Professional Documents
Culture Documents
BIOCHEMISTRY:
for a run through revision
PULSE PUBLICATIONS
Pulse Hospital, Chhatrasangh chauraha,
Dr. G.N. Tiwari compound,
34, Kasia road, Gorakhpur (U.P.)
Tel. : 0551-2203494
Cell : 09235392282, 09312784703
E-mail : rakeshdubey11@yahoo.co.in
pulserahul@yahoo.com
Price Rs :
© Nov 2018
This book has been published on good faith that the material provided by
author(s) is original. Every effort is made to ensure accuracy of material,
but the publisher, printer and author will not be held responsible for any
inadvertent error(s). In case of any dispute, all legal matters to be settled under
Gorakhpur Jurisdiction only.
No cast-iron guarantee is given that this book is totally free from errors of any kind.
If there are errors, they are inspite of our best efforts. The author or the publisher will
not be responsible for these unintended errors.
Laser Typesetting at :
Pulse Publications, Gorakhpur
Although language is the most eloquent vehicle of human expression, yet on the
occasion one finds it difficult to express a feeling appropriately. It is not easy to
formulate in words the feeling of gratitude which I have for many individuals,
who made individual contributions in enabling me to bring this book to
completion.
First and foremost I thank the Almighty for this priceless life and for bestowing
upon his blessings to help me carry out this work with lots of courage and sheer
determination.
Thank you doesn’t seem sufficient for my loving husband Jaspreet Singh whose
invaluable presence is constant source of my happiness and has always endowed
me with strength to face challenges in life. Without his relentless support, this
book would have never been materialized.
Words are insufficient to verbalise my deep sense of gratitude and regards to
my parents, who soulfully provided me the sincere encouragement, endless
patience, emotional and financial support and inspiration throughout my work
and lifting me uphill this phase of life. Special and heartiest thanks to my in laws
for all the support as my parents and encouraging me.
This book would never have been complete without my son Divaahaan who
sacrificed his mother’s time and let me to compose this book.
It is an extraordinary joy to thank my assistant Dimple Nagpal whose
constructive criticism, deep interest and intellectual acumen were instrumental
in accomplishing this book.
I would like to thank M/s Pulse Publications for their efforts and inputs and in
providing me a platform in bringing out the book.
Finally the credit goes to all my students, who have been the actual inspiration
for the composition of this particular book.
vvv
PREFACE
Biochemistry, both a life science as well as a chemical science, is the foundation for
understanding all biological processes. Over the last few decades, a vast information has
been gathered on the subject. It is for sure a standout amongst the most troublesome subjects
as studying and understanding this vast subject is an uphill task for the students. Even after
the students are almost aware about the subject, this subject requires revision.
Keeping all facts in mind, this pocket book aims to enable you to make this tedious work
relatively easy for the students providing the main points to be covered for any entrance
exam containing MCQ type questions on biochemistry. Also the basic theme of the book is
to keep it concise and straightforward.
This book comprises 8 chapters. The first chapter CONCEPTS IN BIOCHEMISTRY
contains the overview of biochemistry and forms the base of student and helps them to
interlink and relate these concepts with other chapters.
The highlights of each topic have been refined and fine tuned to stimulate the learning
process among the students. Several tables and figures are added for the elementary learning.
This book is a time saving hack and comprehends last minute revision notes.
The book is primarily designed for those preparing for various P.G. entrance tests, AIIMS,
AIPGMEE, PGI JIPMER and all India entrance exams and also for undergraduate and
postgraduate medical biochemistry students. This book serves as a ready made source for
MCQ preparation.
In order to score well in these exams, this pocket book is a perfect source for the high time
revision. I have done much justice to providing the best brief knowledge by adding tables,
figures and homophones. I wish you gain maximum from it and develop your concepts.
To help you develop a deeper understanding of the subject, you can have an access to videos
through mobile app “Biochemistry by Dr. Smily Pruthi” in google play store.
Good luck for your coming examinations. Genuine doubts are always welcome. You can be
in touch with me for any doubt at my Facebook group.
ENZYME CLASSIFICATION
z Enzyme Code or Commission Number 1 is Oxidoreductase.
z Enzyme Code or Commission Number 2 is Transferase.
z Enzyme Code or Commission Number 3 is Hydrolase.
z Enzyme Code or Commission Number 4 is Lyase.
z Enzyme Code or Commission Number 5 is Isomerase.
z Enzyme Code or Commission Number 6 is Ligase.
nnn
CHAPTER
CARBOHYDRATE
CHEMISTRY 2
CARBOHYDRATE CHEMISTRY
z Hydroxy group always gives polarity and has high tendency to bind Phosphate.
z Aldehyde group is always present at C-1.
z Keto group is always present at C-2.
z Molecular formula of Carbohydrates is (CH2O)n where n = number of Total Carbons.
z Total number of Isomers possible = 2n , where n = number of asymmetric carbons.
z If all the four valancies of carbon are occupied by different atoms or groups of atoms,
then the carbon is Asymmetric.
z If any two, three or four valancies of carbon are occupied by same atoms or groups
of atoms, then the carbon is Symmetric.
z Functional carbon in case of Carbohydrates (aldehyde or keto) is Symmetric,
But only in Linear configuration. In cyclic configuration functional carbon is
Asymmetric.
z Any compound having asymmetric carbon will show both Optical and Structural
Isomerism.
z Carbohydrates and Amino Acids have asymmetric carbon so both Structural and
Optical Isomerism present.
z Molecules which have Same molecular formula and Different structure are known
as Structural Isomers.
z Molecules which have Same molecular formula and Different optical properties are
known as Optical Isomers.
z Structural Isomerism is of four types → functional isomerism, enantiomerism,
Epimerism and Anomerism.
z Number of asymmetric Carbons in Ketoses are one less the number in aldoses.
z The only carbohydrate with zero asymmetric carbon is → Di Hydroxy Acetone
(DHA).
z Parent alcohol of Carbohydrates → Glycerol.
z Parent carbohydrate → D-Glyceraldehyde.
z Simplest carbohydrate → D-Glyceraldehyde.
z Functional Isomerism - Functional group different (ald or keto).
z Enantiomerism - different -H and -OH orientation around the penultimate carbon.
z Enantiomerism, also known as -D and -L isomerism, also known as mirror images
of each other.
z Enantiomer of carbohydrate abundant in Body/Nature/Plasma/Cell → Always D
form Or For Carbohydrates, it is always ‘D’ form which is abundant.
z Enantiomer of Amino Acid abundant / abundant in Proteins/ synthesized in our
body → L form.
z Enantiomer of a Free Amino Acid in body → Both D and L form exists.
6 : Carbohydrate chemistry
nnn
CHAPTER
CARBOHYDRATE
METABOLISM 3
GLYCOLYSIS
Glucose
Hexokinase ATP
1 ADP
Glucose 6-phosphate
2 Phosphoglucose
isomerase
Fructose 6-phosphate
3 Phosphofructo- ATP
kinase-1 ADP
Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate
4 Aldolase-A
Triose
5 phosphate Glyceraldehyde
Dihydroxyacetone isomerase
phosphate 3-phosphate
(2 molecules)
Glyceraldehyde +
2 NAD + 2P1
6 3-phosphate 2 NADH + 2H
+
dehydrogenase
1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate
(2 molecules)
Phosphoglycerate 2 ADP
7 kinase 2 ATP
3-phosphoglycerate
(2 molecules)
Phosphoglycero-
8 mutase
2-phosphoglycerate
(2 molecules)
9 Enolase
Phosphoenolpyruvate
(2 molecules)
10 Pyruvate 2 ADP
kinase 2 ATP
NADH NAD
Pyruvate Lactate
(2 molecules) (2 molecules)
11 Lactate Dehydrogenase
(anaerobic)
12 : Carbohydrate Metabolism
LINK REACTION
Cytosol Mitochondrion
TRANSPORT PROTEIN
(Pyruvate-Proton NAD+ NADH + H+
CO2
Symport)
z Pyruvate enters Mitochondria via Pyruvate Proton Symport present in the Inner
Mitochondrial Membrane
z Link reaction enzyme is Pyruvate Dehydrogenase complex (PDH complex)
z PDH complex is a Multienzyme containing three components:
1) E1-Pyruvate Dehydrogenase or Pyruvate Carboxylase
2) E2-Dihydro Lipoyl Transacetylase
3) E3-Dihydro Lipoyl Dehydrogenase
z PDH complex and TCA both requires five coenzymes – Vitamin B1, B2, B3, B5 and
Lipoic acid
z Deficiency of these Vitamins (B1, B2, B3, B5) leads to decreased energy production
and CNS problems as Brain cells depend upon this Aerobic reaction
z Allosteric Inhibition of PDH occurs by Acetyl CoA, NADH and ATP
z PDH is active in Dephosphorylated state and Dephosphorylation is done by Insulin
z Arsenate inhibits the enzymes requiring Lipoic Acid as coenzyme such as PDH
complex
z Deficiency of PDH complex is the most common biochemical cause of Congenital
Lactic Acidosis.
