Unit I

Module 1: Cells

Objectives
The main objectives of this chapter are to acquaint the students about :
i) the history of cell theory;
ii) the exception to the theory;
iii) the cell morphology and cell sizes and shapes;
iv) the classification of cells and functional characteristics of cells.

Introduction
A cell is the smallest unit of all living organisms. Cells are the basic building blocks of all
organisms and organisms may be made of one cell (like bacteria) or multicellular made of
many cells (like a human). In multicellular organisms, several cells of one kind interconnect
with each other and perform a shared function to form tissues; several tissues combine to
form an organ; several organs make up an organ system and several organ systems function
together to form an organism.

History of cell discovery

The invention of the microscope by Zacharias Jansen in the late 16 th century led to the
discovery of cells in 1665 by Robert Hooke. He examined very thin slices of cork using a
compound microscope and observed a multitude of pores that looked like the wall
compartments of a honey comb. He introduced the term “cell” for each compartment and
Hooke's description of these cells was published in Micrographia. The cells in the cork
observed by Hooke were actually dead cells giving no indication of the nucleus and other
organelles and cells of living organisms could be observed only after the discovery of
improved microscopes having high magnification.
Live cells were first observed under a microscope in 1674 by Antony van Leeuwenhoek. He
observed the algae Spirogyra and named the moving organisms as animalcules, meaning
"little animals".

History of cell theory

Ludolph Christian Treviranus (1811) and Johann Jacob Paul Moldenhawer (1812) first
proposed the idea that cells were separable into individual units and in 1824, Henri Dutrochet
declared that "the cell is the fundamental element of organization". The cell theory was first
formulated based on two publications in the 1800s. The first one was by Matthias Jacob
Schleiden in 1838, in which he proposed that all plant tissues are made from cells. The
second one was in the following year (1839) by Theodor Schwann in a publication in which
he generalized the proposal to all living organisms stating that all animal tissues also are
made from cells. These generalizations by Schleiden and Schwann after subsequent
modifications were later came to be known as the cell theory.
The theory was further extended by subsequent discoveries by Karl Wilhelm von Nägeli who
showed that cells form by division of one cell into two and Karl Theodor Ernst von Siebold
who extended the cell theory to protists in the 1840s. The third component of classical cell
theory was completed by Rudolf Virchow in 1858 with his generalization that all cells come
from pre-existing cells. Thus, Virchow along with Schleiden and Schwann are often credited
together for the formulation of the classical cell theory.

Classical cell theory

The main proposition of the classical cell theory holds that:
1. All organisms are made up of one or more cells.
2. Cells are the fundamental functional and structural unit of life.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells (omni cellulae e cellula).
Modern cell theory
The classical cell theory has been extended to formulate the modern cell theory by
incorporating further discoveries. The generally accepted parts of modern cell theory include:
1. All living things are made up of cells.
2. The cell is the smallest fundamental unit of structure and function in living things.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells by division.
4. Energy flow in the form of metabolism and biochemistry occurs within cells.
5. All cells contain genetic material which is passed from cell to cell during cell
division.
6. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition and metabolic processes
associated with life occur within cells.
7. Some organisms are unicellular or made up of only one cell while other organisms are
multicellular or composed of many cells.
8. The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells.

