1.

1, Cell Biology
The cell theory
- Every organism is made up of cells
- Cells are the fundamental building blocks of life
- All cells are made of membrane, which separates it from the outside
- Cells contain a genetic material which contains all of the information needed for the activity of
the cell
- Cells have their own energy release system that powers all of the organelles
- Cell is the smallest unit of life that can survive on its own (while organelles still need another
organelles)
- Cells only arise from preexisting cells
Exception to cell theory
- Striated muscle cell (larger than most animal cell and are multinucleated)
- Aseptate fungi (has no septa, a form of cell wall, that divides each cell)
- Algae, a form of algae known as Acetabularia can grow up to a non microscopic size
The 7 functions of cell
- Nutrition
- Metabolism
- Growth
- Response
- Excretion
- Homeostasis
- Reproduction
Why cell divides
- The size of cytoplasm is proportional to the rate of reaction (volume)
- The rate of reaction is proportional to the volume of cell
- This is why rate of reaction should equal to the rate in which particles moves in and out of the
cell, which is indicated by the surface area
- Cell divides to maintain the right SA to volume ratio
Cell size
Molecules, membrane, organelle, bacteria, animal cell, plant cell
Functions of life in unicellular organisms (paramecium and chlamydomonas)
- Unicellular organism consist only of one cell
- Examples of unicellular organisms are paramecium who lives in water, and chlamydomonas
who lives in freshwater habitats
 Specimen Paramecium Chlamydomonas

Nutrition Feeds on smaller organism through Produces their own food by

endocytosis photosynthesis using chlorphast
that is found abundantly inside the
cell

Growth Increase its size through collection Increasing its size through
of organic matter and minerals photosynthesis and absorption of
minerals

Response React to stimuli by reversing its Swims towards brighter spots

direction when it encounters an
object

Excretion Expels waste product out of the cell Expels photosynthesis waste
through diffusion product out of the cell through
diffusion

Metabolism Produce enzyme that catalyzes Produce enzyme that catalyzes

reaction reaction

Homeostasis Maintains a well internal condition, Maintains a well internal condition,

such as expelling water using such as expelling water using
vacuole vacuole

Reproduction Reproduces asexually or sexually Reproduces asexually or sexually

Multicellular organism
- Being multicellular allows task to be divided among different cells in the body
- The cooperation of different cells in a multicellular organism is referred to as emergent
property
- An organism's entire genes is called genomes
- During cell differentiation, cell only uses the genes that it needs to follow its pathway of
development
Stem cells
- Cells that have the capability to divide and differentiate along different different pathway
- An example of stem cell is human embryo, which all eventually differentiate and stop becoming
stem cell
- Small numbers of stem cells is available in most tissue, which gives it a regenerative capacity
Examples of stem cells use
- Stargardt’s macular dystrophy is a genetic disease that causes the transport in retina cell to
malfunction, which led to vision loss
- Researchers have developed methods for making embryonic stem cells to develop into retina
cells
- The experiment of this treatment is done through injection of 50,000 retina cell that originates
from embryonic stem cell, to the eye of a women
- Leukemia is a type of cancer in which abnormally large numbers WBC are produced in the
bone marrow
- Stem cells from the bone marrow is extracted from the bone marrow
- Chemotherapy is given to the patient which kills the cancer cells, and lose the ability of the
bone marrow to produce blood cells
- The stem cells will be return back to the patient's body, and will grow normal WBC
- Embryonic stem cells have unlimited growth potential, less chance of genetic damage, but
likely to be genetically different from the patient
- Cord blood stem cells is easily obtained, but have limited options of differentiation
- Adult stem cell is difficult to obtain and fully compatible with the patients, but have less chance
of malignant tumors developing than from embryonic stem cells
Magnification
mm>um>nm
2>2,000>2,000,000

Chapter 1.2, ultrastructure of cells

Electron microscope
- The rays used to form image impacts the resolution produced
- The shorter the wavelength of the rays, the higher resolution produced
- Electrons have shorter wavelengths, so it produces higher resolution
- Transmission electron microscopes are used to view ultra thin sections
- Scanning electron microscopes are used to view the surface of a structure
- The invention of electron microscopes lead to the discovery of cell’s ultrastructure
Prokaryotic cell structure
- Do not have nucleus, do not have compartment within the cell that contains the chromosomes
- Mostly small in size
- Have cell wall, containing peptidoglycan
- The structure contains no compartment
- Only have ribosomes (70s ribosome)
- The parts of the cytoplasm that appear lighter is where DNA is found (nucleoid)
- DNA is not associated with proteins

