UNEESCO-NIGE

ERIA TECH
HNICAL &
V
VOCATIONNAL EDUCA
ATION
REVIT
TALISATIO
ON PROJEC
CT-PHASE II

NATIIONAL
L DIPLO
OMA IIN
SCIENC
S CE LAB BORATORY TECH
HNOLOOGY

CEL
LL BIOL
B OGY
Y
COU
URSE CODE: STB
S 121

YE
EAR I- S
SE MEST
TER I

THE
EORY
Version
V 1: December
D r 2008
 List of Contents

WEEK 1……………………………………………………………………………..3

WEEK 2…………………………………………………………………………….. 11

WEEK 3……………………………………………………………………………..16

WEEK 4……………………………………………………………………………..25

WEEK 5……………………………………………………………………………..29

WEEK 6……………………………………………………………………………..35

WEEK 7……………………………………………………………………………..43

WEEK 8……………………………………………………………………………..48

WEEK 9……………………………………………………………………………..54

WEEK 10……………………………………………………………………………..60

WEEK 11……………………………………………………………………………..67

WEEK 12……………………………………………………………………………..73

WEEK 13……………………………………………………………………………..77

WEEK 14……………………………………………………………………………..81

WEEK 15……………………………………………………………………………..90

2
WEEK 1:
1.1 The Living Cell
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of an organism. It is therefore, the
simplest, the smallest and basic unit of life. All living things are made up of cells.

Fundamentally, the cell is regarded as the basic unit of all living things because it
under take all life activities such as reproduction, excretion, growth, adaptation,
respiration and definite life span e.t.c. All these activities possessed by a cell formed
the characteristics of living organisms. Living organisms are classified into two major
groups based on the number of cells. Unicellular (acellular) organisms consist of only
one cell (e.g. Amoeba, Chlamydomonas, Euglena, Paramecium. On the other hand
multicellular organisms consist of two or more cells (e.g. volvox, hydra, spirogyra,
flowering plants, fish, bird and man).

1.2 The Cell Theory

The idea that all living things are composed of cells developed over many years and is
strongly linked to the invention and refinement of the microscope. Early microscopes
in the 1600’s (such as Leeuwenhoek’s) opened up a whole new field of biology – the
study of cell biology and microorganism. The cell theory is a fundamental idea of
biology.

1.3 Milestones in Cell Biology

Many scientists contributed to the history of the cell. The following are the
milestones in cell biology;
I. 1500s – convex lenses with a magnification greater than x5 became available
II. Early 1600s – first compound microscopes used in Europe (used 2 convex lenses
to make objects look larger). Suffererred badly from color distortion; an effect
called spherical aberration.
III. 1632 – 1723 – Antoni Van Lecuwenhoel of Leyden, Holland, produced over 500
single lens microscope. Discovered bacteria, human blood cells, spermatozoa,
and protozoa, friend of Robert Hooke of England.
IV. 1661 – Marcello malpighi used lenses to study insects. Discovered capillaries and
may have described cells in writing of ‘globules’ and ‘saccules’

3
 V. 1662 – Robert Hooke introduced the term cell in describing the microscopic
structure of corse. He believed that the cells walls were the important part of
otherwise empty structures. Published micrographia in 1665.
VI. 1672 – Nehemlah Grew wrote the first of two well illustrated books on the
microscopic anatomy of plants
VII. 1838 – 1839 – Botanist Mathias Schleiden and zoologist Theodor Schwann
proposed the cell theory for plants and animals: Plants and animals are composed
of groups of cells and that the cell is the basic unit of living organisms.
VIII. Rudelph Virchow – extended the cell theory by stating that: new cells are formed
only by the division of previously existing cells.
IX. August Weismann added to Virchow’s idea by pointing out that: all the cells
living today can trace their ancestry back to ancient times (the link between cell
theory and evolution).

Fundamentally, the milestones in cell biology composed ideas which were formulated
by the early biologists to form the cell their: the cell theory states that:
1. All living things are composed of cells and cell products
2. New cells are formed only by the division of pre-existing cells
3. The cell contains inherited information (genes) that are used as instruction for
growth, functioning, and development.
4. The cell is the functioning unit of life; the chemical reactions of life take place
within cells.
5. All living things are either single cells (unicellular) or group of cells
(multicellular)

1.4 Types Of Cells

Living things (organisms) are made up of one or more cells (i.e. unicellular and
multicellular respectively). Under the five kingdom system, cells can be divided into
two basic kinds: the prokaryotes, which are single cells without a distinct, membrane
– bound nucleus (e.g. bacteria) and the more complex eukaryotes with clearly
discernible nucleus bounded by nuclear membrane as found in majority of organisms,
including all animals and plants.

4
 1.5 Comparison of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
S/No Characteristics Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
1. Cell size Mostly small (1 – 10μm) Mostly large (10 - 100μm)
2. Genetic system DNA not associated with proteins; DNA complex with proteins in
no chromosomes chromosomes
3. Cell division Direct by binary fission or Some form of mitosis; centrioles,
budding; no mitosis miotic spindle present
4. Sexual system Absent in most, highly modified if Present in most male and female
present partners; gametes that fuse
5. Nutrition Absorption by most, Absorption, ingestion and
photosynthesis by some photosynthesis
6. Energy Mitochondria absent; oxidative Mitochondria present; oxidative
metabolism enzymes bound to cell membrane, enzymes packaged therein, unified
not packaged separately, great pattern on oxidative metabolism
variation in metabolic pattern throughout
7. Intracellular None Cytoplasmic streaming, phagocytosis,
movement pinocytosis
8. Organelles Lack organelles – cell fused with Full complement of membrane bound
cytoplasm but no membrane organelles in the cytoplasm. It has
bound nucleus. It has plasma plasma membrane, cytoplasm and
membrane, cell wall, nucleoid, nucleus. The nucleus contains
plasmids, ribosomes, mesosomes, nucleolus and chromosomes.
chromatophores, capsule and Cytoplasm contains cytosol,
flagella membrane bound organelles

1.6 Similarities
At the chemical level the prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are fundamentally similar.
Therefore, they both have DNA, ATP and much the same range of enzymes and
coenzymes.
1.7 Plant and Animal Cells
Eukaryotic cells are typical of most organisms and are characterized by possession of
a nucleus and membrane bound organelles. Typical examples of eukaryotic cells are
the plant and animal cells.

5
Plant Cells: The plant cells are enclosed in a cellulose cell wall. The cell wall
protects the cell, maintains its shape, and prevents excessive water up take. It does not
interfere with the passage of materials into and out of the cell. Plant cells may be
specialized to perform particular functions e.g. thickened cell wall and plasma
membrane may form sclerenehyma cell (Sclereid). Other specialized plant cells
include: Root hair cells, guard cells, phloem cells e.t.c.

6
 Fig. 1.1 A Typical Plant cell
Animal Cells: Animal cells, unlike plant cells, do not have a regular shape. Infact,
some animal cells (such as phagocytes) are able to alter their shape for various
purposes (e.g. engulfment of foreign materials). Animal cells differ form plant cells in
other ways too: they lack a cell wall, and some of their structures and organelles are

7
different. Animal cells are often not generalized, but they may become specialized to
perform particular functions. Typically, many animal cells have special features that
allow them to perform their role in the animal body to which they are a part of e.g.
leukocyte, red blood cell, muscle cell, sperm cell, fat (adipose cell), neurone, retina
(rod) cell, and endocrine gland cell e.t.c

8
Fig. A Typical Animal Cell

9
10
WEEK 2:

2.1 Description of Cell Inclusions and Organelles With Their Functions

1. Cell wall: It does not act as a physiological boundary. Its main function is

mechanical – supporting the cell and multicellular structures and preventing the

outer membrane from busting as a result of the hydrostatic pressures that develop

inside the cell. Equally helps plant resist infection due to its impenetrability to

invaders.

The primary wall is cheaply of cellulose. The nuddle lamella contains pectin and

calcium pectate. It helps connects twp adjacent cells. The plasmodesmata enables

the movement of materials form one cell to another.

The cell wall allows water, gases to pass except when certain substances such as

ligmn (in xylem) or suberin (in cork) are deposited on it. It equally give shape and

firmness to the cell.

2. Membranes: All the properties of living cells depends to some extent upon the

properties of their membranes.

A cell is surrounded by a membrane that separate it from its environment and

enables it to control the entry and exit of substances selectively. Moreover,

virtually all of the sub cellular organelles are made of, or surrounded by

membranes, and much of the cellular enzyme machinery is mounted on or

associated with membranes. (composing globules of phospholipids coated with

protein).

Most sub cellular structures such as nucleus, mitochondria or chloroplast are

surrounded by double membranes; however, the outermost living layer of the

cytoplasm, the cell membrane or plasmalemma, as well as the inner membrane

living the vacuole, the tonoplast, consist of single unit membranes.

11
3. Nucleus: The largest and most prominent organized inclusion in most cells. It

contains a large part of the cell’s genetic material, the Deoxyribonucleic Acid

(DNA) strands that are present in protein complexes forming the nucleoprotein

(present as strands of chromatin, but during cell division they form into distinct

chromosomes.

The nucleus usually contains 1 – 4 nucleoli, densely staining spherical bodies that

appear to be Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) reserves, presumably used during the

decoding of the DNA message of the chromatin.

The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane that has many small pores, thus

permitting the exit of informational material from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.

Nucleotide = Nitrogenous base + D Ribose

e.g Adenine + D-Ribose = Adenosine

nucleotide = Nucleoside + esterified phosphoric acid

e.g. Adenosine + phosphoric acid – AMP

nucleic acids = polynucleotides of high

4. Endoplasmic Recticulum: Is a network of membranes that ranified throughout

the cytoplasm of most metabolically active cells. The rough endoplasmic

recticulum has large numbers of ribosomes, whereas no ribosomes attached to

smooth endoplasmic reciculum.

The ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis. The endoplasmic recticulum is

directly concern with the synthesis and play a part in assembling the sub-units for

the protein synthesis and distributing the products.

Larger organelles such as chloroplast mitochondria and nucleus may have

ribosomes associated with their internal membranes.

5. Golgi Apparatus and Dictyosomes: Dictyosomes are saucer – shaped bodies

made up of several layers of flat vesicles (cristernae, singular = cisterna) with unit

12
 membranes. One or many distyosomes constitute the golgi apparatus. It is

primarily important as a major transport system of materials to the outside of the

cell.

6. Mitochondira: They are larger and oval in structures. They contain much of the

cells metabolic machinery. Present in large members is numbers in metabolically

active cells but not abundant in resting (senescent) cells.

The mitochrodria have small knob like structure called F1 – ATPpase attached to

their inner surface by stalk (FO – particles). These structures are concerned with

the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) – the cell’s energy mobilization

compound. Mitochondria provide the energy through the controlled break down

of respiratory substrates, for the synthesis of a large part of the cell’s ATP, which

is in turn uses to drive energy – requiring syntheses and reactions.

The mitochondria contain DNA which may be concerned with synthesis of some

structural proteins but not enzymatic proteins (which are normally programmed

by nuclear DNA).

7. Plastids: Present in many plant cells. Most familiar are chloroplasts, which

contain the photosynthetic pigments, mainly chrolophylls, and carry on

photosynthesis. Leucoplasts are coloouless, often the site of starch granule

development, have called amyloplasts. The exact nature of the plastid may

depend on the presence or observe of light. Chromoplasts are specialized plastids

that contain pigments other than chlorophyll and are not involved on

photosynthesis. For instance, the red colour of berries, tomatoes and water melon

is due to chromoplasts that contain carotene.

Chloroplasts contain a substantial amount of DNA and are evidently capable of

programming the synthesis of some of their own structural components.

13
 8. Glyoxysomes and Peroxisomes: Are microscopic bodies found in many plant

cells. They appear to be essentially “packaged units” of enzymes concerned with

a specific sequence of reactions, much as mitochondria are concerned with Kreb’s

cycle oxidation and ATP synthesis and chloroplast with photosynthesis.

