Chromatin-11-12.5 nm
 Solenoid(6 nucleosomes / turn)–30 nm
 Super solenoid -300 nm
 Chromatid – 700 nm
 Chromosome – 1400 nm
4: Nucleolus
 Discovery: Fontana, named by Bowman
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Cell : The Unit of Life
 Spherical hollow structures present in
nucleoplasm
 Content of nucleolus is continuous with
rest of nucleoplasm as it is not a membrane
bound structure
 Site for active ribosomal RNA synthesis &
assembly of ribosomal subunits
 Larger and more numerous nucleoli are
present in cells actively carrying out
protein synthesis.
 ‗Ribosomal factory of cell‘
 Made of Heterochromatin
(DNA+RNA+Protein)
 Disappears at start of cell division (late
prophase) and reconstructed from NOR of
SAT chromosome (telophase)
 Chromosome :
 Discovery: Hoffmeister
 Named by Waldeyer
 Most condensed & coiled chromatin ,
Observed during cell division
 The interphase nucleus has a loose and
indistinct network of nucleoprotein fibres
called chromatin.
 But during different stages of cell division,
cells show structured chromosomes in
place of the nucleus.
 Gene bearers
 Length directly proportional to number of
genes
 Structural best studied at Metaphase (most
condensed)
 Shape best studied at Anaphase
 A single human cell has approximately
Two metre long thread of DNA ,
 distributed among its forty six (twenty
three pairs) chromosomes.
Centromere / primary constriction
Kinetochore bodies - disc shaped protein
,spindle fibres gets attached chromatids
 Cell : The Unit of Life
 Every chromosome essentially has a 1. Aulocantha (animal , protozoa
primary constriction or the centromere , ,2n=1600)
 on the sides of which disc shaped structures 2. Ophioglossum (plant , pteridophyte ,
called kinetochores are present 2n=1262)

Minimum –

1. Ascaris megascolex (animal , 2n=2)

2. Haplopappus (plant , 2n=4)

 Chromosome size
Maximum-Trillium (angiosperm )
Minimum - Mucor (Fungus)

Chromosomes can be classified into 4 types

(position of centromere )-

Secondary constrictions /NOR – 1. Metacentric chromosome -middle

centromere forming two equal arms of
chromosome number 13,14,15,21,22 and Y the chromosome.
2. Sub-metacentric
Telomere – chromosomecentromere nearer to one
end of chromosome resulting into one
non sticky ends (C - G rich) shorter arm & one longer arm.
3. Acrocentric chromosome - centromere
is situated close to its end forming one
 Few chromosomes have non-staining extremely short and one very long arm.
secondary constrictions at a constant 4. Telocentric chromosome - terminal
location. This gives the appearance of a centromere.
small fragment called the Satellite (identity
of chromosome)
1: Metacentric (V shaped)

2: Sub - Metacentric (L shaped)

3: Acrocentric (J shaped)

4: Telocentric (I shaped)

 Genome- Haploid set of chromosome

 Gamete-1 set=haploid
 Somatic cells – 2 sets=diploid
 Karyotype - physical characteristics of
genome (no. , shape , size , length of arms ,
centromere position)
 Idiogram - graphical representation of
karyotype
 Karyotype & Idiogram are species specific

 Chromosome number

Maximum –


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 Cell : The Unit of Life
 Giant chromosomes
1. Lampbrush chromosome –

 Described by Ruckert (1892)

 Present in Primary oocyte nuclei of
vertebrates (like amphibian) &
invertebrates (like insect)
 Contains ‗Yolk protein‘ producing
genes
 These are diplotene bivalent
chromosomes joined at certain points
‗Chiasmata‘, bearing Chromomeres
 Main axis is formed by DNA
 Chromomeres give lateral projections or
loops
 Loops are extended parts of
chromosomes , participate in
Transcription
2. Polytene chromosome –
 Hair on loops are nascent RNA
molecules  Described by Balbiani (1881)
 Present in Salivary gland cells of Insects of
order Diptera (eg- Drosophila)
 Occurrence of Polyteny i.e. number of
chromonemata increases upto 2000 or more
per chromosome
 Balbiani rings are large chromosome puffs ,
sites for transcription of RNA & protein
synthesis

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