z Beri-Beri causes Lactic acidosis
z Link reaction is irreversible.
TCA CYCLE
Acetyl CoA
Malate Oxaloacetate
Citrate synthase
dehydrogenase
NADH
NAD
Malate Citrate
Fumarase Aconitase
Fumarate Isocitrate
FADH NAD
Succinate Isocitrate
dehydrogenase FAD dehydrogenase
NADH
CO2
Succinate -ketoglutarate
GTP NAD
GDP
NADH
Succinyl -ketoglutarate
thiokinase Succinyl-CoA dehydrogenase
CO2
z TCA known as Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle as Citrate and Isocitrate are Tricarboxylic
Acids.
z Kreb’s cycle name is by name of scientist ‘Hans Adolf Krebs’.
z TCA is also called Citric Acid cycle as first compound formed is Citrate which is a
Prochiral molecule.
z Prochiral Molecules are those which can be converted from Achiral to Chiral in a
single step.
z Citrate inhibits Glycolysis and activates Fatty Acid Synthesis.
z Four steps involved in Oxidation-Reduction (Enzymes involved are Isocitrate
Dehydrogenase, α-KG Dehydrogenase, Succinate Dehydrogenase and Malate
Dehydrogenase.
z Two steps involved in Oxidative Decarboxylation (Isocitrate DHase and α-KG
DHase).
z Oxaloacetate (OAA) is regarded as First Substrate and Carrier of TCA and not
Acetyl CoA.
z Oxaloacetate has a Catalytic role in TCA.
z Acetyl CoA is not the intermediate of TCA and is never Glucogenic.
z Aconitase always acts on the part of Citrate derived from Oxaloacetate.
z Flouroacetate is Non Competitive Inhibitor of Aconitase.
z Flourocitrate is Competitive Inhibitor of Aconitase.
z Aconitase/Aconitate Hydratase belongs to Lyase category and is exceptionally an
Iron-Sulphur Protein.
z α-KG Dehydrogenase is a Multi Enzyme Complex similar to PDH complex and
requires same five coenzymes (TPP, Lipoic Acid, FAD, CoA, NAD)
z α-KG Dehydrogenase is not regulated by Phosphorylation or Dephosphorylation.
z Enzymes catalyzing Dehydrogenation without Decarboxylation do not require
Metallic ions for their activity (Mg2+, Mn2+).
z Substrate level Phosphorylation Step : Conversion of Succinyl CoA to Succinate
by Succinyl CoA Synthetase/ Succinate Thiokinase (produce both ATP & GTP but
ATP is predominant) GTP is produced in Liver and Kidney during Starvation for
PEPCK enzyme of Gluconeogenesis.
z There is only one Substrate Level Phosphorylation step in TCA.
z All enzymes of TCA lies in Mitochondrial Matrix Except Succinate Dehydrogenase
(located in Inner Mitochondrial Membrane).
z Succinate Dehydrogenase is a Flavoprotein Enzyme in which FAD act as Hydrogen
Acceptor and is inhibited by Malonate.
z Succinate Dehydrogenase is involved in TCA & ETC.
z Fumarate Hydratase/Fumarase and Aconitase are Lyases.
z One Acetyl CoA gives 10 ATPs in TCA cycle (9 by Oxidative Phosphorylation/ETC
and 1 by SLP).
z Anaplerotic Reactions are those reactions which replenish TCA intermediates.
z Most important Anaplerotic reaction is Pyruvate to Oxaloacetate conversion by
Pyruvate Carboxylase.
z Two CO2 in TCA are derived from the Carbons of Oxaloacetate.
z Irreversible steps of TCA are Citrate Synthase & α-Ketoglutarate Dehydrogenase.
16 : Carbohydrate Metabolism
z There are three Rate Limiting Enzymes in TCA depending on various complex
conditions in body : Citrate Synthase, Isocitrate Synthase & α-Ketoglutarate
Dehydrogenase
WARBURG’s EFFECT
z It occurs in Cancerous Cells. CANCER
z Aerobic Glycolysis occurs in Glycolysis CELL
Cancerous cells but End Product is
Lactate.
z One Glucose in Cancerous cells Pyruvate Lactate
gives only 2 ATPs. Oxygen
z Warburg’s effect is Aerobic
Glycolysis and no Oxidative
Phosphorylation.
SHUTTLES
z Transport of NADH from Cytoplasm to Mitochondria occurs with the help of two
Shuttles namely Malate Shuttle and Glycerol Phosphate Shuttle.
z NADH cannot cross Inner Mitochondrial Membrane (IMM). So Shuttles are used to
transport NADH from Cytoplasm to Mitochondria.
z NADH Shuttles (Malate Shuttle and Glycerol Phosphate Shuttle) are only used by
those Pathways which occur in Cytoplasm.
Cytoplasmic Mitochondrial
glycerol-3-P DH glycerol-3-P DH
+
NADH+H DHAP FADH2
z Malate Shuttle takes NADH from Cytoplasm and delivers NADH in the
Mitochondria.
z Glycerol Phosphate Shuttle takes NADH from Cytoplasm and delivers FADH2 in
the Mitochondria.
z Glycerol Phosphate Shuttle is a shorter shuttle and is a quick source of ATPs and is
less prone to be affected by any deficiency.
z Citrate Shuttle is used in Fatty Acid Synthesis.
z Citrate Shuttle transfers Acetyl CoA from Mitochondria to Cytoplasm.
z ATP Citrate Lyase breaks Citrate to Oxaloacetate and Acetyl CoA in Cytoplasm.
z Creatine-Phosphate Shuttle transport ATP from Mitochondria to Cytoplasm.
z ADP-ATP Translocase present in IMM transfers ATP out into intermembrane
space and ADP transferred inside into the Mitochondrial Matrix.
z Enzyme Creatine Kinase –Mitochondrial (CKm) in Intermembrane Space converts
Creatine to Creatine Phosphate and this Creatine Phosphate reaches Cytoplasm.
z Cytoplasmic Creatine Kinase again converts Creatine Phosphate to Creatine and
this phosphate is used to form ATP.
z NADH is the main starting material for ETC, also sometimes FADH2.
z NADH enters ETC and gives 2.5ATPs.
z FADH2 enters ETC and gives 1.5ATPs.
z ETC & TCA are Vital Pathways for cells and both occur in Mitochondria.
z ETC occurs in IMM, therefore, all components lie in IMM.
z ETC occurs in all cells of the body where Mitochondria is present.
z ETC occurs only in Aerobic conditions.
z ETC occurs in Fed and Fasting state.
z ETC has 5 Protein Complexes- Complex I, II, III, IV, V.
z Complex I to IV are involved in Electron Transport.
z Complex I is also known as NADH-CoQ Reductase / NADH Dehydrogenase.
z Complex II is also known as Succinate CoQ Reductase.
z Complex III is also known as Cyt C Reductase or CoQ-Cytochrome c Reductase
or Cytochrome b/c1.
z Complex IV is also known as Cyt C Oxidase or Cytochrome a/a3 (Prosthetic
Group-Cu).
z Complex IV is the only Electron Carrier in which Haem Iron has an available
coordination site that can directly react with O2.
z Complex V has two units:
1) F0- present in IMM and is a Proton Channel.