Glyosomes contain the enzymatic machinery of the glyozylate path way of fat

metabolism, which is important in the conversion of fats to sugars (e.g. during

germination of fat storing seeds such as casto beans).

Peroxisomes contain the enzymatic machinery for the oxidation of glycolate

produced in photosynthesis. They also contain the enzyme, catalase, which breaks

down the poisonous substance, hydrogen peroxide, formed during the oxidation

of glycolate.

2.2 Other Sub Cellular Structures

* Centrosome: Present in the cells of primitive plants, it’s associated with the

mechanism of cell division. It’s now prominent in animal cells and became

extinct in plan cells.

* The Vacuole: Is physiologically important to the cell because it affords a

storage place for materials not immediately required, and it provides a

dumping ground for cellular wastes that plants. Lacking an excretory system,

must store internally. Hydrolytic or destructive enzymes are secreted into the

vacuole; these enzymes degrade waste material into simple substances that

may be reabsorbed by the cytoplasm. The vacuole also functions as water

reserve in the cell, it maintains the cell’s structure and rigidity by exerting

pressure on the cell will, prevents it from distorting or collapsing.

The vacuole membrane, the tonoplast may be involved in the secretion of substances

into the vacuole.

14
The vacuole may contain a range of dissolved substances: sugars, salts, acids,

nitrogenous compounds, such complex compounds as alkaloids, glycosides, small

droplets or emulsions of fats, oils, protein may be found.

15
WEEK 3:

3.1 Description of Cell Inclusions and Organelles With Their Functions

2. Cell wall: It does not act as a physiological boundary. Its main function is

mechanical – supporting the cell and multicellular structures and preventing the

outer membrane from busting as a result of the hydrostatic pressures that develop

inside the cell. Equally helps plant resist infection due to its impenetrability to

invaders.

The primary wall is cheaply of cellulose. The nuddle lamella contains pectin and

calcium pectate. It helps connects twp adjacent cells. The plasmodesmata enables

the movement of materials form one cell to another.

The cell wall allows water, gases to pass except when certain substances such as

ligmn (in xylem) or suberin (in cork) are deposited on it. It equally give shape and

firmness to the cell.

2. Membranes: All the properties of living cells depends to some extent upon the

properties of their membranes.

A cell is surrounded by a membrane that separate it from its environment and

enables it to control the entry and exit of substances selectively. Moreover,

virtually all of the sub cellular organelles are made of, or surrounded by

membranes, and much of the cellular enzyme machinery is mounted on or

associated with membranes. (composing globules of phospholipids coated with

protein).

Most sub cellular structures such as nucleus, mitochondria or chloroplast are

surrounded by double membranes; however, the outermost living layer of the

cytoplasm, the cell membrane or plasmalemma, as well as the inner membrane

living the vacuole, the tonoplast, consist of single unit membranes.

16
3. Nucleus: The largest and most prominent organized inclusion in most cells. It

contains a large part of the cell’s genetic material, the Deoxyribonucleic Acid

(DNA) strands that are present in protein complexes forming the nucleoprotein

(present as strands of chromatin, but during cell division they form into distinct

chromosomes.

The nucleus usually contains 1 – 4 nucleoli, densely staining spherical bodies that

appear to be Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) reserves, presumably used during the

decoding of the DNA message of the chromatin.

The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane that has many small pores, thus

permitting the exit of informational material from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.

Nucleotide = Nitrogenous base + D Ribose

e.g Adenine + D-Ribose = Adenosine

nucleotide = Nucleoside + esterified phosphoric acid

e.g. Adenosine + phosphoric acid – AMP

nucleic acids = polynucleotides of high

4. Endoplasmic Recticulum: Is a network of membranes that ranified throughout

the cytoplasm of most metabolically active cells. The rough endoplasmic

recticulum has large numbers of ribosomes, whereas no ribosomes attached to

smooth endoplasmic reciculum.

The ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis. The endoplasmic recticulum is

directly concern with the synthesis and play a part in assembling the sub-units for

the protein synthesis and distributing the products.

Larger organelles such as chloroplast mitochondria and nucleus may have

ribosomes associated with their internal membranes.

5. Golgi Apparatus and Dictyosomes: Dictyosomes are saucer – shaped bodies

made up of several layers of flat vesicles (cristernae, singular = cisterna) with unit

17
 membranes. One or many distyosomes constitute the golgi apparatus. It is

primarily important as a major transport system of materials to the outside of the

cell.

6. Mitochondira: They are larger and oval in structures. They contain much of the

cells metabolic machinery. Present in large members is numbers in metabolically

active cells but not abundant in resting (senescent) cells.

The mitochrodria have small knob like structure called F1 – ATPpase attached to

their inner surface by stalk (FO – particles). These structures are concerned with

the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) – the cell’s energy mobilization

compound. Mitochondria provide the energy through the controlled break down

of respiratory substrates, for the synthesis of a large part of the cell’s ATP, which

is in turn uses to drive energy – requiring syntheses and reactions.

The mitochondria contain DNA which may be concerned with synthesis of some

structural proteins but not enzymatic proteins (which are normally programmed

by nuclear DNA).

7. Plastids: Present in many plant cells. Most familiar are chloroplasts, which

contain the photosynthetic pigments, mainly chrolophylls, and carry on

photosynthesis. Leucoplasts are coloouless, often the site of starch granule

development, have called amyloplasts. The exact nature of the plastid may

depend on the presence or observe of light. Chromoplasts are specialized plastids

that contain pigments other than chlorophyll and are not involved on

photosynthesis. For instance, the red colour of berries, tomatoes and water melon

is due to chromoplasts that contain carotene. Chloroplasts contain a substantial

amount of DNA and are evidently capable of programming the synthesis of some

of their own structural components.

18
 8. Glyoxysomes and Peroxisomes: Are microscopic bodies found in many plant

cells. They appear to be essentially “packaged units” of enzymes concerned with

a specific sequence of reactions, much as mitochondria are concerned with Kreb’s

cycle oxidation and ATP synthesis and chloroplast with photosynthesis.

Glyosomes contain the enzymatic machinery of the glyozylate path way of fat

metabolism, which is important in the conversion of fats to sugars (e.g. during

germination of fat storing seeds such as casto beans).

Peroxisomes contain the enzymatic machinery for the oxidation of glycolate

produced in photosynthesis. They also contain the enzyme, catalase, which breaks

down the poisonous substance, hydrogen peroxide, formed during the oxidation

of glycolate.

3.2 Other sub cellular structures

* Centrosome: Present in the cells of primitive plants, it’s associated with the

mechanism of cell division. It’s now prominent in animal cells and became

extinct in plan cells.

* The Vacuole: Is physiologically important to the cell because it affords a

storage place for materials not immediately required, and it provides a

dumping ground for cellular wastes that plants. Lacking an excretory system,

must store internally. Hydrolytic or destructive enzymes are secreted into the

vacuole; these enzymes degrade waste material into simple substances that

may be reabsorbed by the cytoplasm. The vacuole also functions as water

reserve in the cell, it maintains the cell’s structure and rigidity by exerting

pressure on the cell will, prevents it from distorting or collapsing.

The vacuole membrane, the tonoplast may be involved in the secretion of substances

into the vacuole.The vacuole may contain a range of dissolved substances: sugars,

19
 salts, acids, nitrogenous compounds, such complex cmpounds as alkaloids,

glycosides, small droplets or emulsions of fats, oils, protein may be found.

3.3 Structure and Functions of DNA And RNA

Nucleic acids are a special group of chemical in cells concerned with he transmission

of inherits information. They have the capacity to store the information that controls

cellular activity. The central nucleic acid is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA is a

major component of chromosomes found primarily in the nucleus. Small amount is

found in mitochondria and chloroplasts. Other ribonucleic acids (RNA) are involved

in the reading of the DNA information. All nucleic acids are made up of simple

repeating units known as nucleotides, linked together to form chains or strands, often

of great length such as DNA molecule. The strands vary in the sequence of the bases

found on each nucleotide. It is this sequence which provides the genetic code for the

cell.

20
Fig. 3.1 Structures of RNA and DNA Molecules

21
3.4 The Building Block of Nucleic Acids

The fact that nucleotides are the building block of nucleic acids signifies that DNA

and RNA are polynucleotide, DNA being a particularly stable polynucleotide. A

nucleotide consists of three molecules linked together a pentose sugar, phosphoric

acid and an organic base.

A penetos sugar has basically the same structure as a hexose sugar such as glucose

except that there is one less carbon atom in the ring. Thus the molecule is constructed

as follows:

This particular sugar is ribose and it is found in ribonucleic acid.

Deoxyribonucleic acid has a different sugar, deoxyribose, which differs from ribose

only in that the hydroxyl group at position 2 is replaced by a hydrogen atom. Thus,

deoxyribose has one less oxygen atom than ribose hance the name deoxyribose.

The second construction of a nucleotide is phosphoric acid (H3PO4) with structural

formula thus:

The third component is the organic base. DNA contains four different organic bases

adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine, abbreviated respectively to A, G, C, and T.

RNA too contains adenine, cytosine and guanine, but has uracil (abbreviated to U)

rather than thymine. All these five bases are ring compounds composed of carbon and

nitrogen atoms simply represented as follows:

Ribonucleic acid (RNA): comprises a single strand of nucleotides linked together

DNA replication and its significance.

The replication of DNA is a necessary preliminary step for cell division (both mitosis

and meiosis). This process creates the two chromatids that are found in chromosomes

that are preparing to divide. By this process, the whole chromosome is essentially

duplicated, but is still held together by a common Centromere. Enzyme are

responsible for all the key events.

22
 The main stypes involve in DNA replication are: unwinding the DNA molecule,

making bew DNA strands and rewinding the DNA molecule.

A normal chromosome consists of single NDA molecule parked into a single

chromatid.

The long molecule of double stranded DNA must be untwisted at high speed at its

replication fork by tow enzymes helicase unwinds the parental strands, DNA gyrase

then relives the strain that this generates by cutting, windings and rejoining the DNA

strands.

Sept 2: The formation of new DNA is carried out mostly by an enzyme complex

called DNA polymerase and series of proteins that cause the two strands to break a

parts.

• On one side (the leading strand), nucleotides are assembled in a continuous

fashion.

• On the other side (the lagaing strand) fragments of single stranded DNA between

1000-2000 nucleotides long are created.

• These will be later joined together to form one continuous length.

Step 3: each of the two new double-helix DNA molecule has one strand of the original

DNA and one strand that is newly synthesized.

• The two DNA molecules rewind into their corkscrew double helix is then coiled

around histone proteins and further wrapped up to form separate chromatids skill

joined a common cemtromere)

• The two chromatids will become separated in the cell deivision process to form

two separate chromosomes.

23
3.5 Role of Rns in Protein Sunthesis

DNA in the nucleus acts as the basis for template for the production of another sort of

nucleic acid called messenger RNA. Messeger RNA has the ability to convey the

instruction needed for protein synthesis from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. The idea

that DNA makes protein via an intermediated, RNA is known as the central dogma of

molecular genetics. When messenger RNA gets out into the cytoplasm it attaches it

self to a ribosome where it causes amino acids to assemble in the right order. This it

acid know as transfer RNA. The transfer RNA molecules transfer (carry) amino acids

to ribosomes transfer RNA main property in their ability to bind to amino acids at one

end and to messenger RNA at the other

24
WEEK 4:

4.1 Introduction to cell division

Growth and sexual reproduction depend on the division of cells. The division of cells

occurs in two ways: mitosis and meiosis.

1. MITOSIS (KARYOKINESIS)

Mitosis refers to the division of a body cell (somatic cell), and consists of the

division of the nucleus into two, followed by a division of the cytoplasm into two

to form two daughter cell.

