GENERAL BIOLOGY I REVIEWER Rudolf Virchow (1858):

● Proposed that all cells arise from the division of

previously existing cells.
Definition of Cell
● Introduced the concept "Omnis cellula e
- Cells are the basic structural and functional unit of
living organisms. cellula" (All cells come from cells),
emphasizing cell division as a fundamental
What Is a Cell? principle.
- All living things are made up of cells.
- Cells are the smallest working units of all living things. Cell Structure and function
- All cells come from preexisting cells through cell Unicellular Organism:
division. An organism consisting of a single cell. (Example:
Bacteria, Amoeba, and Yeast.)
Postulates of Cell Theory:
- All organisms are composed of one or more cells Multicellular Organism:
(Schleiden & Schwann) (1838-39). An organism composed of more than one cell. (Example:
- The cell is the basic unit of life in all living things Humans, Plants, and Animals.)
(Schleiden & Schwann) (1838-39).
- All cells are produced by the division of preexisting Shapes of cell
cells (Virchow) (1858). ● Euglena and amoeba can change shape, while most
cells have a fixed shape.
Human RBC - are circular and has a biconcave shape for
Founders and Contributors: easy passage through capillaries
Robert Hooke (1665): Nerve cell - branches and conducts pulses from one point
● Observed cork under a microscope and to another
coined the term "cell" from the Latin word Human WBC - can change shapes to engulf other
microorganism that enters the body
"cellula," meaning little room.
● Initially thought cells only existed in plants and
fungi.
● Made significant improvements to the single-
lens microscope.
● Size of cells Smallest cell
Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1673): µm = 1/1000 millimeter ● mycoplasma
● First to observe and describe the structure of red µm - Micrometer ● size: 0.1µm
blood cells and sperm cells µ- micron
● Coined the term "animalcules" for m- meter
microscopic organisms, establishing that cells
are found in both plants and animals.
● Built and used improved microscopes for cell Size of cells in human
observation.
Smallest cell
● Sperm cells
Robert Brown (1831):
● Size: 5µm
● First to observe and describe the cell nucleus.
Largest cell
● ovum cells
Matthias Schleiden (1838):
● Size: 120µm
● Concluded that all plant parts are made of
Longest cell
cells, declaring the cell as the basic
● Nerve cell
building block of all plant matter.
● Size: 1m

Theodore Schwann (1839):

● Stated that all animal tissues are composed of
cells.
 Plant cell Animal cell
1. Nucleus 1. Nucleus
2. Golgi Body (Golgi Apparatus) 2. Golgi Body (Golgi Apparatus)
3. Vesicle 3. Vesicle
4. Lysosome (mostly in animal cells) 4. Cell Membrane/Plasma Membrane
5. Cell Membrane/Plasma Membrane 5. Mitochondria/Mitochondrion
6. Mitochondria/Mitochondrion 6. Cytoskeleton
7. Chloroplast (in plant cells) 7. Centriole
8. Cell Wall (in plant cells and some other organisms) 8. Lysosomes
9. Vacuole (larger in plant cells) 9. Cytoplasm
10. Cytoplasm 10. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
11. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum 11. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
12. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum 12. Nucleolus
13. Cilia 13. Cilia
14. Flagella 14. Flagella

Parts of plant cell that are not present in animal cell

1. Cell wall
2. Chloroplast
3. Chromoplast
4. Leucoplast
5. Vacuole

Organelles without membrane:

● The Cell Wall, Ribosomes, and Cytoskeleton are non-membrane-bound cell organelles. They are present in
both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Single membrane-bound organelles:
● Vacuole, Lysosome, Golgi Apparatus, and Endoplasmic Reticulum are single membrane-bound organelles.
They are present only in eukaryotic cells.
Double membrane-bound organelles:
● Nucleus, Mitochondria, and Chloroplast are double membrane-bound organelles. They are present only in
eukaryotic cells.

