General Biology 1 Reviewer

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

- Is the energy currency used throughout the cell.

- Provides energy for the cell to do work, such as mechanical work, transport substances across
the membrane, and perform various chemical reactions.

- Composed of sugar ribose, nitrogen base adenine and a chain of 3-phosphate groups

- ATP contains more energy than ADP because it has more bonds.

Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP)

- Is a nucleoside phosphate comprised of a ribonucleoside and two phosphate groups.

- Is a molecule that is involved in transferring and providing cells with energy.

- ADP is charge into ATP when phosphate group is added.

- When a phosphate is removed energy is released.

- When a phosphate is added energy is needed.

3 main kinds of work of a cell: chemical work, transport work and mechanical work.

• Chemical work: synthesis of polymers from monomers (pushing of endergonic reactions)

• Transport work: pumping of substances across membranes (against the direction of spontaneous
movement)

• Mechanical work: beating of cilia, contraction of muscles.

Hydrolysis of ATP

- Process of breaking down bonds between the phosphate groups .

- This happens when a water molecule breaks the terminal phosphate bond.

- Forming Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)

- Phosphorylation (ADP to ATP) and dephosphorylating (ATP to ADP) promote crucial protein
shape changes during important cellular process.

Phosphorylation - is the addition of a phosphate group to a molecule by a protein kinase(enzyme).

Dephosphorylation - is the removal of a phosphate group from a molecule by a phosphatase(enzyme).

Chromatography

- Is a separation technique used to identify various components of mixtures based on the

differences in their structure and/or composition

Pigments

- Are substances that absorb visible light. Different pigments absorb light of different
wavelengths.

Different Pigments:

Anthocyanin – Red (Spring)

Carotenoid – Orange (Winter)

Xanthophyll – Yellow (Fall)

Chlorophyll – Green (Summer)

Chlorophyll

- Is the greenish pigment found in the thylakoid membrane inside the chloroplast of a plant cell.

- Chlorophyll absorbs blue and red light while it transmits and reflects green light. This is why
leaves appear green.

Photosystems

- are bundles of pigments responsible for absorbing sun’s light energy.

- Is an aggregate of pigments and proteins in the thylakoid membrane responsible for the
absorption of photons and the transfer of energy and electrons. It is composed of:

• Light-harvesting complex— is also called the ‘antenna’ complex and is consisted of several different
pigments (chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids) bounded with proteins. When a pigment
molecule absorbs a photon, energy is passed on from one pigment molecule to another pigment
molecule until the energy reaches the reaction center.

• Reaction-center complex—is composed of a pair of chlorophyll a and a primary electron

acceptor. The primary electron acceptor is a specialized molecule that is able to accept electrons from
the pair of chlorophyll a. The pair of chlorophyll a in the reaction-center is also specialized
because they are capable of transferring an electron to the primary electron acceptor and not just
boosting the electron to a higher energy level.
Two types of photosystem:

Photosystem II—was discovered later after the discovery of Photosystem I, but functions first in
the light reaction of photosynthesis. The chlorophyll a in the reaction-center of Photosystem II
effectively absorbs light with a wavelength of 680nm and thus called P680.

Photosystem I—was discovered first. Its reaction-center has a chlorophyll a called P700 because it is
effective in absorbing light with a wavelength of 700nm.

Photosynthesis

- To use sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into high-energy carbohydrates and
oxygen.

- Solar energy is converted into chemical energy through photosynthesis.

Location of Photsynthesis

1. Occurs in the leaves of green plants.

2. Occurs in specific cells in the middle layer of the leaf.

3. Occurs in organelles – called chloroplasts – within the cells of the middle layer of the leaf.

Photosynthesis Equation:

6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2

Photosynthesis has two phases: the light-dependent reaction and the light-independent reaction.

Light-Dependent Reaction

- Also called light reactions or photochemical reactions.

- Located in thylakoid membrane.

- The energy from light is captured in the chlorophyll and is used to make adenosine triphosphate
(ATP).

- ATP Synthase is the enzyme that converts ADP to ATP.

- Produces ATP and NADPH

Steps:

● Light absorption in photosystem II – photolysis occurs

● Production of ATP – This process of making ATP molecules involving light energy is called
photophosphorylation.

● Light absorption in photosystem I – the chlorophyll and the electron get re-energized.

● Production of NADPH by reenergizing electrons

Light-Independent Reaction

- Also called Dark Reactions, Calvin cycle or Photochemical Reactions

- Located in the stroma of the chloroplast

- Uses ATP and NADPH, which are the products of the light-dependent reaction. It reduces carbon
dioxide (CO2) to form sugar.

- Produces glucose.

Calvin Cycle

The net reaction of the Calvin Cycle:

ATP + NADPH + Carbon Dioxide = Glucose

Three Phases:

Carbon Fixation

• Carbon fixation is a process of incorporating an inorganic carbon molecule, CO2, into an organic
material.

• In this phase, the CO2 molecule is attached to a five-carbon sugar molecule named ribulose
biphosphate (RuBP) aided by an enzyme named rubisco or RuBP carboxylase. Rubisco is believed to
be the most abundant protein in the chloroplast and maybe on Earth.