The biological importance mitosis lies in the fact that it leads to the formation of

two daughter nucleus having the same nucleus, and carrying the same genetic

information. Mitosis takes place in all growth (somatic) cells, but not in those

concerned with garmete formation. However, the primitive stages of gameto

genesis is an exception. Mitosis is most noticeable in the actively growing parts a

plants such as the apical meristems (shoot a pex), root tips (e.g onions and lilies)

and the cambium (eg casscualr cambium found in the stem and root which

divides to produce secondary xylem and secondary phloem). Mature tissues of

plants such as xylem, ploem and the wood fibres do not divide. In animals,

mitosis is active in the epidermal cells (the outermost layer of cells of the body of

an animal) and the bone marrow cells (bone marrow = soft tissue contained

within the central cavity and internal spaces of a bone.

The division of the nucleus in mitosis occurs in series of five stages, phases

namely: prophase, promataphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. The period

between two phases of mitosis is known as interpahse. At the beginning of

interphase, chromosomes are not visible. Division of the cells begins with the

spiral action of the chromosomes. At this time the cell contains one or two

25
 nucleoli within the nuclear evelope. Interphase ends when the chromosomes

becomes visible as double threads.

i. PROPHASE:

This is the first phase of the division of the nucleus. It strabds when the

chromosomes become visible as a result of the sprialized and nature of the

chromosome threads. The nuclear envelope and nucleoli remain intact as the

chromosomes become shorter and thicker. Prophase ends when the nuclear

envelope and nucleoli disintegrate.

ii. PROMETAPHASE

Prometaphase begins with the disappearance of the nuclear envelop. As the

nuclear envelope disappears, protein fibres (spindle fibre) appear in the

cytoplasm. These spindle ficbres connect each centromare to each of the two

points in the cytoplasm (poles). There are also spindle fibres which run from one

pole to the other without being connected to chromosomes. At this time the

chromosomes are scattered near the centre of the cell. The spindle fibres then start

to contract and chromosomes are pulled by their centromeres towards the equator

of the cytoplasm promataphase ends when the chromosomes reach the equator of

the cell.

iii. METAPHASE

At this phase the chromosomes lie at the equator or centre of the cells but the

arms of the chromosomes may be lie in any position. Metaphase ends when all

the chromosomes divide longitudinally.

iv. ANAPHASE

This phase starts when the chromosomes have divided.

Each of the former chromotids now has its own centromere and has become, by

definition, a chromosome. Each of these chromosomes is a single thread. Spindle

26
 fibres continue to contract and the centromeres, followed by the chromosome

arms are drawn to the poles of the cells. Anaphase ends when the chromosomes

are gathered at the poles of the cells and a nuclear envelope starts to form around

each group of chromosomes.

v. TELOPHASE

During this phase, the chromosomes despiralize (i.e stop their spiral action).

Nuclear envelope are formed around each group of chromosomes, nucleoli are

formed within each group. At this stage the division of the cytoplasm ends and a

new cell is formed.

The cell plate begins to form during this period. It gradually widens until a very

clear division between the two daughter nuclei cells is achieved. This is the

process known as cytokinesis.

THE MAIN STAGES OF MITOSIS ARE ILLUSTRATED BELOW:

27
4.2 Significance of Mitosis

1. Basis for the growth of all higher plants and animas typically the growth of the

human foetus begins by the mitotic divisions of the zygote.

2. All the cells that arise by mitosis are genetically alike.

28
WEEK 5

5.1 Meiosis

Meiosis is distinctly different from mitosis. It is a special type of calle division

associated with diploid (2nO organisms which occurs during gameted (sex cells)

formation. The main characteristics is the reduction of the chromosomes number from

double (2n) to a single (n) set in a gamete. This means that instead of being dipaloid, a

mature gamete from either plants or animals carries half (haploid –n) the chromosome

umber of the parent. It is for this reason that meiosis is also calles reduction division.

Meisosis comprises two nuclear divisions followed by two cell divisions. It always

result in the formation of four nucleoli. The first deivsion of meiosis is more

complicated than the second. Each of these divisions is made of five phases:

prophase, prometaphase, metaphase anaphase and telophase.

5.2 First Division of Meiosis

i. PROPHASE

The complication associated with the first division of meiosis is as a result of

the different stages of the prophase. They are

a. Leptotene

b. Zygotene,

c. Pachytene

d. Diplotene

e. Diakinesis

a. LEPTOTENE

At this stage the chromosome thread appears to be single, and not

divided into chromatids

29
b. ZYGOTENE

At this stage homologous chromosomes (chromosomes that are the

same) of the diploid complement pair with each other pairing starts at

certain points along the lengths of homologous chromosomes and

continues until they are closely paired along their whole lengths. Each

pair of homologous chromosome is now BIVALENT (A bialent is

made of a paternal and maternal chromosome).

c. PACHYTENE

At this stage, homologous chromosomes are closely paired and each

chromosomes can now be seen to be composed of two chromotids.

d. DIPLOTENE

This stage begins when the chromosomes of each bivanlent start to

repel each other.

They however, do not separate because chromatides of homologous

chromosomes have exchanged parts at certain point along their length.

Hence they are prevented from separating completely.

e. DIAKINESIS

At this stage the shortening of chromosomes and repulsion between

homologous chromosomes of each bivalent reaches its maximum. This

is the last stage of prophase of the first division of meiosis

f. PROMETAPHASE

At this stage the nuclear envelope and nucleoli disintegrate. Spindle

fibres. Form and each centromere receives a single spindle fibre. Of

the chromosomes of each bivalent, one becomes connected to one pole

30
 of the spindle and the other is connected to the other pole of the

spindle.

g. METAPHASE

The bivalents at this stage are at the equator of the spindle centromeres

do not divide.

h. ANAPHASE

This phase begins when the chromosomes of each bivalent are pulled

apart by the spindle fibres. Each chromosome still as two chromatids,

connected by a single centromere, as it is drawn to a pole of the

spindle.

i. TELOPHASSE

This phase begins as nuclear envelopes are formed. Lytokinesis may or

may not take place at this time, as the nucleus enter interphase.

5.3 Second Division of Meiosis

PROPHASE II

Chromosomes appear in both of the nuclei formed in the first division of meiosis.

There is no pairing of chromosomes and chiasmata do not develop as in prophase.

PROMETAPHASE II

The nuclear membranes disappear and the chromosomes become attached by their

centromeres to the spindle fibres at the equator. The to chromatides of each

chromosome are now easily seen.

METAPHASE II

The chromosomes are drawn to the equator of the cytoplasm as a result of the

contraction of the spindle fibres. Towards the end of metaphase II, the chromosomes

divide into two.

31
 ANAPHASE II

The centromeres of the chromosomes break in two and the chromatids are pulled

towards opposite poles of the cell.

TELEPHASE

The chromatids come together at opposite poles of the cells. Here become surrounded

by nuclear membranes, uncoil and the nucleoli appear. The spindle fibres disappear

and cleavage of the cytoplasm follows. Altogether four cells, each with half the

number of chromosomes, are produces from each cell which divides by meiosis.

Meiosis includes two cell divisions. In this

figure, the original cell is 2n-4. After two meiotic divisions each resulting cell

1n-2

32
5.4 Significance of Meiosis

1. The haploids (n) gamete from each sex (male and female) produced by

meiotix division fuse at gertisation to make a complete (diploid -2n)

chromosome set for the zygote formed. By this way, the diploid state is

restored and maintained in all sexually reproducing organisms.

2. Another important feature of meiosis is the inter changes of genetic materials

between two parental chromosomes through a process called crossing over,

this is the phenomenon that creates variation in individuals.

5.5 Differences between Mitosis And Meiosis

MITOSIS MEIOSIS

1. Chromosome number constant Chromosome number haploid (n)

2. Equational division Reduction division

3. Occure in somatic (meristematic ot body Occurs in reproductive mother cells (cells

cells) that produce the gametes)

4. In prophase, chromosomes with double Indentical chromosomes with single

threads threads in its prophase

5. No pairing Pairing of identical (homologous)

chromosome occure.

6. The prophase is short Prophase prolonged and divided into

substages

7. In the metaphase, the centomere are In the metaphase, the centromeres of the

lined up in the equatorial plane and the homologous chraomosomes lie toward the

arms extended into the cytoplasm to opposite poles of the spindle near the

equator aonther arms extended toward the

equator

33
8. No fusion of diploid cells (nucleic taking The haploid (n) gametes formed fuse by

place) fertilization to form the zygote (2n)

9. The centromere divides in metaphase Chiasmata formation occur

and the sister chromatids move to the

opposite poles chiamata not formed

10. Two daughter cells produces Four new types of cells prodiced

THE MAIN STAGES OF MEIOSIS ARE ILLUSTRATED BELOW

34
WEEK 6

6.1 Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH):

pH indicates the acidity or alkalinity of a substance and is a measurement of hydrogen

or hdyroxyl ion activity. Acidic solutions with a high hydrogen ion concentration

have a low pH, and alkaline solutions with a low hydrogen ion concentration have a

high pH. The acidity of a solution is expressed as its pH. This is the negative

logarithm to the base 10 of the hydrogen ion concentration in moles per dm3 of

solution (measure of hydrogen ion concentration of the solution). A pH of 7.0

represents neutrality. A solution with a pH of less than 7.0 is acidic, and the lower the

figure the higher the acidity (i.e the greater the hydrogen ion concentration). A

solution with pH greater than 7.0 is basic or alkaline and the higher the figure the

more basis is the solution.

Buffers: Are compounds which behave in such a way as to resist changes in pH on

dilution or addition of moderate amounts of acid or alkali. Typically sodium

bicarbonate can resist either a decrease or an increase in pH by mopping up e

hydrogen or hydroxyl ins as appropriate. Much more important are phosphate both of

which play an important part in suppressing the hydrogen ion concentration in the

blood. The phosphate combines with free hydrogen ions to form the dihydrogen

phosphate.

35
6.2 Biological Molecules

The molecules that make up the bodies of living things can be grouped into five

classes: water, carbohydrate, lipids, proteins and nucleic acid.

Fig 6.1 Biological Molecules

36
6.2.1 Isomers and formation of simple carbohydrate

37
6.2.2 Amino Acid

38
6.2.3 Isomers of Amino Acid

39
6.3 Structures of Protein

The main protein structures are: Primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures

Protein may be denaturated by various agents (Fig. 6.2).

Fig. 6.2 Main Structure Protein and Protein Denaturation

40
6.4 Fats and Oil

Fig. 6.3 Fats and oil

41
42
WEEK 7

7.1 Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids are wonderful discoveries of modern times. They are universally

present in the nucleus and the cytoplasm of all living cells, and are now definitely

known to form the chemical basis of life. They are very complex organic compounds

made of phosphate, pentose sugar (ribose, as in RNA or deoxyribose as in DNA) and

nitrogen bases (purine and pyrimindine; see p. 124). Nucleic acid molecules are very

large, even larger than protein molecules, and consist of infinite numbers of repeating

nucleotide units linked in any sequence into a long chain. They are, thus, high

polymers of nucleotides and have very high molecular weights. Depending on the

sequence of nucleotide units in the chain, the nucleic acids may be of an infinite

variety of structures. A nucleotide is a molecular unit (monomer) of a nucleic acid

molecule (macro-), and consists of three sub-units: a phosphate, a pentose sugar

(ribose or deoxyribose) and a nitrogen base (purine or pyrimidine). Phosphate and

sugar link. There are a few types of nucleotides, each with a specific nitrogen base.

They may also occur free in the cytoplasm as ATP, DPN, TPN, COA (coenzyme A),

etc. A nucleotide is formed when a phosphate group is added to a nucleoside. A

nucleoside is a compound consisting of two sub-units: a pentose sugar and a nitrogen

base. It is the precursor of a nucleotide. There are two kinds of nucleic acids, viz.