- Slime capsule>cell wall>Cell membrane

- Flagella, for movement
- Pili, hair like extensions that enables it to adhere to surface and aids bacterial conjugation
(transferring of genetic material)
- Plasmid, an autonomous circular DNA that can be transferred between bacteria
How prokaryotes reproduce
- All prokaryotes divide by binary fission
- The single circular chromosomes is copied, and each moves to the opposite sides of the cell,
and they cleaves into 2 cells
- Genetically identical cell is produced
Eukaryotic cells
- Compartmentalized
- Contains nucleus
- Being compartmentalized allows enzyme to be more concentrated on certain areas, allows
substance that could damage the cell to be safely stored, maintains ideal Ph, move organelles
around the cell
Organelles of eukaryotes:
- Nucleus, double membrane, porous, contains associated DNA, uncoiled DNA is spread
around the nucleus
- Rough ER, flattened membrane sacs called cisternae, ribosomes attached to rER, synthesize
protein for outside of the cell, protein made by the ribosomes attached to rER passes to the
cisternae and will be carried away by vesicle
- Golgi apparatus, consist of flattened membrane sacs called cisternae, vesicle containing
proteins from rER travels here first to be processed before it’s released away
- Lysosome, contains digestive enzymes to break down food or organelles, forms by golgi
vesicle
- Mitochondria, double membrane surrounds it, folded to form cristae, the fluid inside it is called
matrix, produced ATP
- Free ribosomes, not surrounded by membranes, 80s ribosomes, produced internal protein,
constructed in a region of nucleus called nucleolus
- Chloroplast, contain stacks of thylakoid (flattened membrane sacs), produced glucose
- Vacuoles (bigger) and vesicles, consist of single membrane with fluid inside of it, used for
transporting materials
- Microtubules and centrioles, centrioles form an anchor point for microtubules during cell
division
- Cilia and flagella, whip like structures for locomotion
1.3, Membrane structure
Phospholipid bilayers
- Amphipathic, contains hydrophobic and hydrophilic region
- The hydrophilic part is a phosphate group
- The hydrophobic part is 2 hydrocarbon chain
Membrane protein
- Proteins that is attached to the cell membrane (phospholipid bilayers)
- 2 types of membrane proteins exist, integral and peripheral proteins
- Integral protein, permanently attached to the bilayer and typically extend vertically across the
bilayer
- peripheral proteins, temporarily attached to the membrane by non covalent interactions,
hydrophilic on the surface
- The more active the membrane (the cell) the more protein it has