List of cell organelles and their function

Cell Membrane/plasma membrane

● Provides shape, protects the inner organelles of the cell
● acts as a selectively permeable membrane.
Cytoplasm
● cell organelles contain enzymes.
mainly responsible for controlling all metabolic activity taking place within the cell
• the site for most of the chemical reactions within a cell.
Nucleus:
● The nucleus is the largest double membrane-bound organelle in the cell.
● Contains all the cell's genetic information, controlling the activity of the cell, aiding in cell division, and
managing hereditary characteristics.
Other cell organelles
Mitochondria:
● are oval-shaped, membrane-bound organelles,
often referred to as the “Powerhouse of The
Cell”.
● the main site of cellular respiration and are
involved in storing energy in the form of ATP
molecules.
Ribosomes:
● Ribosomes are non-membrane-bound
organelles found floating freely in the cell’s
cytoplasm or embedded
within the endoplasmic reticulum.
● They are involved in the synthesis of proteins.
Endoplasmic reticulum
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum:
● Composed of cisternae, tubules, and
vesicles, which are found throughout the cell
and are involved in protein manufacture.
● It is involved in protein synthesis and
processing.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum:
● The Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum is
responsible for various functions:
● It is involved in the production of lipids and
steroids.
● It acts as a storage organelle.
● It plays a role in detoxifying the cell by
metabolizing harmful substances.
Golgi Apparatus:
● The Golgi Apparatus is a membrane-
bound, sac-like organelle present within
the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells.
● It is mainly involved in secretion and
intracellular transport of molecules.
Lysosome:
● Lysosomes are tiny, circular-shaped, single
membrane-bound organelles.
● They are filled with digestive enzymes and
play a crucial role in digestion, waste
removal, and breaking down dead or
damaged cells.
● Due to their role in breaking down cellular
components, they are sometimes referred to
as the "suicidal bags" of the cell.
Centrosome and Centrioles:
● The Centrosome is composed of centrioles and
is found exclusively in animal cells.
● It plays a major role in organizing
microtubules and is essential for cell division
processes such as mitosis and meiosis.
Plastids - Double membrane-bound organelles.
3 types of plastids:
1. Leucoplast - colorless plastids.
2. Chromoplas - blue, red, and yellow color
plastids
3. Chloroplast - green in color, essential for
photosynthesis.
Microbodies:
● Microbodies are membrane-bound, minute,
vesicular organelles found in both plant and
animal cells.
● They contain various enzymes and proteins.
● Microbodies are typically only visible under
an electron microscope due to their small size.
Cytoskeleton:
● The cytoskeleton helps cells maintain their
shape and internal organization.
● It provides mechanical support that
enables cells to carry out essential
functions such as division and
movement.
Cilia:
● Cilia are hair-like projections, small structures.
● They are present outside the cell wall and
function like oars to move either the cell or the
extracellular fluid.
Flagella:
● Flagella are hairlike structures that
primarily act as organelles of
locomotion in the cells of many living
organisms.
Vacuoles:
● Vacuoles are membrane-bound, fluid-filled
organelles found within the cytoplasm.
● They provide shape and rigidity to
the plant cell and play a role in
digestion, excretion, and storage of
substances.
Peroxisome:
● Peroxisomes are membrane-bound cellular
organelles present in the cytoplasm.
● They contain reducing enzymes and are
involved in the metabolism of lipids and
catabolism of long-chain fatty acids.
 Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotic cell
● unicellular microorganisms lack a distinct
nucleus
● lack membrane-bound organelles
● It tends to be very simple and small measuring
around 0.1-5 μm in diameter.
Examples of prokaryotic cell:
1. Bacteria
2. Archaea
3. Cyanobacteria
Three domain system
1. Bacteria
2. Archaea
3. Eukarya
Prokaryotic cell features:
1. Nucleoid - which means nucleus-like, is
an irregularly shaped area containing
the genetic material of the prokaryotic
cell.
2. Ribosome – a minute particle
consisting of RNA (ribonucleic acid)
and found in large numbers in the
cytoplasm of living cells and it is the
10. Cell wall - a semi-rigid thick protective structure that
site of protein synthesis in the cell.
3. Cell membrane - (plasma membrane)
separates the interior of the cell from the
outside environment.
4. Capsule Fimbriae - It encases the
entire cell surface and provides
resistance against many host defense
mechanisms.
5. Pili - are short hair-like structures on the cell
surface of prokaryotic cells.
6. Flagella - a slender threadlike structure
especially a microscopic appendage that
enables many protozoa, bacteria, and
spermatozoa to swim.
Eukaryotic cell
unicellular or multicellular organisms
have a nucleus have membrane-bound organelles
LARGER and more complex (around 10-100 μm).
Eukaryotic cell features:
1. Nucleolus - a double-membraned organelle that
contains the genetic material and other instructions
required for cellular processes, and it is the cell’s
2. Nucleus - is a spherical structure found in the cell’s
whose primary function is to produce and assemble
the cell’s ribosome.
3. Plasma membrane - Plasma membrane (cell
membrane) – plasma membrane or cell membrane
provides protection for a cell.
4. Cytoskeleton - helps cells maintain their shape and
internal organization and it also provides mechanical
support that enables cells to carry out essential
functions.
5. Ribosomes - a minute particle consisting of RNA
(ribonucleic acid) and found in large numbers in the
cytoplasm of living cells and it is the site of protein
synthesis in the cell.
6. Mitochondria - “powerhouse of the cell” and it also
detoxes ammonia in the liver cells.
7. Cytoplasm - gel-like fluid inside the cell. All of the
functions for cell expansion, growth, and replication
are carried out in the cytoplasm of a cell.
8. Endoplasmic Reticulum - its function is to produce
proteins for the rest of the cell to function.
9. Vesicles and vacuoles - are membrane-bound sacs
that function in storage and transport. Vacuoles are
somewhat larger than vesicles.
surrounds the cell membrane of cells for protection
and defining the shape of the cell.
CELL TYPES
Level of Organization
Cells Tissues Organ Organ System
Organism
Tissue
- A group of cells that possess a similar structure and
perform a specific function.
- Originated from French means “to weave”
What happens when cells group together to perform a
common function?
- It results in tissue formation
- It determines the type, nature, and function of the
tissues, which ultimately affects the organs and organ
system.
Plant Tissues