2) F1- protrudes into Mitochondrial Matrix and is having enzyme activity of ATP
Synthase.
z ATP Synthase is also known as F1/F0-ATPase because it can also catalyse the
hydrolysis of ATP to ADP and Pi.
z Coenzyme Q (also known as Ubiquinone) is the only Non-Protein member of ETC.
It is a Lipid Soluble Quinine and also an Anti-Oxidant.
Carbohydrate Metabolism : 19
GLUCONEOGENESIS
z Occurs in both (2) Pyruvate
2 ATP
Mitochondria and Pyruvate carboxylase
Cytoplasm (starts from 2 ADP
GLYCOGEN
z Glycogen is the Storage form of The liver
Carbohydrates. stores
glucose as
z Glucose is stored as Glycogen glycogen
because it packs a large quantity
of Carbohydrates in small space,
Glycogenesis Glycogenolysis
maintains low osmolarity in cells
and interconversion of Glucose
and Glycogen provides a good
Regulatory Pathway. Blood
Glucose
22 : Carbohydrate Metabolism
z HMP is the minor pathway for oxidation of Glucose but a major source for NADPH.
z NADPH produced in HMP is needed for Reductive Biosynthesis or to counter the
damaging effects of Oxygen Radicals.
z No ATP is generated but CO2 is produced in HMP.
z HMP has 2 phases: Oxidative phase (irreversible) and Non-Oxidative phase
(reversible).
z In cells with greater need for NADPH than Ribose-5-P, both Oxidative and Non-
Oxidative Phase occurs.
z In cells with greater need for Ribose-5-P than NADPH, only Non-Oxidative Phase
occurs.
z Oxidative Phase synthesize NADPH.
z Non-Oxidative Phase synthesize Ribose-5-Phosphate.
z Heptose keto sugar formed in HMP shunt is Sedoheptulose-7-P.
z Glucose-6-P dehydrogenase (G-6-PD) catalyzes the conversion of Glucose-6-P to
6-Phosphogluconate.This is the Rate Limiting step, first Commited step and also the
Regulatory step of HMP.
z NADPH is a potent Competitive Inhibitor of Glucose-6-P dehydrogenase.
z Insulin upregulates the expression of gene for Glucose-6-P dehydrogenase
z Pathways which do not produce ATP are HMP, Uronic Acid Pathway and RL shunt,
Synthesis of Ketone Bodies, α-Oxidation of Fatty Acids & Oxidation of VLCFA
(Very Long Chain Fatty Acids).
z NADPH is produced from : HMP (major source), Malic enzyme and Cytosolic
Isocitrate Dehydrogenase.
z In Oxidative Phase, 2 molecules of NADPH, 1 molecule of CO2 and 1 molecule of
Ribulose-5-P is formed per Glucose-6-P molecule oxidized.
z Products of HMP from three molecules of Glucose-6-P are 6 NADPH, 3 CO2 , 2
molecules of Glucose-6-P and one Glyceraldehyde-3-P.
z Transketolase → requires TPP (derivative of Vitamin B1) and Mg++.
z Transketolase transfers 2 carbon units.
z Transaldolase transfers 3 carbon units.
z Molecule which is Intermediate as well as End Product in HMP - Glyceraldehyde-
3-Phosphate.
z Molecule which is Substrate as well as End Product in HMP - Glucose-6-Phosphate.
z Tissues which are never the site of HMP are Non-Lactating Mammary Glands and
Skin.
z HMP activity is low in Skeletal Muscles and Brain (as in Brain, all the Glucose is used
by Glycolysis).
z The high need for Nucleotide Precursors in rapidly dividing cells is provided by
HMP as rapidly dividing cells such as Bone Marrow, Skin , Intestinal Mucosa use
Pentoses to make RNA and DNA.
z Glutathione is a tripeptide (three Amino Acids are Glutamate, Cysteine and
Glycine). It is a Reducing Agent (Reducing Property is due to Sulfhydryl group in
Cysteine).
z Marker for B1 deficiency – Transketolase activity.
z Marker for B2 deficiency – Glutathione Reductase activity.
26 : Carbohydrate Metabolism
Galactose Metabolism
z Galactose Metabolism, Fructose Metabolism and
Gluconeogenesis uses the enzymes of Glycolysis
so that energy is not wasted to make different
enzymes for many pathways occuring in the cells.
z Source of Galactose is Lactose (milk and milk
products).
z Galactose also obtained by Lysosomal
Degradation of Glycoproteins and Glycolipids.
Galactose
ATP
Mg2+ Galactokinase
ADP
Block in
Galactose galactosemia UDPGIc
1-phosphate
Galactose Uridine
1-phosphate NAD+ diphosphogalactose
uridyl transferase 4-epimerase
Glucose
1-phosphate UDPGal
Carbohydrate Metabolism : 27
Fructose Metabolism
z Fructose Metabolism takes place Fructose
mainly in Liver. ATP
z Fructose entry into cells is Insulin Fructokinase
Dependent. ADP
Osmotic stress
Aldose Sorbitol
reductase dehydrogenase
Glucose Sorbitol Fructose
GSSG GSH
Glutathione
reductase
nnn
CHAPTER
ENZYMES 4
ENZYMES
z Enzymes are High Molecular Weight, Highly efficient and specialized Proteins,
which catalyze the Biochemical Reactions.
z Enzymes increase the Rate of the Reaction, without being changed in the overall
process.
z All enzymes are Proteins except
Ribozyme.
z Enzymes are Substrate Specific,
Stereospecific and Thermolabile.
z Active Site is made up of Binding
Sites (usually two) & Catalytic Site.
z Active site (A.S) is Flexible and not
Rigid.
z The A.S of enzyme is formed of Amino Acids which may be placed at long distances
on the Primary Structure, but are brought nearer to each other by 3-D Conformation
of Enzyme.
z Induced Fit Theory – Active Site is flexible, when substrate approaches active site
then there is conformational change which induces the active site to fit the substrate.
z For any Thermodynamically Favourable Reaction, the Free Energy of the Product is
lower than that of Substrate.
z Amount of ΔG tells that a reaction is Thermodynamically Favourable or not.
z Negative ΔG (ΔG<0) → Thermodynamically Stable Reaction.
z Positive ΔG (ΔG<0) → Thermodynamically Unfavourable Reaction (i.e. energy
required).
z ΔG=0 → Reaction is at Equilibrium (i.e. freely reversible).
30 : Enzymes
z Enzyme decreases the Activation Energy as well as Time required by the Reaction.
z Enzyme does not affect Free Energy or Equilibrium of the Reaction.
Activation Energy
5. Isomerases
Racemase interconvert L & D stereoisomers
Mutase transfer groups b/w atoms within a molecule
Epimerase interconvert epimers
6. Ligase
Synthetase link 2 molecules via an ATP-dependent reaction
Carboxylase use CO2 as a substrate
AMINO ACIDS 5
AMINO ACIDS – CLASSIFICATION & METABOLISM
z Amino group (-NH2) is always on left side and Acid group (-COOH) is always on
right side in an Amino Acid.
z Any compound having Asymmetric Carbon shows both Optical and Structural
Isomerism.
z All Amino Acids have 1 Asymmetric Carbon except - Glycine, Threonine and
Isoleucine.
z Glycine has no asymmetric carbon.
z Threonine & Isoleucine have 2 asymmetric carbons.
z Amino Acids ionize to give negative charge on Carboxy group and positive charge
on Amino group and the Net Charge is zero, hence known as Zwitter-Ion or
Ampholyte.
z pI is Isoelectric pH → that pH at which Zwitter ions exist.
z At pI (Isoelectric pH), a protein will precipitate.
basic acidic
group H group H
H2N C COOH +H N C COO
3
R R
amino acid zwitterion
z All Amino Acids are L-α-Amino Acids, which are present in Proteins. But in body,
Free Amino Acids are present (i.e. those which are not in proteins), which can be L
or D or α/β/Y.
z Amino Acid abundant in Protein → L-form.
z Amino Acid abundant in Body → L-form.
z Amino Acid present in Protein → always ‘L’ form and always α.
z Amino Acid present in Body → Both ‘L’ and ‘D’ forms.