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid). The latter occurs in three

forms: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA or soluble RNA (tRNA or sRNA) and

ribosomal RNA (rRNA), as detailed on p. 265. a summary of nucleic acid formation

may be given thus: pentose sugar + nitrogen base --- nucleoside; nucleoside +

phosphate group – nucleotide; nucleotide + nucleotide + --- nucleic acid.

DNA and RNA. Occurance. DNA occurs almost exclusively in the chromosome, and

to a small extent only, as is now known, in chloroplasts and mitochondria. RNA

43
occurs mostly in the cytoplasm (about 90% of a cells RNA occurs here), nucleolus

and ribosomes, and to some extent in the chromosomes, of course, in three different

forms, as already mentioned. A big portion of the RNA formed in the nucleolus,

possibly under the control of DNA moves to the surrounding cytoplasm.

DNA or RNA with a certain protein in each case, is the predominant constituent of

most virus particles (see fig V/64). This is also true of many bacterial cells.

Chemistry. DNA and RNA are close chemical relatives. The principal different

between the two lies in the kind of pentose sugar present in their molecules. RNA

contains a 5-carbon atom (pentose) sugar, ribose whereas NDA contains ‘deoxrybose’

also a 5 – carbon (pentose) sugar, but it has one in RNA structure both occur as

macromolucules but RNA molecules are single stranded, while DNA molecules are

double stranded (with but few exceptions in each case). The DNA and RNA bases are

the same except that RNA has urcil, while DNA has thymine. Functions DNA is the

sole genetic material (analogous to genes) migrating intact from generation to

generation through the reproductive units or gametes, and is responsible for the

development of specific characteristics in successive generations. DNA is the

controlling center of all the vital activities of a living cell and is responsible for all

biosynthetic processes, including protein synthesis. Biologists now believe that all

secrets of life are confined to and controlled by the DNA of a living cell. RNA, under

the instructions of DNA, is directly connected with the synthesis, of proteins.

44
 Fig. 7.1 DNA replication

DNA Molecule. The DNA molecule of a single chromosome is very long and

complex (macromolecule) forming the backbone of each chromosome. While

investigation nucleic acids in 1953, Watson and Crick (see footnote on p. 123)

proposed a double helix model of the DNA molecule (Watson - Crick model),

universally accepted since then. According to them, DNA occurs as double-stranded

molecule, with the two strands profusely coiled and entwined about each other

throughout their whole length. The structure is like a ladder twisted in a helical

fashion. Each spiral strand is made of groups (micromolecules) of deoxyribose sugar

(a 5-carbon or pentose sugar), alternating with groups of phosphate, and an infinite

45
number of cross-links is made of two distinct types of nitrogenous bases-purines and

pyrimidines each attached to a sugar. Each pair of bases is loosely linked by hydrogen

bonds. Altogether, there are two purines (adenine and guanine) and two pyrimidines

(thymine and cytosine). It is the rue that a specific purine always pairs with a specific

pyrimidine as alleles, (i.e. complementary pairs), e.g. adenine with thymine (A-T) and

guanine with cytosine (G-C). It may be noted that each base is a part of a nucleoside

(see p. 123). It important to note that the pairs of nitrogenous bases occur in infinite

sequences in a DNA molecule, enabling the latter to coin an infinite number of

chemical codes (messages or information) and transmitting the appropriate codes

through its working partner, RNA, to the surrounding cytoplasm for its manifold

activities. In summary, a DNA strand is made of four types of nucleotides PDT, PDA,

PDG and PDC, evidently including four types of nucleosides DT, DA, DG and DC,

and also four kinds of nitrogenous bases T, A, G and C. although such bases combine

in only four specific pairs T-A, A-T, G-C and C-G, they may occur in infinite

sequences in a DNA molecule.

46
Fig. 7.1 Base Pairing Rule of Nucleotides

47
WEEK 8
8.1 Various types of cells/tissues
Atoms are organized into complex molecules such as proteins. These form the
components of cells, which are the function and structural units of all living
organisms. Some organisms consist of single sells, but others are collections of many
cells, organized into tissues and organs. Thus the multicellular organisms, consisting
numerous cells of one or more types are generally grouped together to form tissues.
The function of a tissue depends on what kind of cell it is composed of. Moreso, in
more complex organisms different tissues are combined to form organs. The study of
tissues and the way they are arranged in organs is known as histology.
Tissues can conveniently be classified based on the function they perform in the body.
On this basis tissues are classified as:
1. Animal Tissues: Which may be divided into epithelial tissue (epithelium), connective
tissue, skeletal tissue, blood tissue, nerve tissue, muscle tissue and reproductive
tissue?
2. Plant Tissue: Which may be divided into meristematic tissue, epidermal tissue
(epidermis), parenchyma, collenchyma, silerenchyma, vascular tissue and cork?

1. Animal Tissues
Epithelium: Refers to living tissue. It covers the surface of the animal and the organs,
cavities and tubes within it. It simply consists of a sheet of cells closely fit together;
resting on a basement membrane with a free surface on the other side.
The basement membrane which is produced by the epithelial cells consists of collagen
(mesh work of fine protein fibre) embedded in a jelly like matrix). It supports the
epithelium and serves some control over what passes through it.
The epithelium on the outer surface of an animal is known as the epidermis. In
arthropods, the epidermis secretes a protective cuticle. The epithelium which forms
the inner living of cavities and tubes inside the body such as the heart, blood vessels
and lymph vessels is called endothelium.

8.2 Types of Epithelia

Epithelia are of two kinds namely: Epithelia consisting one layer of cells and epithelia
consisting many layers of cells.

48
 1. Epithelia consisting of one layer of cells
This form of epithelium consists of cells
This form of epithelium consists of
(a) Squamous epithelium (d) Ciliated epithelium
(b) cuboid epithelium (e) Glandular epithelium
(c) columnar epithelium

2. Epithelia consisting of many layers of cells (stratified epithelium). It is thicker

than the single layer epithelia and more effective as a protective covering. It
comprises the epidermis of the skin and the lining of certain cavities and tubes
inside the body, such as the vagina and oesophagus.

8.3 Connective Tissue

The connective tissue binds organs and tissues together and fills the spaces between
them. It consists of a jelly like matrix (ground substance) in which several types of
cells and protein fibres are embedded. The main kinds of connective tissue are:
Areolar tissue, collagen tissue, elastic tissue and adipose tissue.

8.4 Skeletal Tissue

The skeletal tissue supports the body and provides a strong frame work whose rigid
components can move against each other and smoothly articulating joints. It also
consists of cells embedded in a matrix (in this case the matrix is hard).
The main kinds of skeletal tissue occur in vertebrates: cartilage and bone.
Cartilage: The cartilage is softer than bone. It is useful as cushioning material. The
matrix of cartilage, chondrin consists of mucopoly saccharide in which are embedded
spherical cells known as chondroblasts.

The main types of cartilages are: Hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, and elastic
cartilage.
Hyaline Cartilage: Is found in the wall of the trachea where its function is to prevent
the wall caving in. it is also found in the ends (epiphyses) of limb bones where it is
associated with the formation of bone tissue (ossification), and at the joints where it
performs a cushioning function and provides a smooth articulating surface.

49
 Fibrocartilage (white fibrous cartilage): It is like hyaline cartilage but it contains
collagen fibres. It is found in the invertebral discs of the vertebral column where it
performs a cushioning function.
Elastic cartilage (yellow elastic cartilage): It contains elastic fibres. It is tough but
bendable. It is found in the pinna of the ear.

8.5 Bone Tissue

This consist of an organic matrix impregnated with mineral salts containing calcium
and phosphate. Cells called osteoblasts produces both the organic matrix and mineral
salts.
The two types of bone tissue are compact bone and spongy bone.
Compact Bone: This has haversian canals with the surrounding lamellae packed
tightly together to give a very dense material.
Spongy Bone: This is of looser construction and forms a three – dimensional network
of interconnected strands with spaces in between.

8.6 Plant Tissues

Plants have unique tissues which are related to their way of life. Other tissues found in
plants apart from conducting tissues are: meristematic, epidermal, cork, parenchyma,
collenchyma and selerenchyma tissues.

8.6 Vascular Bundles (Tissues) in Plants

It is concerned with transport. It is functionally equivalent to the circulatory system of
animals. The two main forms of vascular tissue are xylem and phloem.

8.7 Xylem tissue

Consists of elongated, lignified tubes which are either vessels or tracheids. They are
like sclerenchyma fibres as they begin as living cells but looses their cell contents and
die with the lignification of their walls. Their main function is to transport water and
mineral salts from the roots to the leaves.

8.8 Phloem Tissue:

50
 Consists mainly of unlignified living cells called sieve tubes. The adjacent cells are
called companion cells. Both of these transport soluble food substances from one part
of the plant to another.

8.9 Meristematic Tissue:

This gives rise to all other plant tissues. The cells are small, immature and with thin
walls. The cell lack chloroplasts and large vacuoles characteristic of mature plant
cells. They are found at the growth regions of plants such as the tip of the stem and
root. The cells have ability to divided by mitosis and subsequently differentiate into
other cell types.

8.1.0 Epiderminal Tissue:

This is equivalent to animal epithelium. It is located at the surface of stems and
leaves. The cells are flattened and irregular in shape. They form a protective covering
for delicate tissues beneath. Their outer walls are tick and covered with a waxy cuticle
that is impermeable to water and also prevents excessive evaporation in dry
conditions. Plant epidermal cells lack chloroplasts with the exception of stomata
guard cells.

8.1.1 Cork
This is a multilayered under the epidermis of the stems and branches of shrubs and
trees, where it forms the hard part of the bark. The cells are small and more or less
spherical and, as they develop, their walls become impregnated with a fatty substance
called suberin which renders them impervious lose their contents. Therefore cork is a
dead tissue. However. Tissue underneath it are alive. Cork function to protect these
living tissues from physical attack, insects and cold cork is useful in making bottles
using the bark.

8.1.2 Parenchyma
Is a packing tissue. Its main function is to fill the spaces between other tissues. The
cells are roughly spherical in shape, with flattened faces where they press against each
other. If the cells are fully turgid and tightly packed, they help maintain the plant
shape and firmness.
Parenchyma may perform some other functions in different parts of the plant.
Typically in the roots, the cells contain starch granules and thus performing storage

51
 function. In the leaves they are found to contain chloroplasts and thus useful in
photosynthesis, and hence named as chlorenchyma. In aquatic plants, aerenchyma
(with air filled spaces between the cells) which are parenchyma enable the plants to be
buoyant and allow store of air for respiration.

8.1.3 Collechyma
This tissue is composed of living cells with thickened cellulose walls at the corners.
Collenchyma is found in the outer part of stems and in the mid rid of leaves.
Functionally, it provides strength with flexibility.

8.1.4 Sclerenchyma
This is much stronger than collechyma and plays a major role in support. It is found in
stems and in the midribs of leaves where is takes the form of elongated sclerenchyma
fibres. The cells start as living before became impregnated with lignin
(complexatomatic compound) which make them strong and impervious to water,
gases and solute. In the absence of oxygen and nutrients, the cell contents die and
degenerate, leaving a hollow fibre of lignin with tapering ends.
Strength and flexibility of sclerenchyma tissue varies from one type of plant to
another depending on the length of the fibres, thickness of their walls and their
arrangement. It provides raw materials for the textile industry and useful in making
paper.

8.1.5 Vascular Tissue

Is concerned with transport and is functionally equated to the circulatory system of
animals. Basically there are two types of vascular tissue, viz: xylem and phloem.
- Xylem Tissue: It consists of elongated, lignified tubes with either vessels or
tracheids. Like sclerenchyma fibres, they start as living cells but with the
lignification of their walls lose their cell contents and die. Therefore, they finish
up as hollow tubes whose function is to transport water and mineral salts from the
roots to the leaves.
- Phloem Tissue: Have unlignified living cells known as sieve tubes. With the aid
of adjacent companion cells, the sieve tubes transport soluble food substances
from one part of the plant to another.