Cholesterol in membranesCholesterol is a type of lipid that is not fat or oil, but steroids
- The ends of cholesterol is an OH groups, which is hydrophilic
- Cholesterol regulates the flexibility of the hydrocarbon tails
- Cholesterol, due to the molecule shape, helps membrane to curve into concave shapes
Models of membrane structure:
Davson-Danielli model
- Protein sandwiched model (phospholipid bilayer in the middle of 2 proteins)
- Chemical analysis shows that our membrane consist of protein and phospholipid
- Evidence suggests that RBC has a plasma membrane has enough of phospholipids to
forms lipid layer around the cell twice
- Experiments shows that membranes forms a barrier that allows the movement of certain
materials only despite being very thin, suggesting the help of protein
Singer-Nicolson model
- They gather evidence that do not support the previous model
- Freeze-fracture electron micrographs showed that globular proteins were present in the
centre of the phospholipid bilayer
- Extraction of the protein tells us that the structure of the protein is globular, making it
unlikely that it extends horizontally throughout the membranes
- Fluorescent antibody tagging, red or green fluorescent markers were attached to
antibodies that bind to membrane proteins were discovered to mixed around the
membrane of the fused cell. Indicating that the membrane protein is freely moving
Chapter 1.4, Membrane transport
Diffusion
- Passive movement from a region with higher concentration to region with lower
concentration
- Membrane is freely permeable to oxygen
- Simple diffusion is only for small and nonpolar molecules
- Facilitated diffusion is for substances that cannot pass through phospholipid
(charged/non polar molecules)
- Facilitated diffusion is done by protein that only allows certain substance to pass through
- Cell control the substance that can pass through by the types of channel protein that
they have
- Some channel proteins for facilitated diffusion can be closed and opened, such as
potassium channel in axons, through a globular subunit
- The channel is voltage gated, which means that it opens depending on the charge inside
and outside of the cell, if inside is too positive, it will open the gate for K+ ion to move out
Osmosis
- Passive movement of water from area with lower solute concentration
- Isotonic solution is utilized to prevent osmosis during organ transplant
- Water is a polar molecule so it enters using protein or facilitated diffusion
Active transport
- The movement of substances against the concentration gradient
- Particle travels through protein pump
- Particle binds to the specific site in which only certain particle can bind
- Energy from ATP is used to change the shape of the pump, which allows the particle to
enter the cell
- Pump will return to its original shapes after it releases the particle
 - Sodium-potassium pump pumps 2 potassium ion in while is ejects 3 sodium ions out
- In the interior of the pump, 3 Na+ ion enters the pump and attache to the binding sites
- ATP transfers phosphate group that would change the shape of the pump and cause it
closed
- The interior of the pump is then open to the outside of the cell
- The Na+ ion move out of the pump and 2 K+ ion moves in
- The binding of K+ ion release the phosphate group, which causes the pump to return
back to it original state
Transportation using vesicle
- Pinching in or out of the cell creates vesicle
- Vesicle are transported for polar substance and larger molecule

1.5, The origin of cells

Spontaneous generation
- Cells can only be formed from a pre existing cell
- Pasteur debunk this theory by conducting experiments on bent glass (swan necked flask), in
which organism doesn’t appear unless contact with external environment happens
Endosymbiotic theory
- Mitochondria used to be free living prokaryotes, who were happened to be ingested by
anaerobic prokaryotes
- Mitochondria and the anaerobic prokaryotes were symbiotic by providing oxygen and food,
respectively
- Same scenario applies for chloroplasts
- Chloroplast and mitochondria is believed to have evolved from an autonomous unit because it
grows and divide like a regular cell, contains naked loop of DNA, synthesize 70s ribosomes,
double membraned

1.6, Cell division

The role of mitosis
- Mitosis allows eukaryotic cells to divide and form a genetically identical nuclei (2 daughter
cells)
- Mitosis occurs during embryonic development, growth, tissue repair, and asexual reproduction
- Before mitosis happens, they went through development and replication process called
interphase, which consist of 3 sub steps
- The first step being G1 where cell grows and prepares for DNA replication
- S phase or synthesis, where DNA is replicated
- G2 step, where cell finishes growing and prepare for division
- After this, it reaches the M phase of mitosis
M phase (mitosis)
- On the first stage of mitosis (prophase), DNA is being packed into shorter structure through
process called supercoiling
- DNA is held together by histones (proteins)
- Microtubules organizing centre (MTOC) releases microtubules to form spindle shaped
structure that links the pulls the chromosomes apart
- After this, metaphase happens, where chromosomes aligns itself in the centre of the cell, and
where spindle microtubules pulls the chromosomes apart
- After metaphase is anaphase, where chromosomes is split in half, and the genetically identical
sister chromatids moves to the opposite poles
- Following this event is telophase, where nuclear membrane starts forming around the divided
sister chromatids, and where spindle microtubules breaks down
- In the same phase, the chromosomes uncoil and cell divides (cytokinesis)
- In plant cells, cell wall causes the cell to completely divide, while in animal cells, plasma
membrane is pulled inwards until it meets the center of the cell
- Mitotic index (number of cells in mitosis/number of cells)
Cyclins
- Protein that ensures everything happens at the right time
- Cyclins bind to an enzyme called cyclin-dependent kinases, these kinases becomes active and
attach phosphate groups to other proteins in the cell, which activates these proteins
- Cyclin needs to reach a threshold concentration, or the cell won’t progress into the next cycle
- Oncogenes is the genes that can transform cells into tumor cells