38 : Amino Acids
Pyrrolysine
O NH2
X OH
N
H
N O
Lysine NH2
OH
H2N
OH SH SeH
H H H
O O O
H2N H2N H2N
OH OH OH
Arginine Histidine
O O
H2N CH C OH H2N CH C OH
CH2 CH2
CH2
N
CH2
NH
NH
C NH
NH2
H
Alanine
z Maple Syrup Urine Disease (MSUD) is Autosomal Recessive disease in which there
is a defect in the Oxidative Decarboxylation step (in the catabolism of Branched
Chain Amino Acids).
z Enzyme defect in MSUD is branched chain α-Ketoacid Dehydrogenase/ Branched
Chain α-Keto Acid Decarboxylase (Multi enzyme complex).
z Clinical features of MSUD are Burnt Sugar like Odour Of Urine, Ketosis, Vomiting,
Feeding Problems, Mental Retardation, Abnormal Muscle Tone
z If MSUD is not treated , then Coma or Death may occur.
z Patients with rare Thiamine Dependent Variant of MSUD give response when large
doses of Vitamin B1 is given.
z Isovaleric Acidemia – Defect in FAD Dependent Dehydrogenase (Isovaleryl CoA
Dehydrogenase) which specifically degrades Isovaleric Acid (involved in Metabolism
of Leucine) – Sweet feet odour of urine.
z All Aliphatic Amino Acids (Valine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Alanine, Glycine) are Non-
Polar.
z Least Non-Polar is Glycine.
z Glycine Metabolism is linked with THF & Vitamin B6.
z Primary Hyperoxaluria is defect in enzyme Glycine Transaminase.
z Causes of Secondary Hyperoxaluria are Vitamin B6 deficiency, Vitamin C Toxicity
& Ethylene Glycol Poisoning.
z In Non-Ketotic Hyperglycinemia (or Glycine Encephalopathy), there is defect in
Glycine Cleavage System.
z In Glycinuria, there is defective reabsorption of Glycine due to defective transporter
for Glycine & Proline.
z Uses of Glycine → Formation of Haem, Glutathione, Serine, Creatine, Creatinine,
Choline, Betaine and Conjugation of Primary Bile Acids.
z Creatine is formed from Arginine & Glycine and SAM acts as a Methyl Donor.
z Choline and Betaine Metabolism is interrelated with Folate metabolism.
Amino Acids : 41
Biochemistry of Phenylketonuria
z Albinism (milky white skin, white hair, red eye color) is absence of pigment
Melanin from skin, hair and eyes. Enzyme deficient is Tyrosinase (an Oxidase and
Cu required).
z Oculo Cutaneous Albinism associated with defects in Vision and Photophobia.
z In Vitiligo, enzyme Tyrosinase is normal but there is lack of Melanoblasts in
regional areas.
z Alkaptonuria is associated with defects in Catabolism of Tyrosine and
Phenylalanine.
z Alkaptonuria (Autosomal Recessive) is part of Garrod’s Tetrad.
z Benedict’s Test is positive in Alkaptonuria due to Homogentisic Acid which is
Reducing in nature.
z Fresh urine of Alkaptonuria patients is normal color.
z But urine on long standing turns black due to oxidation of Homogentisic Acid.
z There is no Mental Retardation in Alkaptonuria.
z Polymerization of Homogentisic Acid forms Alkapton Bodies which gets
accumulated in Cartilages giving Bluish Black Connective Tissues.
z Enzyme deficient in Alkaptonuria is Homogentisate Dioxygenase.
z Characteristics of Alkaptonuria are Dark staining of Diapers, Deposition of Black
Pigments in joints, Cartilage and Collagenous Tissue (Ochronosis)
z Nitisinone is used in treatment of Alkaptonuria.
z Nitisinone inhibits PHPP (Para Hydroxy Phenyl Pyruvate) Hydroxylase.
z Glutathione is required in the Catabolism of Phenylalanine & Tyrosine.
z Homogentisic Acid is an intermediate in the Catabolism of Tyrosine.
z Tyrosinemia Type I or Tyrosinosis is most common Tyrosinemia– defective
Fumaryl Aceto Acetate Hydrolase – Terminal Enzyme in Tyrosine Catabolism –
characterized by Boiled Cabbage/Rancid Butter like Odour of Urine, also known as
Hereditary Tyrosinemia or Hepato-Renal Tyrosinemia.
z Tyrosinemia Type II is known as Richner Hanhart Syndrome or Oculo-Cutaneous
Tyrosinemia is deficiency of Tyrosine Transaminase.
z Tyrosinemia Type III is Neonatal Tyrosinemia- deficiency of PHPP (Para Hydroxy
Phenyl Pyruvate) Hydroxylase.
z Tryptophan Pyrrolase is a Dioxygenase and contains haem.
z Uses of Tryptophan – Formation of Serotonin, Melatonin & Niacin.
z Rate Limiting Enzyme in Niacin synthesis is QPRTase (Quinolate Phospho Ribosyl
Transferase).
z 60 mg Tryptophan forms 1 mg Niacin.
z Serotonin is synthesized in Intestine & Placenta and is a Neurotransmitter
responsible for Mood Elevation and Temperature Regulation.
z Melatonin is Acetyl Methyl Serotonin.
z Melatonin is synthesized in Pineal Glands and is the Neurotransmitter responsible
for Circadian Rhythm.
z Excretory product of Serotonin is 5-HIAA (Hydroxyl Indole Acetic Acid).
z Tryptophan forms 5-OH Tryptophan which is converted to Serotonin (5-OH
Tryptamine) and then Melatonin.
44 : Amino Acids
CH2 C CH2
COO
H2N O
C
COO
H2N O
NH2 OH NH2
Cysteine Methionine
z Hyperammonemia Type I & Hyperammonemia Type II are most severe Urea Cycle
defects as ammonia is present in inorganic form which is highly toxic.
z Arginine is the first line treatment of Urea Cycle Disorders but it is contraindicated
in Hyperargininemia.
z Sodium Benzoate and Phenylbutyrate are Ammonia Scavenging Agents.
z Deficiency of enzyme Arginosuccinate synthetase leads to Citrullinemia Type I.
z Defect in Citrin Transporter (transports aspartate) leads to Citrullinemia Type II.
z Phenyl Butyrate is more effective than Sodium Benzoate in treating Urea Cycle
disorders.
z Increased Gluconeogenesis from Amino Acids increase Urea formation.