52
Fig. 8.1 The Main plants tissues

53
WEEK 9

9.1 Process of Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the single most important physic-biochemical process on

which the existence of life depends on.

It is ability of green plants to utilize energy of light to produce carbon

containing organic material from stable inorganic material.

It is from carbohydrate produced that all of the countless number of organic

compounds which compose of living are derived.

The oxidation of organic compounds release stored energy to be utilize by

organisms to derive essential processes.

Photosynthesis can be defined as the formation of carbon containing

compounds from carbon dioxide and water, Illuminating green cells , water

and oxygen being the bi-products.

Above: showing growing green plants absorbing light energy from the

sun

54
 Light energy
Simplest equation ; 6CO2+6H20 C6H12O6 + 6O2
chlorophyll

9.2 The Chloroplasts

The bulk of the photosynthesis of higher plants takes places in the green

leaves. Chloroplasts are plastids and concern with photosynthesis.

Chloroplasts are green in colour, the corresponding structures of red brown

algae are called chromoplasts,

While the blue-green are called chromatophores.

Chloroplasts are small, green, discoid in shape.

There may be patches of irregular shaped bodies composed of numerous

starch platelets called pyrenoid.

Chloroplasts in higher plants are found distributed in the palisade.

Approximate number of 20 -40 chloroplasts have been found in the leaf of a

higher plant.

Chemically, chloroplasts may compose in them these chemical constituent:

protein, lipid, carbohydrates,

Chlorophylls a and b carotenoid e.g. xanthophyll and carotene,nucleic acid

e.g DNA and RNA, vitamins K and E as well as metallic atoms such as Fe,

Cu, Mn, Mg. and Zn.

9.3 Importance of Stoma and Grana in The Chloroplasts

Chloroplasts have a heterogeneous structure made up of small granules

called grans.

9.4 Embedded Within The Stroma /Matrix.

Chloroplast is bounded by a double membrane, within which numerous

55
 sheet-like lamellae, Running from one end to the other, each lamella consist

of a pair of unit membrane, Lamella is distinguish in to two regions; granal

and intergranal regions, the granal region constitutes a granum [pl. grana],

the function of lamella is to hold the chlorophyll molecules in a position

suitable for trapping the maximum amount light.

The stroma contains amongst other thing, the enzymes responsible for the

reduction of carbon dioxide and numerous starch granules.

In a nutshell, the absorption of light and splitting of water molecules into

oxygen takes place in the lamellae.

The subsequent building up of carbohydrates takes place in the stroma.

9.5 Light Stage / Phase

The light stage involves the photochemical splitting of water, the light stage

has the ability of trapping the radiant energy by chlorophyll, later

converted into chemical energy, the energy is used for splitting water

molecules into hydrogen and oxygen, oxygen is released as a bi-product

and the hydrogen ions; H+ from the water molecules, later enter the dark

phase in which carbon dioxide is reduced to form carbohydrate.

Light energy
C02 + 2H20 CH20 + H20 + O2
Chlorophyll

9.6 Dark stage

It involves the reduction of carbon dioxide to form carbohydrate, its an

endergonic process requiring energy, the energy is supplied by the splitting

of ATP formed in the light stage, the hydrogen for the carbon dioxide is

provided by the reduced NADP H2, also formed in the light phase, the

56
reduction of carbon dioxide and subsequent synthesis of carbohydrates

takes place in a series of small steps, each of which is controlled by a

specific enzyme, in the first step, the carbonadoed combines with a 5

carbon organic compound / ribulose diphosphate, Diphosphate is

responsible for fixing the carbon dioxide into the photosynthetic machinery

of the plant. The combination of carbon dioxide with the ribulose 1, 5 -

diphosphate gives An unstable 6 - carbon compound which split into two

molecules of a 3 - carbon compound phosphoglyceric acid next step; PGA

reduced to phosphoglyceraldehyde; a 3 carbon sugar/triose phosphaste, by

the help of NADP H2 , supported by the ATP and an enzyme,

Phosphoglyceraldehyde molecule is converted into dihydroxyacetone in

the presence of an enzyme. Then , the unification of one

phosphoglyceraldehyde and dihyroxyacetone to form fructose 1, 6

diphosphate, With addition of energy, Next step involves, the synthesis of

a series of organic compounds, to form fructose 1,6

diphosphate/glucose/starch the compounds are glucose or starch via,

Fructose 6, phosphate for storage.

Not all of the 3 -carbon sugar is converted into 6 -carbon sugar, Some of it

enters a series of reactions which later results in the regeneration of ribulose

1,5 diphosphate, The regeneration of ribulose 1,5 diphosphate help in

ensuring the constant supply of the compound which is required in CO2.

Starch is not the only end product of photosynthesis. Other products include

lipids and proteins, these are the products of metabolic pathways leading

from PGA.

PGA is regarded as a kind of crossroads in photosynthesis, from it

carbohydrates, fats and proteins can ultimately be formed, these are end

57
products of dark reactions and occur in the stroma of the chlorophyll.

Factors affecting photosynthesis.-

These factors can be divided into two broad categories; the internal and

external. Internal factors-these include;

Chlorophyll: The amount of chlorophyll present has a direct relationship

with the rate of photosynthesis because it is a pigment which is

photoreceptive and is directly involve in trapping the light energy.

Photosynthetic Enzyme System- The amount and nature of enzymes play a

direct role on the rate of photosynthesis. Greater enzyme activity at higher

light intensity increases the capacity of a leaf to absorb more light needed

for photosynthesis.

Demand for photosynthetic: Rapid growing plants show increased rate of

photosynthesis in comparison to mature plants.

Role of Hormones- It has been observed that photosynthesis may be

regulated by plants hormone system. It was found that fibercillic acid and

cytokinins increase the photosynthetic and activity in plants.

Leaf Age: Newly expanding leaves generally show a maximum

photosynthetic activity while fairly old leaves show less photosynthetic

activity.

External factors these are as follows:-

Carbon dioxide: It is one of the raw materials for photosynthesis and its

concentration affects the rate of photosynthesis greatly. Due to its low

concentration in the atmosphere it acts as a limiting factor in

photosynthesis. At optimum temperature and light intensity, the rate of

photosynthesis increased with an increased in supply of carbon dioxide, but

rapidly decrease if the carbon dioxide concentration increases beyond the

58
maximum level.

Light: It affects the rate of photosynthesis because the energy stored by

green plants in carbohydrate molecules during photosynthesis can be supply

by light. Light affects the rate of photosynthesis in many ways, reflected or

absorbed or transmitted light, the intensity of light the quality and the

duration of light available are all semi-factor which falls under light factor.

Temperature- The effect of temperature on rate of photosynthesis is little

than other processes. Very high and very low temperatures affect the

photosynthetic rate adversely. The rate of photosynthesis increases with rise

in temperature from 6o - 37oc beyond which there is a rapid fall.

Photosynthesis increases with temperature but declines with It is then called

time factor.

Water: Water has an indirect effect on the rate of photosynthesis although

it may be considered as one of the raw materials for the process because it

affect the water relation of plants thus affecting photosynthesis Cells of the

plants become flaccid when there is scarcity of water. Depending on the

degree of water intensity in plants, the rate of photosynthesis may be

decreased from 10 -90%.

Oxygen: Oxygen is a bi-product of photosynthesis. Oxidation may be

essential for photosynthesis but it has been discovered that oxygen

accumulation in cells of plants may retard the rate of photosynthesis.

Mineral Nutrient Elements: Some minerals elements such as copper may

form a component of the photosynthetic enzymes or magnesium which is a

component of chlorophylls affect the rate of photosynthesis indirectly by

affecting the synthesis of photosynthetic enzymes and chlorophyll

respectively.

59
WEEK 10:

10.1 Respiration (Tissue Respiration)

All living cells require energy to carry out a variety of life processes;

1. To do chemical work such as synthesis of organic compounds used for growth

and reproduction

2. Movement

3. Pumping of ions and solutes against electrical and concentration gradients

4. production of heat to maintain body temperature

5. Generation of electricity – in electric tissues and cells

6. Emission of light as in fireflies, some bacteria and some fish ATP.

These activities and numerous others are energized by the hydrolysis of the terminal

phosphate group of ATP. The hydrolysis of the high energy bond yields 34 kilo joules

energy per molecule.

ATPase
ATP + H2O ADP + H3PO4 + Energy (34kj)

- The essential purpose of respiration is the breakdown of organic compounds

usually carbohydrates (hexose sugars) or fats, or occasionally proteins.

- Thro and orderly sequence of enzyme – catalysed reactions, the energy is

liberated

The four stages in the biological oxidations of respiration are:

1. Glycolysis – conversion of sugar to pyruvic acid

2. Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate

3. The citric acid (Kreb) cycle

4. Terminal oxidation of hydrogen (oxidative phosphorylation).

60
 Glycolysis

Glucose

Pyruvate

Acetyl Co A

Citric Acid Cycle

Oxidative
phosphorylation

61
 Glycogen – animals
Starch – plants

1. Glycolysis – sugar is broken down step by step by step to pyruvic acid

Glucose 6C
ATP
Glucose phosphorylated
ADP
Hexokinase
Glucose - 6 – phosphate 6C

Phosphoisomerase

Fructose – 6 – phosphate 6C
ATP
Phosphohexokinase
ADP
Fructose 1, 6 diphosphate 6C
Aldolase
Split into two 3C

Phospho - Dihydroxy
Glyceraldehydes (3C) acetone phosphate (3C)
2. 2H+ P
2NAD
2NADH
2 Diphosphoglyceric acid (3C)
2ADP
2ATP
(2) phosphoglyceric acid (3C)

2ADP
2ATP
(a) Glycolysis begins with phosphorylation of sugar. Energy required is derived form
2 pyruvic acid (3C)
splitting of ATP which supplies the terminal phosphate group attachment for the

sugar molecule.

62
(b) In the next stage the phosphorylated sugar is split into two 3 – carbon (triose)

sugar.

These are in equilibrium. Under the conditions prevailing in the cytoplasm, each is

converted to pyruvic acid.

(c) In the first step towards the conversion of the 3 – carbon sugar to pyruvic acid,

two hydrogen atoms are removed from the triose sugar.

As this happens in the cytoplasm outside the mitochondria where none of the other

respiratory carriers are present, no energy can be derived from it.

(d) Subsequent steps however yields some energy

Net energy yield (net ATP yield) during glycolysis from one molecule of glucose is:

Utilization – 2 molecules of ATP

Production – 4 ATP

Net gain - 2 moles/mole of glucose

Also 2 moles of NADH2 is produced during glycolysis.

Glycolysis proceeds whether oxygen is present or not.

If O2 is present

- Pyruvic acid enters the mitochondrion where it converted into a two – carbon

derivative of acetic acid called ACETYL COENZYME A. (Acetyl CoA)

- CO2 is given off in this reaction

- Pyruvic loses two hydrogen atoms 2H+ which are passed through the carrier

system with the formation of 3 molecules of ATP.

- Acetyl CoA links glycolysis with the next series of reactions

63
 - Since Acetyl CoA is formed in the breakdown of fats and proteins, it is a very

important point in oxidative metabolism.

1. Acetyl CoA (2C) reacts with a 4C compound oxaloacetic acid present in the

mitochondria to form citric acid

2. A series of reaction in which citric acid is gradually converted back to oxaloacetic

acid follows.

3. Two of the steps involve the loss of CO2 (decarboxylation)

4. Four of the steps involve the removal of hydrogen atoms which are passed

through carrier systems with the formation of ATP.

Three of the carrier systems are NAD and yield 3ATP for every pair of hydrogen

atom transferred.

5. The Final Oxidation Steps

- At various stages in the respiratory process especially during the Kreb’s cycle

pairs of hydrogen atoms are removed from intermediate compounds by

hydrogen carriers or acceptors

- The intermediate compounds are therefore oxidized while the acceptors are

reduced

- The first carrier passes the 2 hydrogen atoms to a second carrier which is in

turn reduced while the first carrier becomes oxidized

- At the transfer, sufficient energy is released for the synthesis of ATP

molecule.