TWO TYPES OF PLANT TISSUES ➢ Collenchyma – composed of living

cells with a thicker cell wall than
Permanent Tissues parenchyma
- These cells have lost their ability to distribute but - Support and strength, flexible wall
are specialized to offer elasticity, flexibility and ➢ Sclerenchyma – Composed of dead
strength to the plant. cells with thick cell wall (due to an
Meristematic Tissues additional cell wall layer referred to
- Are fast growing rich in cytoplasm well defined as “secondary wall”); primarily for
nucleus and mostly lack vacuole. structural support.
• Complex Permanent Tissue
Types of Meristematic Tissue
➢ Xylem – It helps in the transport of
• Apical Meristem dissolved substances and water all
- Present in the root and shoot tips through the plants.
- help in increasing the height and depth of - The diverse component of
the plant. the xylem includes
• Lateral Meristem vessels, tracheid’s, xylem
- Present in the periphery fibers and xylem
- Responsible for increasing the diameter parenchyma
(girth) of the plants. ➢ Phloem – helps in the transportation
- Also called cambium of food all through the plants
• Intercalary Meristem - The diverse elements of
phloem include phloem
- Present at the base of leaves or internodes
fibers, sieve tubes, phloem
(on both sides of nodes)
parenchyma and
- Help in developing branches
companion cells.
Animal Tissues
Permanent Tissues can be categorized into:
• Simple Permanent Tissue
1. Epithelial Tissues – it is commonly seen
➢ Parenchyma - composed of living outside of the body coverings or as linings
cells with a thin cell wall: of organ and cavities
metabolically active.
- it consists if tightly
- Intercellular air space; packaging tissue, storage; packed cells that form
allow gaseous exchange a continuous layer
 - it provides protection and covers surface and line
body cavities
2. Connective Tissues – is the most abundant
and widely distributed tissue in complex
3. Muscle Tissues – these tissue are composed
of long cells called muscular fiber.
- This tissue amount for the movement of body
parts
- Skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle
4. Nervous Tissues - It is made up of neurons ,
which are specialized signaling the cells
supporting cells called "neuroglia"
- Neuron senses stimuli and transmit electrical
signal through animal body.
- Neurons connect neurons to send signals.
- Dendrites is a part of neurons that receives
impulses from other neurons while Axon is part
where impulse is transmitted to other neurons.
Kinds Of Epithelial Tissue
1. Simple squamous - it is a flat like cells (plate like
scale) for exchange of material through diffusion.
2. Simple Cuboidal - It appears square in side view
and function is for secretion.
3. Simple Columnar - rectangular side view and
brick shape cells (secretion and active absorption).
4. Stratified Squamous - It is a multi-layered and
regenerates quickly; for protection.
5. Stratified cuboidal - is more than one layer of
cells, cube-like in shape, allowing protection of
glands. Located around the mammary, saliva, and
sweat glands.
6. Stratified columnar - is more than one layer of
cells, tall and columnlike, allowing
protection and secretion. These are rare in the human
body, located in the male urethra
and associated with certain glands.
7. Pseudostratified columnar - is a single layer of
cells, varying in height, allowing secretion and
movement of mucus. Located in the windpipe and
upper respiratory tract, sperm ducts, and glands.
8. Transitional - is more than one layer of cells,
resembling stratified squamous and stratified
cuboidal combined, allowing stretching and
distending to make room for urine containment.
Located in the urinary system, especially the
bladder.
3 Major Category of Connective Tissue
1. Fibrous Connective Tissue - a certain fibroblasts
and is separated by a jelly like matrix containing
collagen fibers and yellow elastic fiber
2. Supportive Connective Tissue - It provide
structure, shape and protection.
✓ Cartilage - collagenous fiber embedded in
chondroitin sulfate. Chondrocytes are the cells that
secrete collagen and chondroitin sulfate that
makes them softer and more flexible. (Function:
cushion between bones)
✓ Bones (osteocytes) It is mineralized connective