Protein foods
z Dipeptidases and Tripeptidases: Cleaves Di and Tri peptides into their individual
Amino Acids, which are absorbed.
z Primary Structure: Sequence of Amino Acids joined by Peptide bonds.
z Secondary structure: Folding of Primary Structure e.g. α-helix, β-sheet, β-turn/
bends, α-chain in Collagen.
z Each turn of α-helix contains 3.6 Amino Acids.
z α-helix is Rigid and Right handed - Only Interchain Hydrogen bonds present.
z β-sheet has both Interchain and Intrachain Hydrogen bonds – fully extended chain
– may be parallel or anti- parallel.
z Tertiary Structure: Single fully folded Functional Polypeptide chain.
z Quaternary Structure: More than one fully folded Functional Polypeptide chains.
nnn
CHAPTER
LIPIDS 6
LIPID BIOCHEMISTRY
z Fatty Acid consists of a Hydrophobic Hydrocarbon Chain (Non-Polar) and a
Hydrophilic Carboxyl Group (Polar) which is ionized at pH 7. In case of Long Chain
Fatty Acids, the Non Polar Portion is predominant. In case of Short Chain Fatty
Acids, the Polar Portion is predominant.
z Terminal Methyl Group in a Fatty Acid is called ω-carbon (omega).
z C2 in case of Fatty Acid is called
α-carbon (alpha).
z C3 in case of Fatty Acid is called
β-carbon (beta).
z C4 in case of Fatty Acid is called
g-carbon (gamma).
z Acid + Alcohol = Ester bond.
z Fatty Acid (Polar) + Alcohol (Polar) = Fat (Non-polar).
z Acid + Amino = Amide bond.
z Simple Lipids are only made up of 2 components i.e. Fatty Acid (FA) and Alcohol.
z Complex Lipids are made up of three components → Fatty Acid, Alcohol and Other
Component (Phosphate or Carbohydrate) e.g. Phospholipids & Glycolipids.
z Alcohol in Simple Lipids is Glycerol (3C).
z Mono-Acyl Glycerol (MAG) : One Fatty Acid + Glycerol.
z Di- Acyl Glycerol (DAG) : Two Fatty Acids + Glycerol.
z Tri- Acyl Glycerol/Neutral Fat/Triglycerides (TGs) : Three FAs + Glycerol
z Mono Acyl Glycerol & Di Acyl Glycerol is Amphipathic. But Tri Acyl Glycerol is
Non Polar.
z TGs are the main lipids present in diet and also the main Storage Form of Lipids in
the body (in Adipose Tissues).
z Hormone Sensitive Lipase present in Adipose Tissues breaks down TGs. It is active
in Fasting state.
z Phospholipids/ Phosphoglycerides = Alcohol +
Fatty Acid + Phosphate.
z Phospholipids are of two types: Glycero-
Phospholipids and Sphingo-Phospholipids.
z Parent alcohol is Glycerol (3 C) in Glycero-
Phospholipids.
54 : Lipids
z ω-6 Essential Fatty Acids are Gamma-Linolenic Acid (18 C, 3 Double bonds),
Linoleic acid (18 C, 2 Double bonds), Arachidonic Acid (20 C, 4 Double bonds).
z Most essential Fatty Acid is Linoleic Acid.
z α-Linolenic Acid is the precursor of ω-3 category.
z Linoleic Acid is the precursor of ω-6 category.
z Cervonic Acid / Docosa Hexaenoic Acid (DHA) has 22C and 6 double bonds.
DHA is important for Brain development in Children and decreased amount leads
to increased risk of Retinitis Pigmentosa. DHA is present in high concentration in
Sperm, Retina, Cerebral Cortex. Constant source of DHA is Breast Milk.
z Lipotropic Factors are the factors which are required for the synthesis of
Phospholipids. E.g. Essential FAs, Choline, Methionine. Their deficiency leads to
Fatty Liver.
z Cholecystokinin is a Peptide Hormone which is released from Duodenum and
Jejunum in response to Lipid and Protein diet. This hormone helps Gall Bladder to
contract and also cause Pancreas to release it secretions.
z Humans cannot introduce double bonds beyong Δ9 (delta 9) position.
z Antioxidants are added in oils to prevent Rancidity (Hydrolytic cleavage of double
bond leading to formation of Short Chain Fatty Acids & Aldehydes).
LIPOPROTEINS
z Lipids present in Lipoproteins are TGs, Phospholipids, Free Cholesterol
(unesterified) and Cholesterol Ester. TGs and Cholesterol Ester are neutral or totally
Non-Polar and lies in the core. Cholesterol and PLs are Amphipathic Lipids and lie
towards the periphery.
z Proteins present in Lipoproteins are known as Apo Lipoprotein s or Apoproteins
and are synthesized in RER and Golgi Apparatus. They are Apo A-I, A-II, Apo B-48,
Apo B-100, Apo C-I, C-II, C-III and Apo E.
z Lipoprotein s are Chylomicrons, Chylomicron remnant, VLDL (Very Low Density
Lipoproteins), VLDL remnant or IDL (Intermediate Density Lipoprotein s), LDL
(Low density Lipoproteins) and HDL (High density Lipoproteins) in the order of
increasing Density.
z Density is directly proportional to Percentage of Proteins and inversely proportional
to TG Content and Size.
z HDL has maximum density, so smallest size, has minimum TG content and
maximum Proteins.
z In circulation, HDL donates Apo C and Apo E to Chylomicron and VLDL so that
they are converted to Chylomicron remnant and VLDL remnant.
z Chylomicrons are largest in size.
z Lipoprotein Lipase enzyme is synthesized by Adipose Tissues, Cardiac and Skeletal
Muscles. This enzyme is activated by Insulin.
z Chylomicrons carry Exogenous Lipid (or Exogenous TGs) from Intestine to
Peripheral Tissues.
z Chylomicron remnant is degraded in Liver.
Lipids : 57
z Endogenous fats are synthesized by Liver and transported in the form of VLDL. So,
VLDL transports endogenous TGs or Endogenous Lipids from Liver to Peripheral
Tissues.
z Cholesterol is transported to Peripheral Tissues by LDL.
z HDL takes Cholesterol from Periphery to Liver: also known as Reverse Cholesterol
Transport.
z HDL converts Cholesterol to Cholesterol Ester with the help of enzyme LCAT
(Lecithin Cholesterol Acyl Transferase). Apo A-I activates LCAT. LCAT transfers
FA from Lecithin (PL) to cholesterol. Lecithin after losing Fatty Acid becomes
Lysolecithin.
z Main Ligand for LDL-Receptor is Apo B-100 and minor Ligand is Apo E.
z Ligand for HDL-Receptor is Apo A-I.
z Ligand for Chylomicron remnants & VLDL remnants is Apo E.
z Apo C-I and Apo C-II → activate Lipoprotein Lipase.
z Apo C-III → inhibits Lipoprotein Lipase.
z Apo A-I → activate LCAT.
z Apo A-II → inhibits LCAT.
z HDL (cardioprotective) is known as α-Lipoprotein or Lipoprotein -A.
z Deficiency of HDL leads to Tangier’s Disease.
z LDL is known as β-Lipoprotein and is increased in Diabetes Mellitus.
z VLDL is known as Pre- β-Lipoprotein.
z IDL is known as Broad β-Lipoprotein.
z Lipoprotein ‘a’ has a structure similar to Plasminogen, so it interferes with
activation of Plasminogen to Plasmin, leading to Intravascular Thrombosis.
Therefore, it is associated with increased risk for Cardiovascular diseases. It contains
LDL and Apo ‘a’.
z Lipoprotein A or HDL prevent Atherosclerosis.
z Lipoprotein ‘a’ causes Atherosclerosis (as it contains LDL).
z Insulin enhances the action of Lipoprotein Lipase but only in the capillary beds of
Adipose tissue.
z Hormone Sensitive lipase is activated by Glucocorticoids, Glucagon, Epinephrine,
Nor-Epinephrine, Dopamine and Growth Hormones.
z HDL has maximum Electrophoretic Mobility.
z Chylomicron has Apo B-48.
LIPID METABOLISM
z FA synthesis is an Anabolic pathway and occurs in Fed state and activated by Insulin
hormone.
z Major site of Fatty Acid synthesis is Liver.
z FA synthesis occurs in Cytoplasm.
z Acetyl CoA (produced in Mitochondria) is the starting material for Fatty Acid
Synthesis.
z RLE of Fatty Acid synthesis is Acetyl CoA Carboxylase (adds CO2 to Acetyl CoA to
make Malonyl CoA).
z Malonyl CoA is the activated form in Fatty Acid Synthesis.
z Main enzyme of FA synthesis is Fatty Acid synthase complex/ Palmitate synthase
complex.
z Fatty Acid synthase complex is a Multienzyme complex consisting of 6 enzymatic
activities: Ketoacyl synthase, Malonyl-Acetyl Transacylase, Hydratase, Enoyl
Reductase, Ketoacyl reductase and Thioesterase/Deacylase.