- The process of oxidation and reduction is repeated with further carriers, the

hydrogen atoms finally combining with oxygen to form water.

AH2 NAD FAD Quinone Cysts Cyt a3 O2

64
 Or cytochrome oxidase

The first two carriers are dinucleotides. The first is nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

(NAD).

The second carrier is FAD derived from vitamin B2. The third carrier is a cytochrome,

a protein pigment with iron prosthetic group.

The 4th is cytochrome oxidase, an enxzyme

The first three are coenzyme which are responsible for the transfer of hydrogen to the

cytochrome oxidase.

Although hydrogen atoms are removed from the substrate and finally join up with

oxygen, it is mainly electrons which are actually transferred from one carrier to the

next.

10.2 Anaerobic Respiration

- Respiration in the absence of O2 e.g. fungi, yeast bacteria.

- Not efficient as far as energy released is concerned since the bulk of the energy

yield in respiration comes from the transfer of hydrogen through the carrier

system.

- For the carrier system to operate O2 must be available to accept the hydrogen

- In anaerobic respiration, no O2 no Krebs circle

- The only source of energy is glycolysis

- The net yield of energy in glycolysis is 2 ATP out of 32 ATP in aerobic

respiration.

- As if to make up for the poor yield of energy, the process occurs at an accelerated

rate in anaerobic organisms

- The process of glycolysis is the same in both anaerobic and aerobic respiration

65
- And the product is the same pyruvic acid. However the fate of pyruvic acid in

anaerobic respiration is different.

Glycolysis

Pyruvic acid In Plants

In Animals

Acetaldehyde

Lactic acid Ethanol

2H

66
WEEK 11

11.1 Process of Transpiration

Module 8.1

Some vascular plants are the ferns (pteriodophyte) pinus (Gymnospermae) sunflower

and maize (angiospermae). These plants develop channels through which water flows

in their body. The materials for transportation (gases, soil water, solute, manufactured

frod, hormones and metabolic wastes) are carried in water that flows in these

channels. The strus that serve as transport channels are called vascular bundles

(tissues) comparable to the blood vessels and lymphatic vessels of animals.

The vascular bundles are the conducting elements of the plants. Each vascular bundle

consists of the phloem on the outside and the xylem inside.

The phloem cells translocate manufactured food from the leaves down to all living

cells and storage organs of the plant, while the xylem cells are responsible for the

upward conduction of soil solution containing dissolved mineral substances from the

roots to the leaves.

Transpiration: Is the loss of water vapour for different parts of the plant shoot. These

parts include the stomata of leaves, the cuticle of both leaves and young stems, and

the lenticels on tree trunks. Transpiration is described according to the venue through

which the water vapour is lost. Hence water loss through the stomata is called stomata

transpiration. Water loss through the cuticle and lenticels are called cuticular and

lenticular transpiration, respectively.

The greatest amount of transpiration occurs through the stomata. The water that is lost

through the leaves is originally absorbed by the root hairs from the soil into the root

cortext. The water is passed into the root xylem from where it is translocated to the

stem xylem, to the veins and mesophylls of the leaf and finally to the stomatal

67
 surfaces from where the water evaporates into the atmosphere. This unbroken chain of

water existing between the soil and the leaves constitutes the transpiration stream

Module 8.2: List the different types of transpiration in plants

i. Stomatal transpiration

ii. Lenticular transpiration

iii. Cuticular transpiration

Module 8.3: Differentiate between Transpiration and Guttation

Transpiration Guttation

1. Loss of water through evaporation in Excessive uptake of water by plants

plants

2. Guard cells or other cells control the Cellulose cell walls impose a natural limit on the

process amount of water that can be taken in

3. It is restricted to stomatal, cuticular Pressure builds up and water exude from the leaves,

and lenticular cells either through the stomata or from special structures

called hydathodes

4. The rate at which water is transpired Guttation is particularly common in tropical rain

may be considerable, particularly if forest, because of the high rainfall and humid

the atmosphere is warm and dry. atmosphere.

5. Water loss in form of vapour/gas Water loss in water state but not pure.

Module 8.4: Explain the mechanism of Stomatal Movement in Plants

Stomata are very minute openings formed in the epidermal layer in the green aerial of

the plant, particularly the leaves. Each stoma is surrounded by two semi-linear cells,

known as the guard cells. The guard cells are living and always contain chloroplast.

68
Their inner walls are thicker and outer walls inner. They guard the stoma or the

passage, i.e. regulate the opening and closing of the stoma like lips. Sometimes, the

guard cells are surrounded by two or more cells which are distinct from the epidermal

cells. Such cells are called accessory cells. Under normal conditions, the stomata

remain closed at night, i.e. in the absence of light. They remain open during the day

time, i.e. in the presence of light. In most plants they open fully only in bright light,

but in certain plants the stomata do so in diffuse light. Usually the open fully in the

morning and close towards the evening. They may close at day time, when very active

transpiration takes place from the surface of the leaf under certain conditions. Such as

dryness of air, blowing of dry wind and deficient supply of water in the soil. The

intensity of light markedly affects the degree of stomatal opening. The guard cells

movement regulates opening and closing of the stomata. When the guard cells

become turgid, i.e. full of water, expanding and bulging outward, the stoma open.

When the guard cells become flaccid by losing water, the stoma closes.

The turgidity or flaccidity of the guard cells is due to the presence of sugar or starch

in them. In light, the sugar manufactured by the chloroplasts of the guard cells

accumulates in them and being soluble, increases the concentration of the cell – sap.

Under this condition, the guard cells absorb water from the neighbouring cells and

become turgid, opening the stoma. In darkness, on the other hand, the sugar present in

the guard cells become converted into starch; an insoluble compound. The

concentration of the cell sap is, therefore, lower than that of the neighbouring cells.

Under this condition, the guard cells lose water and shrink the closing stoma. The

transformation of sugar into starch at night and vice versa at daytime is due to the

acidity and alkalinity of the cell – sap of the guard cells. In the absence of

photosynthesis at night, carbon dioxide accumulates in the guard cells and the cells’

contents becomes weakly acid. Under carbon dioxide is utilized in photosynthesis,

69
 and thus the cell contents become slightly alkaline under this condition, starch is

converted into sugar.

In colloidal hypothesis, the cell contents become alkaline as a result of the effect of

sunlight on the guard cells and this causes the colloids present in them to swell, apart

from the fact it results in the transformation of starch into sugar. The swelling of the

colloids, according to this theory, causes the guard cells to bulge out and the stoma to

open. At night, the acidity of the guard cells increases and causes the colloids to

shrink again, thus closing the stoma, apart from the fact that the increased acidity

brings about the conversion of sugar into starch.

Module 8.5: Importance of Transpiration

1. Cooling Effect: Transpiration involves the evaporation of water which is a

cooling process. It is believed that this cooling effect is likely to prevent the plant

from overheating on a very hot day.

2. Translocation of Mineral Salts: Water absorption by the plant root is a passive

process which does not involve the use of metabolic energy. Salt absorption is an

active process which involves the use of energy and is independent of water

absorption. However, once the salt reaches the xylem vessels in the root, it is

translocation to the other parts of the plant under the influence of transpiration

pull.

3. Good Growth of the Plant: Most plants do no grow well when they are

maintained under conditions of high humidity conditions which do not favour

transpiration. Often there is a great reduction in the size of the plant. In some

cases the bud fails to grow and no flower is produced. It can be argued that under

conditions of high humidity, the rates of water absorption and transpiration are

70
 greatly reduced and the plant lacks the required amount of water to carry out the

vital metabolic processes. Transpiration is a process which ensures the continuous

availability of water in the plant body.

Module 8.6: List and explain the factors affecting transpiration in plants.

These factors can be divided into internal and external factors

Internal factors: The most important internal condition affecting transpiration is the

state of the stomata: their number, distribution, structural features and how open they

happen to be any factor that influences the opening an closing of the stomata will

obviously affect transpiration.

External Factors: External conditions affecting transpiration include;

- Temperature: A high temperature provides latent heat of vapourization and

therefore encourages evaporation from the mesophyll cells.

- Relative Humidity: The degree to which the atmosphere is saturated with water

vapour, is important because it determines the saturation deficit, i.e. the humidity

difference between the inside and outside of the leaf. Normally the relative

humidity in the sub-stomatal chambers is very high. The lower the relative

humidity of the surrounding atmosphere, the greater will be the saturation deficit

and the water potential gradient, and the faster will water vapoour escape through

the stomata.

Air movements – water vapour tends to build up close to the surface of the leaf as it

diffuses out of the stomata. Obviously the atmosphere will be most highly saturated

immediately outside each stoma and become progressively less saturated as water

vapour diffuses away. Water vapour molecules are deflected by the perimeter of a

71
stoma and the closer they are to the perimeter the greater is the deflection. The

diffusion path of the water vapour molecules therefore describe a hemisphere around

the stoma, called a diffusion shell. If the air is still, diffusion shells build up around the

stomata and the rate of evaporation from the mesophyll cells inevitably decreases. Air

movements blow away these diffusion shells, thereby increasing the rate of evaporation

from the leaf.

As a result, the path of diffusion of molecules along the water potential gradient is

curved (shown by the arrowed lines). This means that the molecules near the edge of

the pore escape more readily than those in the centre.

- Atmospheric Pressure: The lower the atmospheric pressure the greater is the rate

of evaporation. For this reason alpine plants which live at high altitudes where the

atmospheric pressure is lower than at se level, are liable to have a high rate of

transpiration and many of them therefore have adaptation which prevent

excessive loss of water.

- Light: If the light intensity is increased, the rate of evaporation from a plant

increases. The reason is not that light affects evaporation as such, but that it

causes the stomata to open, thereby increasing water loss from the plant

- Water supply transpiration depends on the walls of the mesophyll cells being

thoroughly wet. For this to be so the plant must have an adequate water supply

from the soil sooner or later the stomata close, thus reducing the rate of

transpiration.

72
WEEK 12

12.1 Process of Translocation

Module 9.1

Translocation is the transport of manufactured food substances from the leaves to all

parts of the plant. The movement is usually described as downwards from the leaves

to the roots but it is also known to occur on the reverse direction especially in the non-

growing season. While the downward movement will take food and mineral salts to

growing branches, root tips and storage organs such as root and stem tuber, corms,

bulbs and rhizomes, upwards and side way movement of manufactured food

substances are necessary to serve the growing shoot tips, flowers and storage organs

such as seeds and fruits. Photosynthesis takes place in the leaves and the

manufactured food substances such as sucrose is traced to the phloem tissue in the

veins of the leaves and stem of plants.

Module 9.2

One of the evidences to support translocation through the phloem is the ringing

experiments. This is a process where all the living tissues are removed in a ring from

around the central core of vessels and tracheids in a woody stem and the plant is then

placed in a solution containing radioactive phosphate. Removal of the living cells in

no way impedes the upward movement of the radioactive phosphate, which can

subsequently be detected in the leaves by means of a Geiger – Muller tube. It so

happens that in a mature truck the phloem is confined to the inner part of the bark. If a

ring of bark is stripped off a tree trunk it can be shown that the sugar concentration

increases immediately above the ring and decreases below it, indicating that the

downward movement of sugar is blocked at that point.

73
 Critically investigations have been carried out with radioactive tracers. Thus if a plant
14 14
is exposed to carbon dioxide labeled with radioactive C, the C becomes

incorporated into the products of photosynthesis which are subsequently detected in

the parts of the plant that are served by the intact phloem. If the phloem is removed by

ringing, the photosynthetic products cannot get through. That these substances are

confined to the phloem can be shown by cutting sections of the stem, placing the

sections in contact with photographic film and making autoradiographs. It is found

that the sites of radioactivity correspond to the positions of the phloem.