Exceptions to the theory

Some exceptions to the cell theory are :
1. Viruses are not made up of cells and yet, they are considered to be alive by some.
2. The first cell did not originate from a pre-existing cell according to the accepted
theory of evolution.
3. Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own genetic material, and reproduce
independently from the rest of the cell.
Cell morphology
A cell is a small, membrane-bound compartment that contains all the chemicals and
molecules required to sustain an organism's life. Cells contain organelles, or tiny membrane
bound structures that carry out specific functions and cells also
contain DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) or RNA (ribonucleic acid) as the genetic material for
directing cellular activities. Thus, a cell generally consists of three parts:
1. The plasma membrane or cell membrane which serves as a selective barrier enclosing
a cell. Plant cells have cell wall outside the plasma membrane.
2. The cytoplasm representing all the cellular contents between the plasma membrane
and the nucleus including the cytosol (a jelly-like fluid), all the organelles other than
the nucleus, and the cytoskeleton.
3. The nucleus containing the genetic material in the form of a fine network of threads
called chromatin which condenses at the time of cell division to form chromosomes.
Cell sizes and shapes
Cells differ remarkably in size, shape and function. Cells come in many different sizes. Some
cells like eggs of birds are visible to the naked eye. However, most cells are microscopic and
cannot be seen by the naked eye and can be observed only with the help of microscopes. The
size of the cell is generally measured in micrometers (μm) in diameter. For example, the size
of bacterial cells range from 0.2 to 0.3 μm while the size of liver cell is about 20 μm and the
size of plant cells range from 30 to 40 μm. The smallest cell is that of Mycoplasma
genitalium with a size of 0.2 μm. Regarding size, the size of human body cells are highly
variable with erythrocytes of 7 microns, hepatocytes with 20 microns, sperm of 53 μm, eggs
of 150 μm while some neurons are as long as one meter. The pollen grains of plant cells may
also reach 200 to 300 μm while sizes of bird eggs may vary from 1 cm in quail to 7 cm in
diameter in ostrich.
Cells also differ variably in shapes and the shapes of cells may be fusiform (spindle shaped),
stellate, prismatic, flattened, elliptical, globose or rounded, and so on. Some cells are also
capable of changing their shape (e.g. amoebae and macrophage) while some others have
typical shape (e.g. spermatozoa and epithelial cells). The shapes of cells have evolved to help
them carry out their specific function in the body. Some cells have a rigid cell wall while
others lack them allowing them to freely move the membrane and cytoplasmic contents as in
pseudopods.

Classification of cells

Cells can be grouped into two broad categories- prokaryotic and eukaryotic based on their
complexcity:
1. Prokaryotes: Prokaryotic cells lack a well defined nucleus and other membrane-bound
organelles. The nuclear material commonly consists of a single chromosome lying in the
cytoplasm, called nucleoid. Prokaryotic cells are found in bacteria, cynobacteria (blue-green
algae) and Archaea.
2. Eukaryotes: Eukaryotic cells, on the other hand, have distinct nuclei bound by a nuclear
membrane and other membrane-bound organelles like mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes,
rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum and vacuoles. They also possess organized
chromosomes which store genetic material. Eukaryotic cells include all other cells, such as
protista, fungal, plant and animal cells.
All living organisms (bacteria, blue green algae, plants and animals) are made of cells and
may contain one or many cells. Some organisms contain only one cell in their body and are
called unicellular organisms (e.g., bacteria, blue green algae, some algae, Protozoa, etc.).
while other organisms have many cells in their body and are called multicellular organisms
(e.g., fungi, most plants and animals).
Further, based on the kingdom into which they fall cells may be grouped as plant and animal
cells.

Some Typical cells

Some cells have typical characteristics which differ from normal cells. Some examples are:

1) i)Cyanobacteria: Cyanobacteria are small, aquatic, photosynthetic and usually

unicellular (though they often grow in large colonies) organisms.
2) ii)Virus: viruses are small infectious agents that can replicate only inside the living
cells of organisms. They contain DNA or RNA as their genetic material and viruses
infect all types of organisms, from animals and plants to bacteria and archaea.
3) iii)Red Blood Cells: Red blood cells are the most common type of blood cell serving
as the principal means of carrying oxygen in the vertebrate body. They, however, lack
organelles like nucleus and mitochondria unlike typical eukaryotic cells.

Functional characteristics of cells

All living cells are complex biochemical systems and many features distinguish the cells
from non-living chemical systems. The features that distinguish cells from non-living systems
are:
1. Nutrition: The cells take up substances from the environment, transform the
substances from one form to another, releasing energy during the process and
eliminating waste products through the metabolism unlike non-living things.
2. Growth and multiplication: The cells are capable of directing their own division. As
a result of nutritional processes, a cell grows and divides, forming two daughter cells
through cell division.
3. Differentiation: Many cells can undergo changes in form or function in a process
called cellular differentiation. During cell differentiates, some substances and
specialized structures related to reproduction, dispersal or survival are formed that
were not previously present.
4. Signaling: Cells respond to chemical and physical stimuli from the external
environment and cells can also interact or communicate with other cells, usually by
means of signals or chemical messengers such as hormones, neurotransmitters,
growth factors.
5. Evolution: Unlike the nonliving systems, unicellular and multicellular organisms
evolve. During evolution, small heritable changes occur at low frequency in cells that
may influence the adaptation of the cell and result in the selection of organisms best
adapted to live in a particular environment.
Conclusion
Cells are the unit of structure, physiology, and organization in living organisms. The Cell
Theory provides the proof for the fact that that every living organism contains one or more
cells. The tenets of the modern cell theory states that all known living things are made of
cells, the cell is the structural and functional unit of all living things, all cells come from
preexisting cells by division, cells contain hereditary information, all cells have similar
chemical composition, and all energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) of life occurs
within cells. Although all living organism are made of cells, cell differ variably in size, shape
and function across the living kingdoms.