Lipids : 59
e Reducing e
zym nz
y
en m
g Dehydratase
in Malonyl
e
Releasing
ens transacylase Enoyl
enzyme
reductase
nd
Acetyl
Ketoacyl
Co
transacylase
reductase
ACP
Fun
Ketoacyl Thioesterase
divis
ctio
synthase
ion
nal
4`-phospho-
Cys pantetheine
SH Subunit SH
SH division SH
Cys
4`-phospho-
pantetheine
Ketoacyl
synthase
Thioesterase
ACP Acetyl
Malonyl transacylase
Ketoacyl transacylase
reductase Enoyl
Dehydratase
reductase
z Fatty Acid Synthase Complex is a dimer consisting of two subunit and each subunit
attached to Acyl Carrier protein (has Sulfhydryl group with Phosphopanetheine).
z Malonyl-Acetyl Tranacylase enzyme is involved in the loading of Acetyl CoA (2C)
and Malonyl CoA (3C).
z Palmitic Acid / Palmitate is the first Fatty Acid synthesized denovo after 7 cycles of
Fatty Acid Synthesis.
z Synthesis of one Palmitate requires 14 NADPH.
z Cofactors required for Fatty Acid Synthesis are NADPH, Biotin & ATP.
z Malate in Cytoplasm gets converted to Pyruvate by Malic enzyme which is a minor
source of NADPH.
Citrate Shuttle
60 : Lipids
nnn
CHAPTER
MOLECULAR 7
CHEMISTRY & METABOLISM OF NUCLEOTIDES
z Nucleic Acid is polymer of Nucleotides.
z Nucleotide = Nitrogenous base + Sugar +
Phosphate.
z Nucleoside = Nitrogenous base + Sugar.
z DNA is Helical (right handed) and the two strands are Antiparallel.
z DNA is made up of four Nitrogenous bases : Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine
(G) and Cytosine (C).
z B-DNA and A-DNA are Right Handed whereas Z-DNA is Left Handed.
z B-DNA is the major DNA in cells.
z Z-DNA has a function in regulation of Gene Expression, particularly in GC sequence
(alternating Purine-Pyrimidine).
z Gene Expresssion = Transcription + Translation.
z Thymine (T) is present instead of Uracil (U) in DNA to prevent Mutations.
z Cytosine gets converted to Uracil (by removal of amino group) very spontaneously
in DNA, by enzyme Cytosine Deaminase.
z Main difference between DNA and RNA is Sugar i.e always Deoxyribose in DNA
and its always Ribose in case of RNA.
z Chargaff’s Rule: Adenine must pair with
Thymine and Guanine with Cytosine with
weak Hydrogen bonds. The number of
Purines (A+G) is equal to the total number
of Pyrimidines (C+T) but the number
of (A+T) is not equal to (G+C), it can be
variable.
z Nucleosomes = DNA + Proteins.
z Histone Proteins have positive charges because they are rich in Basic Amino Acids
(Lysine, Arginine).
z Due to opposite charge on DNA and Histone Proteins, they get tightly bound
forming Nucleosomes.
z If DNA is separated from Histone, then it is free or is transcriptionally active.
z PTMs (Post Translational Modifications) of Histones: These are reversible covalent
modifications in which N-terminal of Proteins is modified by adding or removing a
group and helps in regulation of Gene Expression.
z Various ways of Histone Modifications are: Acetylation, Phosphorylation,
Methylation, ADP Ribosylation, Mono-Ubiquitylation and Sumoylation.
Molecular : 67
high frequency during each round of Mitosis. So Tumor Cell gives a different Genetic
Fingerprint than the host cell.
z Variable number of Tandem repeats/VNTRs are also known as Mini-Satellites and
the repeat size is 15-70 base pairs.
z Mitochondrial DNA: same like Prokaryotic
DNA i.e. Circular double stranded and no
Introns present.
z Mitochondrial (DNA/mtDNA) is
synthesized by γ-Polymerase (gamma).
z mtDNA has high rate of Mutation as
compared to Nuclear DNA.
z mtDNA contains 16500 base pairs and 67
genes, all of which are essential for normal
Mitochondrial function.
z Thirteen of these 67 genes provide
instructions for making enzymes involved
in oxidative phosphorylation.
z AUA Codon codes for Isoleucine but in mitochondrial DNA, it codes for
Methionine.
z UGA Codon is a stop codon but in mitochondrial DNA, it codes for Tryptophan.
z AGA & AGG codes for Arginine but in mitochondrial DNA, these are Stop Codons.
z Mitochondrial inheritance is Non-Mendelian & it is only transmitted through
Mother.
z Mutations in mt DNA mostly affect Oxidative Phosphorylation and there is
decreased ATP in cells.
z Diseases related to Mutations in mtDNA: MELAS, Kearns syndrome, Leber
Hereditary Optic Neuropathy, Leigh syndrome & NARP syndrome.
z MELAS : Mitochondrial Encephalopathy, Lactic Acidosis and Stroke like Episodes.
z Kearns/Sayre Syndrome : Large deletion of mt DNA. Patient has Ophthalmoplegia
and Retinopathy.
z Leber Hereditary Optic Neuropathy : Optic Nerve affected leading to Vision Loss.
z Leigh Syndrome : Brain affected leading to Developmental Delay, Muscle Weakness.
z NARP Syndrome : Neuropathy, Ataxia & Retinitis Pigmentosa.
z DNA Recombination or
Recombination DNA
Molecular Cloning is the
insertion of DNA fragments
to produce new Nucleotide
+
sequence arrangements.
70 : Molecular
z Each Amino acid has more than one codons, is known as Degeneracy or Redundancy.
z Point mutations are of three types namely Silent, Missense and Non Sense Mutations.
z In Silent Mutation, Primary Structure of Protein always remain the same. Codon is
replaced by another codon which codes for same Amino Acid.
z Silent Mutations occur due to Degeneracy of Codons (codon is changed but Amino
Acid is not changed). So Degeneracy prevents Mutations.
z In Non Sense Mutation, Primary Structure of Protein will be changed, as there will
be premature Termination of Protein Synthesis due to introduction of Stop Codon.
z In Missense Mutation, a Codon is replaced by another Codon coding for a different
Amino Acid.
z Trinucleotide Repeat Expansion: a sequence of three bases that is repeated in
tandem will become amplified in number, so that too many copies of the triplet
occur.
z Diseases due to Trinucleotide Repeat Expansion:
Hungington Disease
Fragile X Syndrome
DNA REPLICATION
z Central Dogma of Molecular Biology: The flow of information from DNA to RNA
and then to Proteins.
z Reverse Transcription is the synthesis of DNA from RNA by enzyme RNA
Dependent DNA Polymerase.
z Reverse Transcription occurs in Retroviruses such as HIV virus, Transposons and
Telomerase.
z DNA Replication and Synthesis of Histones occurs in S-phase of Cell Cycle.
z DNA Replication is Semi-Conservative in nature (one parental strand is conserved
each time).
z Prokaryotes have one Origin of Replication (ori) while Eukaryotes have multiple
ori sites.
z Ori is AT rich sequence and can be separated easily.
z DNA Replication is bidirectional (Replication moves in both directions from the
ori).
z The Temperature at which half of the Helical Structure is lost is known as Melting
Point (Tm).