Module 9.4

12.2 Mechanism of Translocation

In search for a mechanism of translocation, plant scientists attach increasing

significance to the fine protein filaments which span the sieve cells from end to end.

These filaments are continuous from one sieve cell to the next via the pores in the

sieve plates. High magnification electron micrographs suggest that in the vicinity of

the sieve plate the protein filament take the form of microtubules approximately

20mm wide, but as they traverse the sieve cell they break up into finer strand. It has

been suggested that solutes might be transported by streaming along these protein

filaments, the necessary energy coming from the sieve tubes themselves or the

companion cells. It is envisaged that some strands convey solutes downwards, while

others convey them upwards, thus accounting for the bi-directional flow of materials

that is known to occur in the sieve tubes. However, cytoplasmic streaming have been

seen in sieve tubes.

Another mechanism which have been put forward is surface spreading. The idea ere is

that solute molecules might spread over the interface between two different

cytoplasmic materials, just as oil spreads at a water – air interface. The molecular film

74
so formed could be kept moving by molecules being added at one end and removed at

the other. A major objective here is that the films would be so thin that a very large

number of them would need to be formed to account for the known rates of

translocation. However, sieve tube do contain numerous membranes and filaments

which collectively might provide the necessary surface.

Active mechanism an independent movement of different substances that strongly

suggest translocation involves some sort of active mechanism. This is supported by

other lines of evidence. For example, phloem tissue has a high rate of respiration and

there is a close correlation between the speed of translocation and the metabolic rate.

Again, lowering the temperature and treatment with metabolic poisons both reduce

the rate of translocation, suggesting that it is an active energy requiring process which

can not be explained by physical forces alone.

Mass flow theory – Among the many mechanisms proposed over the years, one which

has gained some support from experimental work is the mass flow hypothesis. The

way mass flow is believed to occur in the sieve tubes. Water enters the left had funnel

by osmosis through the partially permeable membrane. The hydrostatic pressure

developed causes the sugar solution to flow into the right hand funnel and forces

water out through the partially permeable membrane on that side. There is therefore a

flow of solution from left to right which will cease when the concentration in the two

funnels are equal.

Of course in the living plant the flow must be continuous. In order to maintain a

continuous flow, sugar would have to be loaded into the sieve tubes at one end

(source) and off – loaded at their destination (sink). The loading of sugars into the

phloem is achieved in the leaf by active transport. This creates a high sugar

concentration at the source, which draws water into the sieve tubes by osmosis.

75
At the root end of the system, sugars are removed for use in metabolic processes, so

water flows out into the intercellular spaces. The continual input of sugars and water

at the top of the system and their removal at the bottom creates a pressure gradient

which maintains the downward flow of fluid in the sieve tubes. The mass flow

hypothesis is an attractive way of explaining the movement of substances in the sieve

tubes.

Fig 12.1 The mass flow Hypothesis

76
WEEK 13

13.1 Process of Ion Absorption in Plants

The substances absorbed from the soil may be classified into two groups, namely:

water (and also sugar) which undergo no or little ionization and may enter the cells by

following the simple laws of diffusion and other physical process, while the second

group consists of mineral salts which undergo extensive ionization. The ionized

particles of such salts are taken up by the cells, where they accumulate, sometimes in

heavy concentrations. They ions may transport as such, or they combine into suitable

compounds.

Ions are atoms or groups of atoms which carry either a positive or negative charge of

electricity. When an ionizable material in water is subjected to electrolysis, its

molecules break up into two or more ions of different kinds those charged with

positive electricity are said to be electropositive ions, such as K+, Na+, Ca++, Mg++ and

also H+, and those charges with negative electricity are said to be electro-negative

ions, such as Cl-, Br- NO3-, H2PO4-, OH- ans SO4-. The process is reversible as the

following examples will show: NaCl ↔ Na+ + Cl-; HCl ↔ H+ + Cl-. The breaking

up of molecules may not always be complete.

Absorption of mineral salts (ionic theory or electrolytic dissociation theory).

It have been shown through physical process of absorption of salt form of ions,

although certain compounds may probably enter the plant cell through the plasma

membrane by the physical process of diffusion from the region of higher

concentration of the soil solution to that of lower concentration of the cell-sap.

However, it has been seen in may cases that the concentration of the cell-sap is higher

than that of the soil solution. This being so, the process of absorption cannot be

explained on the basis of simple diffusion (stiles, 1924). As a matter of fact, many

mineral salts which may undergo extensive ionization do not follow simple laws of

77
diffusion. In 1936 Hoagland definitely proved that it is the ions (and not the

undissociated molecules of salts in the soil solution) that make their entrance into the

cell, independent of the rate of absorption of water, from the region of lower

concentration (cell-sap). The physico-chemical nature of the plant cell is very

complex, changing continually in response to its environment, and at the same time,

the soil itself is a heterogenous medium. So the forces concerned must be of varied

nature. As already proved by many workers on the basis of experiments conducted by

them, avsorption of salts takes place in the form of ions (+ and - ) produces by

electrolytic dissociation (or ionization) of the molecules of different salts are taken up

individually and independently of one another. The special feature of living cells is

that they can accumulate individual ions (and not salts) to a concentration that far

exceeds that of the surrounding medium. Several workers (notably Hoagland, 1944)

have actually proved this by experimental work on Nitella and other plants.

Passive and Active Absorption: In modern research, passive absorption of salts and

active absorption are distinguished from each other according to their dependence on

non-metabolic energy and metabolic energy, respectivle. One speaks of passive or

non-metabolic absorption when the forces driving the salts through the membrane

originate in the environment of the cell, i.e. these forces are physical and non-

metabolic. One speaks of active metabolic absorption when it is dependent on

metabolic energy which originates in the ell as a result of metabolic activity

(particularly respiration) within it. Active uptake, as explained below, is known to be

the principal method of salt absorption although some salts are absorbed. Sometimes

rapidly for a time, by the passive method. The interaction between the cell and its

environment is essential to maintain a certain concentration within the cell in order to

sustain life. By passive transport, an exchange of ions takes place between the

external solution (soil colloids readily yield ions on electrolysis) and the cell. It is

78
known that the cell membrane, possibly in all cases, maintains differences in electric

potential between the inner side and the outer side, evidently acting as a driving force.

This influences passive uptake of ions through the membrane into the peripheral or

outer plasm (see below). The ions in this phase may move freely and even out of the

cell. It may be noted that ions move by diffusion through the cell wall and the

cytoplasm in their water phase, and that the plasma membrane has the ability to select

and permit the entrance of certain ions and greatly restrict others. However, by

passive uptake, soon an equilibrium is reached between the outer plasm and the

external medium. Ions may move upwards through the transpiration current along

with the mass flow of water. This being so, transpiration may help in the absorption of

ions. By active transport, which is slow but steady, ions are brought into the inner or

central plasm, i.e. from the region of lower concentration to that of higher

concentration. There is supposed to be a dividing line or membrane in the cytoplasm,

though not clearly demarcated, between the outer plams and the inner plasm. This

membrane is regarded as impermeable to the exchange of free ions between the two

sides. This leads to the conception of a ‘specific carries’ which can pick up ions from

the outer plasm through the so-called membrane. Since this ‘carrier’ moves only in

one direction (from the outer to the inner), ions once released into the inner plasm

cannot reach out of the cell and, thus, cannot be exchanges for those in the external

solution. Evidently, the ions may accumulate there received support from many

investigators. It has been suggested that lecithin, phospholipids, may act as such a

‘carrier’. Active transport is closely connected with metabolic energy in the form of

ATP (an energy rich phosphate compound) formed in the living cell. The chemical

energy required for active transport of ions is believed to be supplied by ATP. ATP,

in its turn, receives this energy from glucose as a result of oxidation of the latter in

root respiration. It is known that young roots respire vigorously. Synthesis of lecithin

79
also depends on the availability of ATP. Thus, the absence of ATP in cell interferes

with active transport. Specific enzymes may also help the passage of certain ions

through the cell membrane. The concentration of ions in the cells is not even in all

cases, the maximum accumulation being K+ ions and also some other cations (see

footnote, p. 235). Ions of both the electric charges must be taken up by the cell in

order to maintance an electric balance both on its inside and outside. For example, a

negative ion releases by the ectoplasm establishes a difference of potential between

the two media. Thus, to equalize the charge, the soil solution yields positive ion to the

ectoplasm. In fact, an interchange of ions takes place between the cell and the

surrounding solution.

Conditions: Absorptions of salts depends on a number of conditions, viz. aerobic root

respiration, amount of light, rate of transpiration, permeability of the plasma

membrane, metabolic activity of the cell, influence of temperature, hydrogen-ion

concentration, etc.

80
WEEK 14

14.1 Growth

The growth of a plant is a complex phenomenon associated with numerous

physiological processes – both constructive and destructive. The formed

(constructive) lead to the formation of various nutritive substances and the

protoplasm, and the latter (destructive) to their breakdown. The protoplasm

assimilates the protein food and increases in the bulk while the carbohydrates are

mainly utilized in respiration and in the formation of the cell – wall substances

namely cellulose. The cells divide and numerous new cells are formed. These increase

in size and become fully turgid, and the plant grows as a whole. Growth is therefore, a

complex process brought about by the protoplasm. It can simple be defined as a

permanent and irreversible increase in size and form, attended by an increase in

weight. The plant growth can accurately be measured using auxanometer.

14.2 Conditions Necessary for Growth

The fact that growth is brought about by the protoplasm, the conditions necessary for

growth are the same as those that maintain the activity of the protoplasm. The

conditions are therefore the following:

a. Supply of nutritive material: Growth can only take place when the protoplasm

of the growing region is supplied with nutritive materials and builds up the

body of the plant.

b. Supply of water: Adequate supply of water is absolutely necessary to maintain

the turgidity of growing cells. Turgidity is the initial step towards growth. The

protoplasm works only when it is saturated with water. An abundant supply of

water addresses the loss caused by transpiration. However, only a small

quantity is required for actual growth.

81
c. Supply of oxygen: Free oxygen supply is necessary for respiration of cells.

Respiration is an oxidation process by which the potential energy stored in the

food is released in the form of kinetic energy and utilized by the protoplasm

for its activities.

d. Suitable temperature: The protoplasm requires a suitable temperature for its

activities. It ceases to perform its functions or done it slowly at a low

temperature, while a temperature of 45oC coagulates and kills it. The

protoplasm performs its activities within a certain range of temperature (due to

thermotonic effect of temperature). The optimum temperature averages from

28oC to 30oC, and the maximum lies at about 4oC.

e. Light: it is not absolutely necessary for the initial stages of growth. In fact,

plants grow more rapidly in darkness than in light. Although light has a

retarding effect on growth, the protoplasm remains healthy and the plant

becomes sturdy, the stem and green leaves developing normally, when there is

a certain intensity of light. The stomata remain open and the chloroplasts

function maintain only in the presence of light. This is due to the phototonic or

stimulating effect of light.

f. Force of gravity: It determines the direction of growth of particular organs of

the plant body. The root grows towards the force of gravity, and the stem away

from it.

Others are:

g. pH

h. Accumulation of metabolic products. The internal factors include hormones

such as auxins and gibberellins.

82
14.3 Phases of Growth

Growth does not take place throughout the whole length of the plant body, but is

localized in special regions called meristems, which may be apical, lateral or

intercalary. The growth in length is due to gradual enlargement and elongation of the

cells of the apical meristems (root apex, and stem apex). In dicotyledons and

gymnosperms, the growth in thickness is due to the activity of the lateral meristems

i.e. interfascicular cambium, fascicular cambium and cork cambium. Three phases can

be identified in the growth of any organ of a plant.

(i) The Formative Phase: This is restricted to the apical meristem of the root and the

stem. The cells of this region are constantly dividing and multiplying. They are

characterized by abundant protoplasm, a large nucleus and a thin cellulose wall.

