AS Biology Cell Membrane June 2024

Cell Membrane

It’s mostly made of a phospholipid bilayer (two layered), Proteins, Cholesterol & Carbohydrate.
The bilayer is 7nm thick & it’s visible using the electron microscope at high magnification × 100 000

The double black line visible using the electron microscope is thought to show the hydrophilic heads
of the two phospholipid layers; the pale zone between is the hydrophobic interior of the membrane
so its said to have a trilaminar appearance

The Fluid Mosaic Model

• It is called fluid as the phospholipids & protein molecules are in continuous motion, vibrating and
bumping into each other and changing place within their monolayer by diffusion
• Its mosaic due to the pattern produced by the proteins when the membrane is viewed from
above

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AS Biology Cell Membrane June 2024

Freeze Fracture Experiment

It’s used to study the structure of cell membranes.

The membrane is frozen and then split down the middle, separating the two layers of phospholipids
from each other. Any proteins contained within one layer remain in that layer. Proteins which
span the membrane can be found in either layer after freeze-fracture, depending on the
properties of the protein. It provides evidence of the bilayer nature of the membranes and evidence
for the arrangement of proteins.

Protein Labelling Experiment

Larry Frye & Micheal Edidin labelled membrane proteins of a mouse cell and a human cell with two
different markers and fused the cells, using the microscope they observed the hybrid cell
They found that the membrane proteins became mixed which indicates that the proteins are in
continuous motion within their monolayer thus proving the fluidity of these membrane proteins.

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AS Biology Cell Membrane June 2024

Phospholipids

The head forms hydrogen bonds with the water molecules to stabilize the membrane & the
hydrophobic tails point inwards to form hydrophobic core maintained by Hydrophobic interactions
Phospholipids form the basic structure of any biological membrane whether it’s the cell surface
membrane or an internal organelle membrane

Role of Phospholipids

1. They act as a barrier to polar ( charged ) molecules & ions as they cant pass through the
hydrophobic core while hydrophobic ( non polar ) molecules can pass directly through the
core thus the membrane is semipermeable.
2. They are responsible for the fluidity of the membrane which allows it to stretch under
pressure and reseal itself if disrupted as in cytosis & cell division
• The more the unsaturated phospholipids the more fluid the membrane as unsaturated
phospholipids have double bonds which causes a bend or a kink in the tail so the
molecules are less closely packed
• The shorter the fatty acid tail the more fluid the membrane

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AS Biology Cell Membrane June 2024

Cholesterol

Cholesterol is a small molecule that has a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail, so they fit neatly
between the phospholipid molecules with their heads at the membrane surface.
Cell surface membranes in animal cells contain almost as much cholesterol as phospholipid.
Cholesterol is much less common in plant cell membranes and absent from prokaryotes.

Roles of Cholesterol

1. The cholesterol is important for mechanical stability as without it membranes quickly break and
cells burst open.
2. The cholesterol fits nicely between the fatty acid tails and makes the barrier more complete, so
that it reduces uncontrolled leakage of polar substances through the membrane by diffusion.
(This is particularly important in the myelin sheath around nerve cells, where leakage of ions
would slow down nerve impulses)
3. It regulates the fluidity of the membrane
• At low temperatures, cholesterol increases the fluidity of the membrane, preventing it from
becoming too rigid as it prevents close packing of the phospholipid tails.
• At high temperatures, cholesterol decreases the fluidity of the membrane as the interaction
of the phospholipid tails with the cholesterol molecules keeps the molecules close together

Proteins

Ø Intrinsic proteins (or integral proteins) are proteins that are found embedded within the
membrane they can be found in the inner layer, the outer layer or, most commonly, spanning
the whole membrane, in which case they are known as transmembrane proteins.
Ø Extrinsic protein (or peripheral protein ) are found on the inner or outer surface of the
membrane attached to phospholipids or even an integral protein.

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AS Biology Cell Membrane June 2024

Role
1. Transport where they provide hydrophilic passages for ions and
polar molecules to pass through the membrane.