72 : Molecular
z If any of the four substrates i.e dATP, dGTP, dCTP, dTTP is not available, DNA
synthesis stops.
z DNA Polymerase I remove RNA Primers from both Leading and Lagging strand.
z DNA Polymerase I has Polymerase (5’→3’ Polymerase) activity and 3’→5’
Exonuclease (Proofreading Activity) & 5’→3’ Exonuclease Activity.
z Klenow Fragment is a fragment of DNA Polymerase I which has 5 → 3’ Polymerase
Activity and 3’ → 5’ Exonuclease Activity.
z DNA Ligase acts only on the Lagging strand and creates 3’5’ Phosphodiester bond
using ATP.
z Telomeres have tandem repeats of a transcriptionally inactive Hexameric sequence
(TTAGGG)n.
z Telomeres provide structural support to the Chromosome, prevent attack by
Nucleases and distinguish a true end of Chromosome from break in dsDNA.
z Telomeres shorten as cell divides.
z Telomerase enzyme provides longevity to cells.
z Telomerase is Ribonucleoprotein i.e. it has RNA + Protein.
z Telomerase is not a Ribozyme because this RNA is not used as enzyme. It is used as
a template for DNA synthesis.
z Telomerase is RNA Dependent DNA Polymerase or Reverse Transcriptase.
z Telomerase activity increases in Cancer and decreases in Aging.
z Germ cells have more Telomerase Activity than Stem Cells.
z Proofreading is correction during Synthesis, occurs in S-phase.
z DNA Repair is correction after Synthesis.
z Proofreading has 3’→5’ Exonuclease Activity.
z Proofreading and DNA repair both are done by DNA Polymerase II in Prokaryotes.
z In Eukaryotes, all Enzymes can do Proofreading except α and β-Polymerase.
z Most Repairs occur in G1 phase of Cell Cycle. But Mismatch Repair occurs in G2
phase.
z DNA Repair is done mainly by β-polymerase in Eukaryotes.
z ε-polymerase has a minor role in DNA repair. Also has role in Leading Strand
synthesis in case of Eukaryotes.
z δ-Polymerase in Eukaryotes – Lagging Strand Synthesis.
74 : Molecular
rRNA
tRNA
z mRNA which is formed from more than one gene is known as Polycistronic and is
a characteristic of Prokaryotes.
z In Eukaryotes, each mRNA comes from a single gene knwn as Monocistronic
mRNA.
z Bacterial/ Prokaryotic Ribosome: 70S comprising larger subunit 50S (5s, 23s
z The final product of Gene Expression can be a Protein or RNA, depending on the
Gene.
z Ribozyme means RNA act as Enzyme.
z Ribozyme catalyzes the breakage and synthesis of Phosphodiester bond and no ATP
is used.
z Telomerase and RNase H are not Ribozymes.
z Template Strand → Strand where gene is present, also known as Anti-Sense/ Non-
Coding/ Minus strand.
z Non Template Strand → also known as Sense/ Coding/ Plus strand.
z RNA Polymerase first binds with the Promoter Region (helps in initiation but
promoter region is not transcribed).
z TATA box in Prokaryotes known as Pribnow Box present at -10 position on DNA
(10 base pairs upstream to the transcription start site).
Molecular : 77
z TATA box in Eukaryotes known as Hogness box present at -25 position on DNA
(25 base pairs upstream to the Transcription Start Site).
OPERON MODEL
z Operator is a site on DNA that regulate the activity of the Gene by binding a Protein
known as Repressor.
z Inducer can bind to Repressor and can remove Repressor from Operator site leading
to Gene Activation. Inducer is Lactose in Lac Operon.
z Operon means a complete unit operating on itself. It has the capability to activate or
inhibit the Genes.
z Operons are found in Prokaryotes.
z O-site : Operator lies downstream to Promoter.
z CAP site : lies Upstream of Promoter. CAP-cAMP Complex (trans acting protein)
binds here.
z Lac Operon Genes are activated if glucose decreases in the environment of E.Coli
and if Lactose is present.
Molecular : 79
z Lac I (Inhibitory) is a House Keeping Gene i.e. always active and has its own
Promoter.
z Lac I produces Repressor Tetramer (a trans acting factor).
z Lac Z codes for β-Galactosidase – breaks Lactose to Galactose and Glucose.
z Lac Y codes for Permease – Facilitate permeation of Lactose into the cell.
z Lac X codes for Transacetylase - Acetylates Lactose.
TRANSLATION
z Codons are Nucleotide Triplets (3 nucleotides make 1 codon).
z 4 Nucleotide Bases used to produce three base Codons i.e. A, U, C, G.
z Total number of Codons possible = 64.
z STOP Codons : UAA, UAG, UGA – do not code for any Amino Acid.
z Methionine and Tryptophan have only 1 Codon i.e. do not show degeneracy.
z Genetic Code is Unambiguous : each Codon is specific for its Amino Acid e.g. AUG
will always Code for Methionine.
z Genetic Code is Universal i.e well conserved during evolution with only slight
differences.
z Genetic Code is Non-Overlapping and Commaless.
z There is Antiparallel binding between Codon and Anti-Codon in tRNA.
z Wobble Hypothesis: Movement of first base of Anti-Codon can occur to allow non-
traditional base pairing with the last base of Codon. This movement is called Wobble,
which allows single tRNA to recognize more than one Codon.
z Ribosomes are spherical bodies made up of RNA and Proteins. They are not
considered Organelles as they are Non-Membranous.
z Mitochondria contain their own Ribosome (55s) and their own unique circular
dsDNA.
z mRNA is translated in 5’→3’ direction and Proteins are synthesized from Amino
terminal to Carboxy terminal.
z Activation of Amino Acids or Charging of tRNA to make Aminoacyl tRNA is done
by enzyme Amino Acyl tRNA Synthetase.
z The enzyme Amino Acyl tRNA Synthetase is the only point of Proofreading in
Translation. It is responsible for Fidelity/Accuracy of Protein Synthesis.
z Amino Acyl tRNA Synthetase has 20 Isoenzymes, one for each Amino Acid.
80 : Molecular
z Hydroxy-Proline a derived Amino Acid does not require Amino Acyl tRNA
Synthetase.
z Initiation Codon is AUG which Codes for Methionine in Eukaryotes and N-Formyl
Methionine in Prokaryotes.
z Conventional Karyotyping, FISH and CGH are cytogenetic techniques for Detection
of Mutations.
z Down Syndrome : 3 copies of Chromosome 21
z Edwards Syndrome : 3 copies of Chromosome 18
z Patau Syndrome : 3 copies of Chromosome 13
z FISH, RT-PCR, QF-PCR, MPLA are the methods for the detection of Specific
Chromosomal Aneuploidy.
z Sperm Sorting (Microsort Method) – separate X-bearing (larger in size & has
more DNA) & Y-bearing sperms to be used for Artificial Insemination or In-Vitro
Fertilization.
z Sanger’s Reagent is 1-Fluoro 2,4 Dinitro Benzene, used in DNA Sequencing.
z Hybridomas are cells which are engineered to produce a specific Antibody in huge
numbers, or used as source of DNA or RNA for Gene Cloning, Sequencing or Gene
Manipulations.
RNA INTERFERENCE
z RNA Interference/Gene Knock Down/Silencing Technique is a biological
phenomenon by which RNA molecules inhibit Translation.
z Gene Knock Down - means Gene is present but its function is suppressed.
z Gene Knock Out - means Gene is deleted.
z Micro RNA binds to 3’ end of target mRNA to inhibit Gene Expression.
z Drosha works with DGCR8 , also known as PASHA. It cuts primary micro RNA to
form pre-micro RNA.
z Dicer cut pre-microRNA to form dsRNA (around 20 Nucleotides in length).
z ss micro RNA combines with Proteins to form RISC (RNA-induced Silencing
Complex).
z RISC can bind to the target mRNA and can just suppress it or degrade it by enzyme
Slicer/Argonaute/Ago.
z siRNA (Silencing or small interfering RNA) is synthesized from cytoplasmic RNA
(e.g. tRNA or viral RNA) and can bind anywhere on the target mRNA.