(ii) The phase of elongation: It lies immediately behind the formative phase. The

cells no longer divide, but increase in size. They begin to enlarge and elongate

until they reach their maximum dimension. In the root, this phase is a few

millimeters long and in stems, a few centimeters. It may be longer in some

climbers.

(iii) The phase of maturation: It lies further back. The cells have already reached their

permanent size. The thickening of the cell wall takes place in this phase.

83
Fig. 14.1 Growth of Meristemetic Tissues

84
14.4 Parameters Used to Assess Growth

It is sometimes very difficult to determine growth in organisms. Growth varies from

organism to another. Parameters used to measure growth in organisms includes:

(i) Mass (ii) Length, height, or width (iii) Area or

volume

In most growth studies, mass may be measured as wet mass and dry mass.

(i) Wet Mass: Is the mass of the organisms under normal conditions. It is not a

reliable indication of growth.

(ii) Any Mass: Refers to the mass of an organism after all the water in it has been

removed. Although reliable, the organisms get killed in the process. Thus not

able to measure growth in the same organism. It study growth by measuring

dry mass, a study must be done on a large number of organism. Growth can

then be estimated by removing a given number of organisms at a time and

estimating their dry weight.

(iii) Size and length: Can be measured at successive intervals on the same

organism e.g. height of man, length of lizard e.t.c.

(iv) Increase in number of cells: It also proof growth of a population. Typically in

yeast, by budding (asexual reproduction) or dividing into two, into four and

four into eight e.t.c. The yeast culture continues to double its number as long

as none of the cells dies or loses its power of division.

Module 11: Water Absorption

Root Absorption: Water and various dissolved substances are absorbed through the

root hairs. A root – hair is simply an outgrowth of one of the cells of pilierous layer,

having the form of a slender tube close at the free end. It has a very thin wall of

cellulose which is lined with a thin layer of cytoplasm surrounding a large central

85
vacuole. The vacuole contains the cell sap which his a strong solution of a sugar,

organic acids, mineral salts, e.t.c. The root hairs come in close contact with the soil

particles, each of which is surrounded by a film of water (hygroscopic water)

containing mineral salts in dilute solution. Thus the film of watery solution adhering

to the soil particles are separated from the cell sap of the root hairs by their walls and

thin parietal layers of protoplasm. The cell sap is a stronger solution than that

surrounding the soil particles.

The soil water is absorbed by the root hairs by the process of imbibitions and osmosis.

The water enters the space between the cellular particles of the cell – wall and force

them apart. The cell wall swells up and thus becomes more porous, offering very little

resistance to the diffusion of soluble substances. The protoplasmic lining of the root

hairs also imbibes water and swells up.

By mere imbibition the absorption of water by root hairs cannot go on continuously.

Hence osmosis takes place to ensure continuous absorption of water. The cell wall is a

permeable membrane which allows water and almost all dissolved substances to pass

through it. The thin layer of protoplasm inside the cell wall, however, forms a semi

permeable membrane which allows water to pass freely through it, but prevents or

greatly restricts the outwards passage of most of the substances dissolved in the cell

sap. Since the cell sap is comparatively a strong solution, the hygroscopic soil water

with dissolved mineral salts flows into the root hairs through the cell wall. The layer

of protoplasm lining the cell – wall regulates the flow of dissolved substances into the

root hair. It has the power of selection, in as much as it allows some soluble

substances to pass through it but does not allow other to do so. At the same time, it

prevents the escape of the cell – sap from the root hairs into the soil. Thus the

absorption of solutions from the soil by root hair is a process of osmosis which is

controlled and modified by the activity of the layers of protoplasm lining their walls.

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 Carbondioxide exhale by the living roots dissolved in the surrounding soil water and

renders many insoluble substances, such as calciumtrioxocarbonate IV, many

silicates, e.t.c, soluble. The absorption of soil water through the root hairs is known as

root absorption.

As a result of absorption of water by endosmosis, the root hairs become turgid and

their cell – sap becomes less concentrated than that of the adjacent cortical cells.

Under these conditions the water from the root hairs flows by osmosis into the

neighbouring cortical cells and then into the cell farther and farther away from the

root hairs. Thus the water and dissolved mineral salts which are continuously

absorbed by the root hairs from the soil gradually diffuse by osmosis from the outer to

the inner layers of the cortex till they reach the xylem. But no osmosis takes place

between the innermost cortical cells and the xylem, because the xylem vessels are

empty and dead.

Module 11.2

Several theories have been advanced to explain the ascent of sap in tall trees against

the force of gravity.

- Force of capillarity: Water rises in the capillary glass tube above the level of

water in the outer vessel, and smaller the bore of the tube, the higher the water

rise. Thus according to this theory the capillary or extreme narrowness of the

xylem vessel is responsible for the movement of water up to the leaf.

- Atmospheric pressure: According to this theory the atmospheric pressure is

believed to be the cause of the ascent of water. The loss of water by transpiration

from the surface of the leaves creates a partial vacuum in the xylem vessels, and

consequently water is forced up by the atmospheric pressure from below.

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- Osmotic Pressure: It has been suggested that water diffuses upwards through the

parenchymatous tissues of the plant.

- Root Pressure: According to this theory, the root pressure which drives water

from the cortical cells of the roots into the xylem vessels causes its movement

upwards to the leaves. The bleeding at the cut surface of the stem of vine and the

exudation of water drops at the tips of the leaves of grasses indicate the driving

force of root – pressure.

- Imbibition Theory: According to this theory, water passes upwards by imbibition

only along the lignified walls of the xylem vessels and not through their cavities.

- Transpiration and force of cohesion (cohesion theory) particles of water cohere

strongly together, and form continuous columns in the vessels, extending from

the roots to the leaves. Hence the pull at the upper end of the water column is

transmitted to its lower end. As water is lost by transpiration from the surface of

the leaf, the cell – sap of the mesophyll cells becomes concentrated and water is

withdrawn osmotically from the tracheids of the vein lets. Accordingly a vacuum

is created in the tracheids of the veinlets, and water columns in the xylem

elements of the leaf and stem are bodily pulled upwards.

The cohesion theory which seeks to explain the upwards movement of water in

terms of the cohesion strength of water (cell –sap) and the pulling or suction force

of transpiration is regarded as the most plausible one. It has been shown that,

owning to the cohesive strength of water columns in xylem vessels remain

unbroken and that the pulling force of transpiration is so strong that it lifts water

to the height of the tallest trees. It is also be lived that transpiration gives water

column a pull from above and root – pressure a push from below, and that the

combined action of these two forces causes the ascent of sap.

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- Goldlewski’s Vital Theory: According to this theory, the ascent of water take

place through the vital activity of the living protoplasm of the xylem parenchyma,

the xylem vessels merely act as reservoirs in which water is temporarily stored

up.

- Bose’s pulsation theory: According to Sir. J.C. Bose, the ascent of water in the

plants is due to active pulsation of the living cortical cells just outside the

endodermis. That is, the cells of the innermost layer of the cortex pulsate and

pump the water upwards. Bose demonstrated the pulsating movements of these

cells by means of a fine electric probe, connected at one end with the

galvanometer. When the electric probe, on being gradually thrust into the stem,

reached the internal layer of cortical cells, there was a sudden deflection in the

needle of the galvanometer, showing the pulsating activity of these cells. Bose

does not regard transpiration or root pressure as the cause of the ascent of sap, for

he believes that water passes upwards through the pulsating layer of cortical cells

even in their absence. The xylem vessels, in his view, are mere reservoirs.

Morphological and experimental evidence does not seem to support Bose’s

explanation of the ascent of sap.

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WEEK 15

MODULE 13

15.0 Movement in Plants

15.1 Irritability (Sensitivity)

This refers to the response of living organisms to the stimuli of both their internal and

external environments so that they can maintain the most suitable condition of life.

Whereas animals can show a very quick response to an external stimuli by perhaps

moving the whole body away from the direction of stimuli (taxis), the response of

plants is very slow and usually involves the growth of the simulated part towards or

away from the direction of stimulus.

The unilateral growth of plants part in response to an external stimulus is referred to

as tropsim.

15.2 Tropisms

Plants respond to the stimuli of:

7. Light (phototropism)

8. Gravity (geotropism)

9. Water (hydrotropism)

These responses which are controlled by certain plant hormones called auxins are

experienced in the growth regions of the plants (regions close to the root or shoot tips).

Auxins are produced at the rips of shoots. The chemicals diffuse vertically downwards

to stimulate growth in both the shoot and the root.

Auxins like the animals hormone are produced in small quantities. The effect of auxins

is to increase the growth of plants. The growth rate of plants increase as the

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 concentration of auxins becomes increased. But after a certain concentration, a further

increase will inhibit rather than promote the growth of that plant.

15.3 Phototropism

This is to response of plant parts to the stimulus of light, especially sunlight. Plant

shoots normally grow towards the direction of light. Plant shoots are therefore

positively phototrophic.

15.4 Klinostat

Is an instrument used to demonstrate or control the effect of light and gravity on

growth of plants.

15.5 Geotropism

This is the response of plant parts to the stimulus of gravity. Plant shoots grow away

from gravity of the earth and are said to be negatively geotropic. Roots grow towards

gravity and are said to be positively geotropic.

Gravity is thought to cause a redistribution of auxin in root and shoot. The effect of

gravity on the root is opposite to its effection the shoot.

15.6 Hydrotropism

This is the response of roots to the stimulus of water in the soil. Plant roots are

positively hydrotropic. They grow toward areas where there is water which is vital to

life. Shoots do not absorb water and consequently. They do not respond to the

presence of water.

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15.7 Other Responses in Plants

1. Chemotropism: The response of plant parts to chemical e.g. pollen tubes grow

toward the ovary after pollination in response to the sugary chemical secreted

by the stigma.

2. Thignotropism: Some plants respond to the stimulus of touch e.g. tendrils,

leaves of sensitive plant (e.g. Mimosa pudica) and the carnivorous plants (e.g.

sundew and venues flytrap).

15.8 Nastic/Sleeping Movements

The pinnate and bipinnate leaves of many leguminous plants open and close as a

result of certain changes in temperature, light intensity or humidity of the atmosphere.

The process which is however gradual is known as “sleeping movement” and occurs

is such leaves as St. Thomas plant, and Cassia. Flowers of certain plants are seen to

open only at certain time of the day e.g. “four O’clock” plant. Sun flower changes its

direction to face the sun. the flowers of “snake tomato” remain closed during hot day

and open at night or under conditions of high humidity. These various responses of

plant parts to external stimuli of the weather are known as NASTIC RESPONSES

(MOVEMENTS)

15.9 Taxis (Tactic Movement)

This is a locomotory movement of an entire organism or cell (e.g. gamete) in response

to a directional stimulus. If the locomotory movement is towards the stimulus, it is

positive taxis, if away its negative taxis. This is commonly found in animals. For

instance Euglena moves toward source of light (positive phototaxis) and many fresh

water fish (e.g. Tilapia) move against current positive rheotaxis).

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15.1.0 Factors Responsible for Irritability

Reaction of cell to the environment (irritability) is governed by the factors:

(ii) Water (iv) Gravity

(iii) pH (v) Temperature and

(iv) light (vi) Humidity

The response is specific as follows:

a. Roots: Response positively to water and gravity

b. Humidity: Leaves and flowers respond positively

c. Light: Shoots generally respond positively

d. Temperature: Flowers and shoot respond positively

15.1.1 Differences Between Nastic/Sleep Movement and Tropism

Nastic/Sleeping Movement Tropism

1. Movements are reversible Not easily reversible

2. Response does not lead to growth Response leads to growth

3. Movements are due to changes in cell tugor Movements are not due to changes in cell

tugor

4. Response to stimulus is not directed towards Response to stimulus is towards the

the direction of stimulus direction of stimulus

5. Response is fast Response is slow

6. Responses are due to changes in temperature, Responses are due to water, light, gravity

humidity, light intensity, or touch and chemicals

7. Responses is usually associated with the time Not associated with the time of the day.

of the day

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