• Channel Protein has water filled pores for facilitated

diffusion.
• Carrier Protein change their shape to allow passage
of molecules by active transport & facilitated.

2. Signal A membrane protein (receptor) may have a binding site

Transduction with a specific shape that fits the shape of a chemical
messenger such as a hormone. The external messenger
(signaling molecule) may cause the protein to change
shape, allowing it to relay the message to the inside of
the cell, usually by binding to a cytoplasmic protein

3. Enzyme A protein built into the membrane may be an enzyme

Activity with its active site exposed to substances in the adjacent
solution. In some cases several enzymes in a membrane
are organized as a team that carries out sequential steps
of a metabolic pathway.

4. Cell to Cell Some proteins serve as identification tags called

Recognition antigens that are specifically recognized by membrane
proteins of other cells.

5. Cell to Cell Membrane proteins of two adjacent cells may hook

Adhesion together in various kind of junctions such as gap junctions
or tight junctions.

6. Anchor Membrane proteins attach to the cytoskeleton to

maintain the cell shape

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AS Biology Cell Membrane June 2024

Carbohydrates

Some of the phospholipid molecules which make the bilayer, and some of the proteins that are part
of the membrane have carbohydrate chains attached to them.
Ø When a phospholipid has a carbohydrate part attached to it, it is called a glycolipid.
Ø When a protein has a carbohydrate part attached to it, it is called a glycoprotein

The carbohydrate chains project like antennae into the watery fluids surrounding the cell so they are
found only on the extracellular layer of the bilayer

Roles of Glycolipids & Glycoproteins

1. Signal Transduction as they form receptor molecules

2. Cell to Cell Recognition as they act as antigens
3. Cell to Cell Adhesion
4. Stabilize the membrane by the hydrogen bonds form with water outside the membrane

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AS Biology Cell Membrane June 2024

Transport Across the Membrane

In order to survive, cells need a supply of nutrient molecules & oxygen supply for aerobic respiration.
Also, the reactions within living cells (collectively known as metabolism) generate waste products,
which need to be removed from the cell.
Any molecule needs to cross a membrane to move in or out of a cell.

Diffusion

Simple Diffusion is the net movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of
lower concentration down concentration gradient till they reach equilibrium.

It happens because of the natural kinetic energy possessed by the molecules or ions which makes
them move at random so that the molecules tend to reach an equilibrium when they are evenly
spread within a given volume
It’s a passive process as it doesn’t require an energy input from ATP

Diffusion stops when the amount of molecules on both sides is even

Even is the molecules have been distributed evenly between the two sides the movement doesn't stop
completely, but in fact some molecules will exchange positions between the two sides so we say that
there is no net movement.

Factors Affecting Rate of Diffusion

1) Polarity
Non- polar molecules diffuse much more easily through cell membranes than polar ones, because
they are soluble in the hydrophobic core of the bilayer.
Ø The respiratory gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide ) cross membranes by diffusion. They are
uncharged and non-polar, and so can cross through the phospholipid bilayer directly between
the phospholipid molecules.
Ø Water molecules, despite being very polar, can diffuse rapidly across the phospholipid bilayer
because they are small enough.

2) Size of Molecules : the smaller the molecule the faster the rate of diffusion
3) Temperature : increase in temperature increase the kinetic energy so the rate of random
movements of molecules increases and so does the rate of diffusion
4) Concentration Gradient : the steeper the gradient the faster the rate of diffusion
5) Diffusion Distance : the greater the diffusion distance the less rate of diffusion
6) Surface Area to Volume ratio : the greater the SA/VR of the faster the rate of diffusion

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AS Biology Cell Membrane June 2024

Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion is the passive movement of a specific molecule down a concentration gradient,
passing through the membrane via a specific protein transporter mostly channel proteins
( few carrier proteins )

Large polar molecules ( glucose & amino acids ) and Ions ( Na+ , Cl- ) cant pass through the
hydrophobic core of the membrane so channel proteins provide a hydrophilic channel through which
the specific molecule passes into or out of the cell without ATP expenditure.