Glossary

i) Biochemistry – The study of the chemistry of living things.

ii) Cell Biology – The study of the processes of cells.
iii) Cell Membrane – The outer boundary surrounding the cell composed of a double layer
of phospholipids molecules arranged in such a way that the water soluble ends face
outwards while the water insoluble fatty ends face inwards.   Various proteins are
embedded in the bilayer and the proteins are involved in recognition of other substances
and transfer of materials across the membrane.
iv) Cell Theory - One of the basic principles of biology stating that the cell is the basic unit
of life.
v)Cell - The fundamental unit of life.
vi)Cytoplasm – The jelly-like matrix of the cell bound by the cell membrane.  It consists of
the cytosol (cell liquid) and the organelles including the nucleus and other cellular
components.
vii)Metabolism – The sum total of all of the chemical reactions occurring in the cell.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. What is a cell?

Ans: A cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of all living organisms. Organisms
may be unicellular like bacteria (made of one cell) or multicellular like human (made of
many cells).

2. Who proposed the cell theory?

Ans: The cell theory was first formulated based on two publications in the 1800s. The first
one was by Matthias Jacob Schleiden in 1838, in which he proposed that all plant tissues are
made from cells. The second one was in the following year (1839) by Theodor Schwann in a
publication in which he generalized the proposal to all living organisms stating that
all animal tissues also are made from cells. These generalizations by Schleiden and Schwann
after subsequent modifications were later came to be known as the cell theory.
The theory was further extended by subsequent discoveries by Karl Wilhelm von Nägeli who
showed that cells form by division of one cell into two and Karl Theodor Ernst von Siebold
who extended the cell theory to protists in the 1840s. The third component of classical cell
theory was completed by Rudolf Virchow in 1858 with his generalization that all cells come
from pre-existing cells. Thus, Virchow along with Schleiden and Schwann are often credited
together for the formulation of the classical cell theory.
3. What are the tenets of the modern cell theory?

Ans: The modern cell theory include the following tenets:

i) All living things are made up of cells.
ii) The cell is the smallest fundamental unit of structure and function in living things.
iii) All cells come from pre-existing cells by division.
iv) Energy flow in the form of metabolism and biochemistry occurs within cells.
v) All cells contain genetic material which is passed from cell to cell during cell
division.
vi) All cells are basically the same in chemical composition and metabolic processes
associated with life occur within cells.
vii) Some organisms are unicellular or made up of only one cell while other organisms are
multicellular or composed of many cells.
viii) The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells.

4. What are prokaryotic cells?

Ans: The prokaryotic cells lack a well-defined nucleus and other membrane-bound
organelles. The nuclear material commonly consists of a single chromosome lying in the
cytoplasm, called nucleoid. Prokaryotic cells are found in bacteria, cynobacteria (blue-green
algae) and archaea.

Q5. What are eukaryotic cells?

Ans: The eukaryotic cells have distinct nuclei bound by a nuclear membrane and other
membrane-bound organelles like mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, rough and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum and vacuoles. They also possess organized chromosomes which store
genetic material. Eukaryotic cells include all other cells, such as protista, fungal, plant and
animal cells.

References

1. Lodish, H, Berk. A, Zipursky S.L, et al.,2000: Molecular Cell Biology, 4th edition,

New York: W. H. Freeman, New York .

 2. Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith;
Walter, Peter (eds),2002: Molecular Biology of the Cell, New York and London:
Garland Science.
3. Cooper, G.M.& R.E, Hausman,2004: The Cell: A Molecular Approach, Sinauer
Associates, Inc.

Links

http://www.di.uq.edu.au/sparqglossary#b

https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu

https://cellbiology.med.unsw.edu.au