General Biology 2nd Quarter 1st Sem Reviewer - They bond/group together to build more

complex sugars
POINTERS TO REVIEW IN GENBIO1:
Glucose Blood Sugar
I. BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
Fructose Fruit Sugar
II. ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE
Galactose Milk Sugar
II. CELLULAR RESPIRATION
• Glycolysis 1. Glucose- C6H12O6
o BLOOD SUGAR
• Pyruvate Oxidation o Mostly found in plants and animals
• Krebs Cycle o Most important sugar in a human
body
• Electron Transport Chain 2. Fructose
o Sweet sugar, occurs naturally in fruits
TYPES OF TESTS:
o FRUIT SUGAR
I. MULTIPLE CHOICE - 15
3. Galactose
II. ENUMERATION - 10
o MILK SUGAR
III. FILL IN THE BLANKS - 9
o Usually found in Milk produced by
IV. IDENTIFICATION - 8
MAMMALS
V. ESSAY - 8
o
b. Disaccharides
- Di= two
Lesson 1: Biological Molecules - Sacchar= Sugar
- Nutrients - Two sugar carbohydrate
- Act as the building blocks of the body - 2 monosaccharides
- Organic molecules that have basic elements 2 monosaccharides Disaccharide
like Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen Glucose + Glucose Maltose
- ORGANIC SUBSTANCES HAVE CARBON Glucose + Fructose Sucrose
- WATER DOES BOT HAVE CARBON Glucose + Galactose Lactose
• Why do we need food?
- Provides energy for vital activities 1. Maltose
- Keeps living organisms stay healthy o MALT SUGAR
- Provides raw materials to make new cells o Present in grains and wheats
• 4 BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES 2. Sucrose
▪ Carbohydrates o CANE SUGAR or TABLE SUGAR
▪ Proteins o
▪ Lipids 3. Lactose
▪ Nucleic acid o Present in MILK OF MAMMALS
o LACTASE- enzyme you need to digest
Lactose
Lesson 1.1: Carbohydrates c. Polysaccharides
- Poly = Multiple
- Substances that provide great amount of - Sacchar= Sugar
energy - Combination of various monosaccharide
- Contains Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen - 3 or more
- CH20 - COMPLEX SUGARS
- OSE- at the end of the word are most likely a 1. Starch
carbohydrate o Storage form of sugar in PLANTS
a. Monosaccharides o IODINE TEST- few drops of iodine
- Mono= one solution added to any substance
- Sacchar= sugar containing starch will produce a BLUE-
- One sugar carbohydrate BLACK color
- Simple sugar 2. Glycogen
- Also known as SUGAR o Storage form of sugar in ANIMALS
- 3-7 carbon atoms o In humans: found in Liver
- BUILDING BLOCKS OF CARBOHYDRATES 3. Cellulose
 o Makes the cell rigid o Building blocks of lipids
o Provides structure in the cell wall 2. Glycerol Acids
o Found in plants - 2 TYPES OF LIPIDS:
o Cannot be digested by humans a. Saturated
4. Chitin - Unhealthy kinds of fats because it is easy to
o Provides structure to the exoskeleton solidify
- Saturated because many hydrogens atoms
How are Carbohydrates Built and Broken down? - Made of straight chain of fatty acids
1. Condensation Reaction or Dehydration - Present in animal fats
Synthesis - Example: Pig oil and Butter
- Chemical reaction in which two simple b. Unsaturated
molecules are joined together to form a larger - Healthy kind if fats because it doesn’t solidify
molecule releasing a water molecule in the easily
process - Usually generates kink or bend
- SIMPLE MOLECULE TO COMPLEX MOLECULE, - Present in fats of plants
RELEASING WATER - Example: olive oil, sesame oil, peanut oil
2. Hydrolysis - IMPORTANCE OF LIPIDS:
- Cut molecule using water 1. Good source of energy
- Reaction in which a water molecule is needed 2. Insulating material that presents
to break up complex molecule into water excessive heat loss
molecule 3. Essential part of every cell
- COMPLEX MOLECULE TO SIMPLE MOLECULE, Lesson 1.4: Nucleic Acids
ADDING WATER
- Compounds that represent the genetic or
Lesson 1.2: Proteins hereditary materials of the cell
- BUILDING BLOCKS OF THE BODY a. Nucleotides
- Present in food that is important in repairing - Building blocks of nucleic acid
tissues - 2 TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACID:
- COLLAGEN- maintains structure of hair and a. DNA – Deoxyribonucleic Acid
bones - DEOXYRIBOSE- carbon sugar
- Contains elements: CARBON, HYDROGEN, - Double stranded
NITROGEN, AND OXYGEN - NITROGENOUS BASES:
- CHON - CYTOSINE - GUANINE
a. AMINO ACIDS - ADENINE - THYMINE
- BUILDING BLOCKS OF PROTEINS -
1. Essential b. RNA – Ribonucleic Acid
o Proteins that cannot be made by the - RIBOSE- carbon sugar
body - Single stranded
o Can be obtained by consuming food - NITROGENOUS BASES:
o Examples: valine, lysine, leucine - ADENINE - URACIL
2. Non- essential - GUANINE - CYTOSINE
o Can be made by the body NITROGENOUSE BASES CATEGORIES
o Example: glycine, alanine, serine
a. Pyrimidines
Lesson 1.3: Lipids - Cytosine
- Thyme
- Bad substance
- Uracil
- Biomolecules that are insoluble to water
b. Purine
(hydrophobic)
- Adenine
- Usually known as FAT or OIL
- Guanine
- TRIGLYCERIDES
- FAT- solid form of lipids CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
- OIL- liquid form of lipids
- LIPIDS CONTAINS:
1. Fatty Acids
 Chitin Provides structure for
exoskeleton

