INTRODUCTION TO CELLS

All living things are made from one or more cells. A cell is the simplest unit of life and they
are responsible for keeping an organism alive and functioning. This introduction to cells is the
starting point for the area of biology that studies the various types of cells and how they work.
There is a massive variety of different types of cells but they all have some common
characteristics. Almost every different type of cell contains genetic material, a membrane and
cytoplasm. Cells also have many other features such as organelles and ribosomes that perform
specific functions.
Many different organisms on the tree of life contain only one cell and are known as single-
celled or unicellular organisms. Their single cell performs all the necessary functions to keep the
organism alive. All species of bacteria and archaea are single-celled organisms. On the other
hand, large organisms like humans are made from many trillions of cells that work together to
keep the organism alive.

The Origin and Evolution of Cell

Upon the formation of the Earth from its astronomical views, when the earth has its atmosphere, land
and water, the concept of life emerged. Life on Earth originated about 3.8 billion years ago. In 1950s, Stanley
Miller demonstrated experimentally the formation of organic molecules. Miller showed that the discharge of
electric sparks into the mixture of H2, CH4, and NH3, in the presence of water, led to the creation of diverse
amount of organic molecules which includes numerous amino acids. The natural radioactivity, lightning,
volcanism solar ultraviolet radiation, and meteoritic impacts all provided large amounts of energy that
eventually shaped the ammonia, methane, carbon dioxide, and water into more complex molecules known as
amino acids and nucleotide bases. From these amino acids, managed the development of proteins, and these
protiens build up led to the formation of RNA, DNA to unicellular organisms, to multicellular organisms, to
fishes, amphibians, reptiles, mammals and later on other ancestors of mankind.
It is thought that life arose on earth around four billion years ago. The endosymbiotic theory states that
some of the organelles in today's eukaryotic cells were once prokaryotic microbes. In this theory, the first
eukaryotic cell was probably an amoeba-like cell that got nutrients by phagocytosis and contained a nucleus
that formed when a piece of the cytoplasmic membrane pinched off around the chromosomes. Some of these
amoeba-like organisms ingested prokaryotic cells that then survived within the organism and developed a
symbiotic relationship. Mitochondria formed when bacteria capable of aerobic respiration were ingested;
chloroplasts formed when photosynthetic bacteria were ingested. They eventually lost their cell wall and much
of their DNA because they were not of benefit within the host cell. Mitochondria and chloroplasts cannot grow
outside their host cell.
Evidence for this is based on the following:
1. Chloroplasts are the same size as prokaryotic cells, divide by binary fission, and, like bacteria, have Fts
proteins at their division plane. The mitochondria are the same size as prokaryotic cells, divide by
binary fission, and the mitochondria of some protists have Fts homologs at their division plane.
2. Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA that is circular, not linear.
3. Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own ribosomes that have 30S and 50S subunits, not 40S and
60S.
4. Several more primitive eukaryotic microbes, such as Giardia and Trichomonas have a nuclear
membrane but no mitochondria.
Although evidence is less convincing, it is also possible that flagella and cilia may have come from
spirochetes.

The History of the Classical Interpretation of

Cell Theory
The first person to observe and discover the cell, Robert Hooke (1635-1703), did so using a crude
compound microscope – invented near the end of the 16th century by Zacharias Janssen (1580-1638), a
Dutch spectacle-maker, with help from his father – and an illumination system Hooke designed in his role as
curator of experiments for the Royal Society of London.
Hooke published his findings in 1665 in his book, "Microphagia," which included hand-sketched
drawings of his observations. Hooke discovered plant cells when he examined a thin slice of cork through
the lens of his converted compound microscope. He saw a plethora of microscopic compartments that, to
him, resembled the same structures found in honeycombs. He called them "cells," and the name stuck.
Dutch scientist Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1705), a tradesman by day and a self-driven biology
student, ached to discover the secrets of the world around him, and even though not formally educated, he
ended up contributing important discoveries to the field of biology. Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria,
 protists, sperm and blood cells, rotifers and microscopic nematodes, and other microscopic organisms.
Leewenhoek's studies brought a new level of awareness of microscopic life to scientists of the day, spurring
others on who would, in the end, play a part in contributing to modern cell theory.
French physiologist Henri Dutrochet (1776-1847) was the first to claim the cell was the basic unit of
biological life, but scholars give credit for the development of modern cell theory to German physiologist
Theodor Schwann (1810-1882), German botanist Matthias Jakob Schleiden (1804-1881) and German
pathologist Rudolf Virchow (1821-1902). In 1839, Schwann and Schleiden proposed that the cell is the
basic unit of life, and Virchow, in 1858, deduced that new cells come from pre-existing cells, completing the
main tenets of classical cell theory