tissue made by bone forming cells called
OSTEOBLAST which deposited collagen.
3. Fluid Connective Tissue - It is the blood and
lymphatic fluid.
✓ Blood - made up of plasma. It contains water,
salts and dissolved proteins.
✓ Red Blood Cells - carry oxygen
✓ White Blood Cell - for defense and platelets for
blood clothing.
Muscle Tissue
1. Skeletal Muscle - it is attached to the bone by
tendons and creates movement when contracts. It is a
voluntary muscle because it moves according to will.
2. Smooth Muscle - It is found in the walls of the
intestine, stomach, and any other internal organs, in
the blood vessels in the Iris of the eyes.
3. Cardiac Muscle
✓ It is found in the heart.
✓ It has both feature of skeletal muscle and
smooth muscle.
✓ They are responsible in pumping blood to
different part of the body.
Cell modification
• Is the change in the structure of a cell to
carry out specialized function.
• Enable the cell to perform differently and
the modification in the structure occur after
cell division.
Types of Cell modification
1. Apical modification – found on the apical
surface of the cell; absorption, locomotion
and secretion
• Cilia – a hair like structure attached
the surface of the cell and has a
wave-like motion. (motile and non
motile)
• Flagella – are long whip-like
modification that acts like a
propeller and is primarily for
locomotion.
 • Microvilli – attached to finger-like projections
called villi.
-increase the rate of absorption in intestine,
secretion, and cellular adhesion
• Pseudopods – “false feet”
- Enable the organism to make temporary and
irregular lobes.
- Use for movement and engulf prey.
2. Basal Modification – found on the basal surface
of the cell
- Facilitate stable adhesion of basal cells to the
basement membrane.
• Hemidesmosome – half like desmosome
- Are specialized junctional complexes
that attach cells to the underlying
basement membrane
- Primarily composed of keratin,
integrins, and cadherins
3. Lateral Modification – known as cell junction;
the specialized structure that serves as an
intercellular connection between two adjacent
cells.
• Tight junctions- held two adjacent cells
tightly, prevents leakage of materials
between cells and act as a water seal
• Adhering junctions – fastens cells together
and provides a solid mechanical attachment
to adjacent cells.
• Gap junctions – allows direct flow of
molecules between cells and connects two
cells directly from the cytoplasm.
Cell Division
- other cells divide rarely or never.
Cell Division Vocabulary
• Somatic cell – a body cell; a cell whose
genes cannot be passed on to future
generations.
• Germ cell – a cell that is destined to become
a gamete (egg or sperm); a cell whose genes
can be passed on to future generations.
• Diploid (2N)- a cell with 2 chromosome sets
in each of its cells; all body (somatic) cells
• Haploid (N) – a cell with 1 chromosome set
in each of its cells; all gametes (sperm, eggs)
MITOSIS
- also known as karyokinesis
- A diploid cell will give rise to a diploid cell
- Chromosome number remains the same
- The DNA remains identically the same
- One cell gives rise to two cells
Reasons for Mitosis: growth, repair or healing,
and asexual reproduction
- During mitosis, the nucleus of the cell divides,
forming two nuclei with identical genetic
information.
- Produces two genetically identical cells.
Cell cycle (mitosis)
- A typical cell goes through a process of growth,
development, and reproduction called the cell
cycle.
- Most of the cycle is called interphrase.
3 stages: G1, S, G2
★ G1 Phase
- the first gap phase or the preparatory phase of cell
division. during this phase, the cell increase in size
by absorbing water from the cytoplasm and
syntheisze different types of RNA and proteins
★ S Phase
- the period of DNA synthesis during which the
genetic material present within the nucleus gets
copied. each chromosome duplicates to become
two identical sister chromatids attached at a
specific point, called the centromere. the
centrioles get duplicated as well.
★ G2 Phase
- the second gap phase that happens after the DNA
synthesis, but before prophase. during this phase,
the cell continues to increase in size with the synthesis
of RNA and proteins
Four phases of Mitosis
• Prophase