Lesson 1.5: WATER

- Essential component of body tissues
- 70% of our body is water
- An important substance to sustain life
- It is not a biological molecule
- IMPORTANCE OF WATER:
1. Important solvent for chemical solution
2. Key components of body tissues
3. Controlling body temperature
4. Transporting dissolve substances
5. In plants: water is required in
photosynthesis

Summary:

Building blocks of
The body Nutrients
Proteins Amino acids
Lipids Fatty Acids
Nucleic acids Nucleotides
Carbohydrate Monosaccharide

Monosaccharides
Disaccharide
Polysaccharide

CARBOHYDRATES
Glucose Blood sugar
Fructose Fruit sugar
Galactose Milk sugar
Maltose Malt sugar
Sucrose Table sugar
Lactose Present in milk of
mammals
Starch Storage form of sugars
in Plants
Glycogen Storage form of sugars
in Animals
Cellulose Cell wall, found in plants
Lesson 2: Energy Transformation REACTION COUPLING
Lesson 2.1: Adenosine Triphosphate - Energetically favorable reaction is directly
linked with an energetically unfavorable
Lesson 2.2: Cellular Respiration
reaction
1. ENERGETICALLY FAVORABLE REACTION-
releases energy
Lesson 2.1: Adenosine Triphosphate Example: ATP Hydrolysis
- An active transport 2. ENERGETICALLY UNFAVORABLE
- In mitochondria REACTION- requires energy
- Energy currency of the cell [reason: just like Example: MEMBRANE PUMP
money, it is required to do something: cellular - Reaction coupling example: beating of cilia,
processes] separation of sister chromatids, binding of
- Chemical compound that acts as storage and amino acids
source of energy within the cell PHOSPHORYLATED- process of transferring phosphate
- The phosphate molecule must be transferred to protein
to another molecule through reaction
coupling.
- Bonds of ATP molecule is relatively UNSTABLE
- CELL PROCESSES:
1. Active transport
2. Muscle contraction
3. Cell signaling
STRUCTURE OF ATP
- Looks like NUCLEOTIDE:
1. BASE = Adenine
2. SUGAR = Ribose
3. PHOSPHATE = triphosphate (3)
- PHOSPHATE GROUPS:
1. ALPHA – 1 negative charge
2. BETA – 1 negative charge
3. GAMMA – nearest to the sugar, 2
negative charges
- PHOSPHOANHYDRIDE BOND – bonds that
connects different phosphate groups
HOW DO WE GET ATP?
- There are 2 PROCESSES OF ATP PRODUCTION:
1. AEROBIC RESPIRATION- involves oxygen
2. ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION- does not
involve oxygen
ATP CYCLE
- A repetitive process
1. ATP will undergo ATP HYDROLYSIS in
order to release energy
2. ATP will release one molecule of
phosphate (inorganic)
3. ADP will undergo CELLULAR RESPIRATION
in order to regenerate ATP
- ATP + H20 → ADP + Pi + Energy
EXERGONIC REACTION – reaction that RELEASES
ENERGY
Lesson 2.2: Cellular Respiration Electron Carriers
- Set of metabolic reactions and processes that - Small organic molecules that pick-up
takes place in cells of living organisms to electrons from one molecule and drop them
produce ATP. off with another
1. NAD +
Aerobic Pathway - Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide
Glucose 6 moles 6 moles of ATP - Gets the electron and hydrogen of glucose
Of oxygen Carbon dioxide and water then it will be NADH
_______ ___ __________ 2. FAD
| || | | | | - Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide
C6 H12 06 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2 O + ATP
|__________| |______________| Reduced electron carriers
Reactants Products - REDUCED/REDUCTION
(Raw materials) (outputs) - Kabaliktaran ng oxidation
- Gaining of electron
3 MAJOR STAGES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION 1. NADH
2. FADH2
1. GLYCOLYSIS- breaking down of glucose 3.
2. KREBS CYCLE- citric acid cycle
3. ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN- ETC
DETAILED PROCESS OF GLYCOLYSIS