nnn
CHAPTER
MISCELLANEOUS 8
Cognomen
Name Other Name
Sarcosine N-Methyl Glycine
Betaine Trimethyl Glycine
Choline Trimethyl Ethanolamine
Carnosine β-Alanyl Histidine
Anserine Carnosine on methylation
Homo Carnosine GABA + Histidine
Melatonin Acetyl Methyl Serotonin
Serotonin 5-OH Tryptamine
Ethanolamine Serine on Decarboxylation
Β-Mercapto Ethanolamine Cysteine on Decarboxylation
z Creatine
Cysteine z Cystine
z Taurine
z Glutathione
z Creatinine
Histidine z FIGLU
z Histamine
Tryptophan z Melanin
z Catecholamines (Epinephrine,
Norepinephrine, Dopamine)
z Thyroxine
Tyrosine z Serotonin
z Melatonin
z Niacin
Homophones in Biochemistry
z D and L z Structural Isomers (Enantiomers
z d and l z Optical Isomers (Dextro-rotatory and Levo-
rotatory)
z Racemic Mixture z Equal d + l present(optically inactive)
z Racemase Enzyme z Enzyme which converts D and L (name
Racemase is misnomer)
z Dextrin z Hydrolytic Product of Starch
z Dextran z Branched, HMW Homopolysaccharide made up
of α-Glucose (used as Plasma Volume Expander)
z Dextrose z Solution of Glucose
Laxative)
z Lactate z Dead end of Glycolysis, Produced in Anaerobic
Glycolysis
z Lactase z Enzyme which breakdown Lactose
(Disaccharide)
z Lectin z Carbohydrate Binding Proteins, which play a role
in Recognition and Attachment
z Pectin z Polysaccharide, acting as a Soluble Dietary Fibre
Mucopolysaccharidosis (MPS)
Disease Name Enzyme Deficiency Substrate Accumulated
I H-Hurler α-L-Idouronidase *DS+#HS
(Autosomal Recessive)
I S-Scheie α-L-Idouronidase *DS
(Autosomal Recessive)
II Hunter Iduronate Sulfatase *DS+#HS
(X-linked Recessive)
VI Maroteaux Lamy Aryl Sulfatase B *DS
(Autosomal Recessive)
*DS – Dermatan Sulfate, #HS – Heparan Sulfate
Miscellaneous : 95
Hyperlipoproteinemias
Disease Name Enzyme Deficiency Substrate Accumulated
Type I/Familial Lipoprotein Lipase or z Chylomicrons
Hyperchylomicronemia Apo C-II z VLDL
(Autosomal Recessive) z TGs (Triglycerides)
z Cholesterol
Sphingolipidoses
Disease Name Enzyme Deficiency Substrate Accumulated
Neimann-Pick Disease Sphingomyelinase Sphingomyelin
(Autosomal Recessive)
Gaucher’s Disease β-Glucosidase/ Glucosyl Ceramide
(Autosomal Recessive) Gluco-cerebrosidase
Krabbe’s Disease β-Galactosidase Galactosyl Ceramide
(Autosomal Recessive)
Fabry’s Disease α-Galactosidase Ceramide Trihexoside
(X-linked Recessive)
Farber’s Disease Ceraminidase Ceramide
(Autosomal Recessive)
Tay Sach’s Disease Hexosaminidase A GM2 Ganglioside
(Autosomal Recessive)
Sandhoff’s Disease Hexosaminidase A&B GM2 Ganglioside
(Autosomal Recessive)
Metachromatic Aryl Sulfatase A Cerebroside Sulfate
Leukodystrophy
(Autosomal Recessive)
GM1 Gangliosidosis β-Galactosidase
96 : Miscellaneous
Table of Vitamins
Name Active Form Function Deficiency Special Features
Vitamin B1/ z TPP z Oxidative z Beri-Beri z RBC
Thiamine (Thiamine decarboxylation z Wernicke- transketolase
Pyrophos- reactions Korsakoff activity to be
phate) z Transketolase Syndrome determined for
z Phosphorylation biochemical
of chloride assessment of
channel in brain deficiency
Vitamin B2/ z FMN z Electron transfer (Rare) z For detecting
Riboflavin/ z FAD z Riboflavinosis deficiency, RBC
Warburg z Dermatitis glutathione
Yellow z Angular reductase is
Enzyme Stomatitis assessed
z Cheliosis z Endogenously
synthesized by
bacterial flora
Vitamin B3/ z NAD+ z Electron transfer z Pellagra z Tryptophan
Niacin/ z NADP+ z (Diarrhea, synthesizes it
Nicotinic Dementia, z 60mg
Acid/ Dermatitis, tryptophan
Nicotinamide Death) synthesizes 1mg
of Niacin
Vitamin B5/ z Coenzyme z Acyl carrier (Rare) z Contains
Pantothenic A z TCA z Burning Feet β-Alanine in its
Acid z ACP z Haem synthesis Syndrome structure
z Present in
CoA and Acyl
Carrier Protein
(ACP)
Vitamin B6/ z PLP z Transamination (Rare) z Deficiency can
Pyridoxine/ (Pyridoxal z Simple z Neurological be induced by
Pyridoxam- Phosphate) Decarboxylation Manifestations Isoniazid
ine/ z Trans- z Epileptic
Pyridoxal Sulfuration convulsions in
infant
Miscellaneous : 99
Table of Minerals
Mineral Major Functions Deficiency
Sodium z Na /K ATPase pump
+ +
z Hyponatremia-
z Major Extracellular Cation Excess Sodium loss
excitability
z Cofactor for enzymes e.g.
Pyruvate Kinase
Chloride z Formation of HCl in stomach z Hypochloraemia-
z Regulation of osmotic pressure of Severe vomiting
Respiratory Acidosis
Metabolic Alkalosis
excitabilty
Miscellaneous : 101
Synthesis Hepatocytes
Iodine z Constituent of Thyroid hormones z Cretinism
z Goiter
z Myxedema
certain enzymes
ENERGETICS
z Number of ATPs in Anaerobic Glycolysis = 2 ATPs/glucose.
z Number of ATPs in Aerobic Glycolysis = 7 ATPs/Glucose.
z ATPs formed by Substrate Level Phosphorylation in Glycolysis are 4 → ATPs.
z ATPs formed by Oxidative Phosphorylation (ETC) in Glycolysis are → 5 ATPs.
z Number of ATPs in RBCs are never more than 2 , but it can be less than 2 if it is RL
(Rapaport Leubering) shunt.
z Link reaction gives 5 ATPs (as 2 NADH produced) from two Pyruvate. From one
Glucose, two Pyruvate are obtained.
z One Glucose on complete breakdown or complete oxidation = 32.
z One Glucose in a Cancerous Cell gives 2 ATPs (Warburg’s effect).
z One Acetyl CoA = 10 ATPs.
z One Palmitic Acid (16 C) = 106.
z One Stearic Acid (18 C) = 120.
z 2 pyruvate to glucose → 4 ATP & 2 GTP used.
z 2 lactate to glucose → 4 ATP & 2 GTP used.
z 2 alanine to glucose → 4 ATP & 2 GTP used.
z No ATPs used in :
HMP.
Uronic acid pathway.
Alpha oxidation.
Oxidation of very long chain fatty acids.
RL shunt.
Synthesis of ketone body.
nnn
IMAGE BASED
104 : Image Based
Organelles of a cell
Benedict’s Test
Blue solution Green / yellow ppt Orange red ppt Brick-red ppt
No sugar present Traces of sugar Moderate amount Large amount sugar
present sugar present present
Powder puff/hedge hog shaped crystals of Sun flower shaped maltosazone crystals
lactose as viewed under the microscope as viewed under the microscope
Albinism
Gaucher’s cell
Reilly bodies
z Reilly bodies, also known as Alder-Reilly bodies are found in many mucopolysaccharidosis
e.g. Hurler disease & Maroteaux-Lamy syndrome. The picture shows a neutrophil with
highly lobulated nucleus. They sometimes resemble toxic granulations, but reilly bodies are
not related to infecti on and are not transient in nature. These are metachromatic granules,
surrounded by a clear zone. These are present in the cytoplasm of all leukocytes including
neutrophils.
108 : Image Based
Enzymes