- chromosomes become visible
- chromosomes thickened and become
shortened
- the nuclear membrane disappears
- centrioles duplicate/spindles form
• Metaphase
- centrioles are on the opposite ends of the
nucleus
- nuclear envelope is completely absent
- chromosomes are completely attached to the
spindle fibers and move toward the equator
 • Anaphase •
- sister chromatids start to separate
- two identical sets of chromosomes move Cell Membrane – serves as the boundary
between the cell’s internal and external
toward the opposite poles
environments. Regulates all substances that enter
- spindle fibers begin to disappear and exits the cell.
• Telophase
• chromosomes in their respective poles The plasma membrane is represented using a
becomes enclosed in a nuclear membrane model known as the fluid mosaic.
• a nuclear membrane forms around each set
of chromosomes Components of the plasma membrane:
• start of cytokinesis (division of the 1. Transmembrane proteins – regulate the
cytoplasm) movement of molecules across the
membrane.
MEIOSIS 2. Interior protein network – determines and
maintains the structure and form of the
• occurs in sexual reproduction (sex organs) plasma membrane; responsible for the shape
when a diploid germ cell produces four of the cell.
haploid daughter cells that can mature to
3. Cell-surface markers – responsible for the
become gametes.
recognition of foreign and local (self) cells
• Goal: reduce genetic material by half and tissues.
MEIOSIS I
• Prophase I
Early prophase – chromatids pair;
crossing over occurs
Late prophase – chromosomes condense;
spindle forms; nuclear envelope
fragments
• Metaphase I – chromatid pairs align along
the equator of the cell
• Anaphase I – chromosomes separate and
move to opposite poles.
• Sister chromatids remain attached at
their centromeres.
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
• Telophase I – nuclear envelopes
- relies on the concentration gradient of
reassemble; spindle disappears;
solutes to move them across the plasma
cytokinesis divides cell into two.
membrane; no energy needed.
MEIOSIS II
• Simple Diffusion – high concentrations to
• Produces gametes with one copy of each low concentrations
chromosome and thus one copy of each
gene. • Facilitated Diffusion – ion channels inside
aid the charged ions to move across
• Prophase II – nuclear envelope
fragments; spindle forms • Osmosis- movement of solvent (mostly
water) molecules until the number of free
• Metaphase II – chromosomes align water molecules is equal, known as osmotic
along the equator of the cell balance.
• Anaphase II – sister chromatids • Tonicity
separate and move to opposite poles.
• Telophase II – nuclear envelope
assembles; chromosomes unravel;
spindle disappears; cytokinesis divides
cell into two
Result: Four haploid cells
Four copies of each chromosome

TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
• Refers to different pathways and processes a
cell must move substances in, out, and
around itself.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
- Relies on the expense of cell energy
(Adenosine triphosphate or ATP)
- Move molecules against their concentration
gradient to maintain internal conditions.
(according to energy)
• Primary active transport – ion pumps;
intentional and uphill mode of transport;
directly uses energy from ATP phosphorylation
• Secondary active transport – due to the
difference in energy from the phosphorylation
of energy
- Potassium ions from outside the cell to
inside as the protein reverts its shape due to
the loss of the phosphate group.
(according to direction)
• Coupled/Cotransport – one protein shuttles
two different molecules across the
membrane in the same direction
(SYMPORTER).
• Counter-transport – one transporter moves two
different molecules across the membrane in
different directions (UNIPORT AND
ANTIPORT).

BULK/VASCULAR TRANSPORT
• Endocytosis – process by which cells
take in substances from outside the cell
by engulfing them in a vesicle
• Pinocytosis (cell drinking) – takes in
fluid and solutes
• Phagocytosis (cell eating) – takes in
larger substances (bacteria)
• Receptor mediated – used to capture a
specific target molecule
• Exocytosis – cells release particles from
within the cell into extracellular space.