• The resulting product, a six-carbon sugar, is extremely unstable and immediately splits in half. The
split forms two molecules of a 3-phosphoglycerate (3-carbon).

Reduction

• A phosphate group (from ATP) is then attached to each 3-phosphoglycerate by an enzyme, forming
1,3-phosphoglycerate.

• NADPH swoops in and reduces 1,3-biphosphogycerate to G3P.

• For every six G3Ps produced by the Calvin Cycle, five are recycled to regenerate three molecules of
RuBP. Only one G3P leaves the cycle to be packaged for use by the cell.

• It will take two molecules of G3P to make one molecule of glucose.

• The ADP and NADP+ that is formed during the Calvin Cycle will be transported back to the thylakoid
membrane and will enter the light reactions. Here, they will be ‘recharged’ with energy and
become ATP and NADPH.

Regeneration of RuBP

• Five molecules of G3P undergo a series of complex enzymatic reactions to form three molecules
of RuBP. This costs the cell another three molecules of AT, but also provides another set of RuBP to
continue the cycle.

RuBP – Ribulose Biphosphate

G3P – Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate

NADPH – Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate

What does a plant need?

Bring In:

- Light

- CO2

- H2O

Let Out:

- O2

Move Around:

- Sugars

Factors Affecting Rate of Photosynthesis

1. Temperature: increases rate up to a certain point

2. Light Intensity: increases rate up to a certain point

3. CO2 level: Increases rate up to a certain point

4. Water: decrease water, decrease photosynthesis

5. Minerals; Ex. Magnesium, Nitrogen

Cellular Respiration

-A catabolic, exergonic, oxygen(O2) requiring process that uses energy extracted from macromolecules
(glucose) to produce energy (ATP) and water (H2O)

-Takes place in the Mitochondria

Cellular Respiration Equation:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O

Redox Reaction

- Transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another.

Two Types:

Oxidation Reaction - the loss of electrons from a substance or the gain of oxygen.

Reduction Reaction - the gain of electrons to a substance or the loss of oxygen.

Breakdown of Cellular Respiration

Four Main Parts

1. Glycolysis

2. Grooming Phase/Pyruvate Oxidation

3. Krebs Cycle(Citric Acid)

4. Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative Phosphorylation

1. Glycolysis

- Occurs in cytosol.

- Series of reactions in which glucose is degraded to pyruvate; net profit of 2 ATPs; hydrogen
atoms are transferred to carriers; can proceed anaerobically.

Fermentation - is the breaking down of sugar molecules into simpler compounds to produce substances
that can be used in making chemical energy.

2 types:

- Alcohol Fermentation
- Lactic Acid Fermentation

2. Grooming Phase/Pyruvate Oxidation

- Occurs when oxygen is present (aerobic).

- Pyruvate is degraded and combined with coenzyme A to form acetyl CoA; hydrogen atoms are
transferred to carriers; CO2 is released.

- 2 Pyruvate (3C) molecules are transported through the mitochondria membrane to the matrix and is
converted to 2 Acetyl CoA (2C) molecules.

3. Krebs Cycle/Citric Acid Cycle

- Located in mitochondrial matrix.

- Series of reactions in which the acetyl portion of acetyl CoA is degraded to CO2; hydrogen atoms are
transferred to carriers; ATP is synthesized.

- Acetyl CoA (2C) bonds to Oxalacetic acid (4C - OAA) to make Citrate (6C).

- It takes 2 turns of the krebs cycle to oxidize 1 glucose molecule.

4. Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative Phosphorylation (Chemiosmosis)

- Located in inner mitochondrial membrane.

- Chain of several electron transport molecules; electrons are passed along chain; released energy is
used to form a proton gradient; ATP is synthesized as protons diffuse down the gradient; oxygen is final
electron acceptor.

- Uses ETC (cytochrome proteins) and ATP Synthase (enzyme) to make ATP.

- ETC pumps H+ (protons) across inner membrane (lowers pH in inner membrane space).

Aerobic Respiration

- It requires energy

- Takes place in the presence of oxygen

- Cellular Respiration is a type of aerobic respiration because it requires oxygen

Anaerobic Respiration

- It does not requires oxygen

- Takes place in the absence of oxygen.

- Only two ATP are produced

Two Types:

1. Lactic Acid Fermentation – used to make foods such as cheese and yogurts.

2. Alcohol Fermentation – used to make beer and wine.

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

It takes place in the presence of oxygen.
Complete oxidation of glucose takes place.
End products are CO2 and water.
Lot of energy is liberated (38 ATP).
It occurs in plant's and animal's cells.
C6H12O6 + 6O2  → 6CO2 + 6H2O + 686 K.cal
It takes place in the absence of oxygen.
The glucose molecule is incompletely oxidised.
End products are either ethyl alcohol or lactic
acid and CO2.
Relatively small energy is liberated (2 ATP).
Occurs in many anaerobic bacteria and human
muscle cells.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + 56 K.cal