Current Interpretation of Modern

Cell Theory
Scientists, biologists, researchers and scholars, though still using the fundamental tenets of cell theory,
conclude the following on the modern interpretation of cell theory:
• 1. The cell represents the elementary unit of construction and function in living organisms.
• 2. All cells come from the division of pre-existing cells.
• 3. Energy flow – metabolism and biochemistry – happens within cells.
• 4. Cells contain genetic information in the form of DNA passed on from cell to cell during division.
• 5. In the organisms of similar species, all cells are fundamentally the same.
• 6. All living organisms consist of one or more cells.
• 7. Some cells – unicellular organisms – consist of only one cell.
• 8. Other living entities are multicellular, containing multiple cells.
• 9. The living organism's activities depend upon the combined actions of individual, independent cells

Cell Parts and Functions

All cells contain specialized, subcellular structures that are adapted to keep the cell alive. Some of
these structures release energy, while others produce proteins, transport substances, and control
cellular activities. Collectively, these structures are called organelles.
Plant and animal cells both contain organelles, many of which are found in both types of cells.
However, there are some organelles (such as chloroplasts, the cell wall, and large vacuoles) that are
only found in plant cells.

Plant and animal cells contain subcellular structures called organelles

Animal Cell Parts And Their Functions

Animal cells contain a wide variety of parts, each of which plays a vital role in the survival of the cell.
The Nucleus
The nucleus is the control center of the cell and houses all of the cell’s genetic information. Usually, a
cell has a single nucleus that contains all of its DNA molecules, but some (such as skeletal muscle
cells) have more than one nucleus.
The nucleus protects the cell’s DNA while controlling all other cellular activities, such as cell division,
growth, protein production, and cell death.
The nucleus contains all the DNA of a cell
Ribosomes
The DNA molecules housed in the nucleus also contain blueprints for all of the proteins produced by
a cell. These blueprints are ‘read’ and interpreted by ribosomes, which are the site of protein
production in plant and animal cells. Ribosomes produce proteins by assembling amino acid
sequences according to the instructions contained in the genetic code. The resulting polypeptide
chains are then folded into specific primary, tertiary, or quaternary 3D structures by other cell
organelles.
Mitochondria
Cells need energy to power their biochemical reactions, and most of that energy is released by
mitochondria. Mitochondria are the site of respiration and the ‘powerhouses’ of cells, pumping out
energy which is then stored in ATP (adenosine triphosphate). ATP molecules are the energy
currency of cells and are used to fuel all the other activities of the cell.
Mitochondria release energy for the cell
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranes inside a cell, and its main functions are to
process and transport new materials. There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum; the rough ER,
and the smooth ER.
The rough ER is studded with ribosomes, giving it a bumpy or ‘rough’ appearance. It folds and tags
newly-synthesized proteins before transporting them to wherever they are needed in the body. The
smooth ER does not have ribosomes attached to it and is instead involved in hormone and lipid
synthesis.
Golgi Apparatus
Once newly-synthesized substances have left the ER, they are sent to the Golgi apparatus. This is a
series of flatted, membrane-bound sacs that packages and distributes substances to the outer cell
membrane, where they either become part of the lipid bilayer or leave the cell.
The Golgi apparatus packages and distributes substances
Lysosomes
Lysosomes are small, spherical organelles that are packed full of digestive enzymes. Their key
function is to break down and recycle unwanted material for the cell, such as old cell parts or invading
bacteria and viruses. Lysosomes also play an important role in apoptosis (AKA programmed cell
death).
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is a jelly-like substance that fills the interior space of cells. It is mainly composed of
water, but also contains salts, enzymes, and other organic molecules. The cytoplasm surrounds and
protects the organelles of the cell and is where many cellular processes (such as protein synthesis
and glycolysis) take place.
Cytoplasm is a jelly-like substance found inside all cells
The Cell Membrane (AKA The Plasma Membrane)
All cells are surrounded by a cell membrane, which consists of a semipermeable phospholipid
bilayer. The cell membrane controls which substances enter and leave the cell, and also separates
the interior of the cell from its external environment.

Plant Cell Parts And Their Functions

Although plant cells contain many of the same parts as animal cells, they also have some extra
organelles that are absent in animal cells.
Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are one of the most important types of plant cell organelle, as they are the site
of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is a process by which light energy from the sun is used to
convert carbon dioxide and water molecules into glucose, and is how plants produce food.
Chloroplasts are filled with chlorophyll, the green pigment that gives plants their color. Chlorophyll
harvests light energy, which the chloroplast then uses to produce glucose. Once glucose has been
synthesized, it is broken down to release energy during cellular respiration in the mitochondria.
 Chloroplasts produce
food for plant cells
The Cell Wall
Plant cells are surrounded by a tough structure called the cell wall, which is found outside of the cell
membrane and is mainly made of cellulose. The cell wall supports and protects plant cells, giving
them their characteristic rectangular or box-like shape.
The Vacuole
The vacuole is a very large organelle that can occupy up to 90% of the interior space of plant cells.
One of its key functions is storage. The vacuole is filled with cell sap, which consists mainly of water
but also contains proteins, sugars, and other molecules. Another function of the vacuole is to
maintain turgor pressure, which helps the plant cell to keep its shape and prevents wilting and
bursting.
The vacuole maintains turgor pressure in plant cells