1. Glycolysis energy requiring phase:

- Glyco = sugar
- Lysis = to break apart
- To break apart Glucose
- Breaking down of glucose into TWO
MOLECULES OF PYRUVATE that takes place in
CYTOSOL OF CELLS
- Does not require oxygen

MAIN PHASES OF GLYCOLYSIS

a. Energy requiring phase
- Requires ATP
- 2 molecules of ATP to breakdown glucose
b. Energy releasing phase
- Releases energy in the form of ATP
- Produced 2 Net ATP
- Produced 2 NADH molecules- brings electron Energy releasing phase:
and hydrogen to the pyruvate

C6 H12 06 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2 O + ATP

GLUCOSE ---→ PYRUVATE
 - series of chemical reactions that release stored
energy by AEROBIC ORGANISM
- occurs in the MATRIX of mitochondria
- MATRIX- innermost part of mitochondria
- repetitive cycle
Energy requiring phase:
= 2 ATP used KREBS CYCLE
= 2 phosphates are added

Energy releasing phase:

- Happens 2x
= 4 ATP
= 2 NADH

NET PRODUCTS OF GLYCOLYSIS:

2 Net ATP (2 lang kasi ibabawas mo yung capital/first 2 ATP)
2 NADH
2 Pyruvate
◼ The 2 pyruvates from glycolysis will then go to
the matrix of mitochondria and undergo
PYRUVATE OXIDATION
PYRUVATE OXIDATION
- Minor process/stage
- Links glycolysis to the krebs cycle
- OXIDATION= loss of electron
- Produces 2 ACETYL CoA
- Also produces carbon dioxide and NADH
- Pyruvate is a 3 carbon molecule
- Carboxyl group will be removed then pyruvate
oxidation will form carbon
- ACETYL GROUP- oxidized 2 carbon molecule
- ACETYL CoA – when acetyl group attached to
coenzyme A, FUEL FOR KREBS CYCLE
- FINAL PRODUCTS:
2 acetyl CoA- will undergo krebs cycle
2 CO2
2 NADH

KREBS CYCLE END PRODUCTS:

= 4 CO2
= 6 NADH
= 2 FADH 2
2. KREBS CYCLE
= 2 ATP/GTP
- also known as CITRIC ACID CYCLE and
3. ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYCLE
- Series of proteins found in the inner
- named after its discoverer HANS KREBS membrane of mitochondria
- Transport electrons to the electron acceptor
that leads to the massive production of ATP
- ELECTRON CARRIERS FROM PREVIOUS STEPS:
GLYCOLYSIS: 2 NADH
PYRUVATE OXIDATION: 2 NADH
KREBS CYCLE: 6 NADH, 2 FADH2
ATP synthase- enzyme na dinadaanan ng
hydrogen ions from inner membrane goint to
the matrix, -- forms energy in thr form of ATP
1 NADH= 3 ATP
1 FADH2 = 2 ATP

TOTAL: 10 NADH and 2 FADH2 10 NADH X 3 = 30 ATP

- PARTS OF MITOCHONDRIA: 2 FADH2 X 2 = 4 ATP
a. Outer membrane
b. Inner membrane ◼ OXYGEN IS THE FINAL ELECTRON ACCEPTOR
c. Intermembrane space- space between
outer and inner END PRODUCTS OF ETC
d. Matrix = 34 ATP
= WATER MOLECULE
KEY STEPS OF ETC
1. Delivery of electrons by NADH and FADH2
2. Electron transfer and proton pumping
- Electron transfer
releases energy
- Proton pumping:
pumps protons
forms: electrochemical gradient
hydrogen ions are pumped from the matrix
going to the intermembrane space
- The energy released by electron transfer is
used to pump protons
3. Splitting of oxygen to form water
4. Gradient-driven synthesis of ATP