Factors Affecting Rate of Facilitated Diffusion

Ø Concentration Gradient
Ø Number of channel proteins in the membrane
Ø Whether the channels are open or not

The rate of facilitated diffusion becomes constant even though the concentration gradient increases
as all channel proteins becomes saturated

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AS Biology Cell Membrane June 2024

Active transport

is the movement of molecules or ions through transport proteins across a cell membrane, against
their concentration gradient, using energy from ATP.

The carrier protein is shaped so that a specific molecule (e.g. potassium or chloride ion) can fit into
the protein at the membrane surface, and when the ion fits, the protein changes shape to allow the
ion to pass through to the other side.
ATP produced in respiration is used to make the protein change its shape.

Factors affecting Rate of Active Transport

1. Number of ATP molecules & Mitochondria

2. Oxygen concentration
3. Number of carrier proteins

Examples
1) Load sugar from the photosynthesizing cells into the phloem
2) Load inorganic ions from the soil into the root hairs.
3) Absorption of certain products of digestion from the gut.
4) In the re-absorption of certain molecules into the blood from the kidney tubules.
5) In maintaining the potential difference across the axon cell membrane in a neurone.

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AS Biology Cell Membrane June 2024

Osmosis
Osmosis is a special type of diffusion involving water molecules only

Two solutions separated by a partially permeable membrane. a Before osmosis. The solute
molecules are too large to pass through the pores in the membrane, but the water molecules are
small enough. b As the arrows show, more water molecules moved from A to B than from B to A, so
the net movement has been from A to B, raising the level of solution in B and lowering it in A.

Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from regions of higher water potential to regions
of lower water potential down water potential gradient through a partially permeable membrane till
an equilibrium is reached.

Water potential 𝝍
It’s the tendency of water molecules to move from one solution to another
Pure water has the highest possible water potential of zero, as all other solutions will have a lower
water potential than pure water, so they have water potential less than zero which is negative.
Water potential unit is KPa
Water potential depends on
Ø How much water is present in relation to solutes.
Ø How much pressure is applied on the solution.
Solute Potential 𝝍s
It’s the measure of the concentration of solutes in a solution.
Just like water potential, solute potential is 0 for pure water, and has a negative value for a solution.
Adding more solute to a solution decreases its water potential

Pressure Potential 𝝍p
It’s the pressure applied on a solution by for example a cell wall or a plunger
Increasing the pressure on the solution increases the tendency of water to move out of it in other
words it increases its water potential.
Positive pressure has a positive value
Negative pressure has a negative value

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AS Biology Cell Membrane June 2024

Osmosis in Animal Cells

The water potential of cells is lower than that of pure water because of all the sugars & salts
dissolved in the cytoplasm, so in animal cells the water potential is equal to its solute potential.
If we placed animal cells in different salt/sugar solutions, osmosis can occur according to the water
potential gradient between the cells and the solutions

Osmosis in Plant Cells

Unlike animal cells, plant cells are surrounded by cell walls, which are very strong and rigid which
adds pressure to the solution inside the cells.
In plant cell the water potential is equal to solute potential + pressure potential

Ø In hypotonic solutions the net water movement is into the cells so the cell volume increases and
the cell membrane starts pushing on the cell wall increasing the pressure potential of the cell
along with the water potential of the cell.
There comes a point where the pressure potential is equal to the solute potential so the
water potential is equal to zero and the cell is said to be Turgid at which there will be no net
water movement into the cell.

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AS Biology Cell Membrane June 2024

Ø In hypertonic solution the net water movement is to the outside of the cells so the protoplasm
shrinks till the point where the cell membrane exerts no pressure on the cell wall ( 𝜓p = 0 ) this
point is called incipient plasmolysis
With further loss of water the protoplasm will pull away from the cell wall and shrinks and the
cell is said to be Plasmolyzed

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AS Biology Cell Membrane June 2024

Bulk Transport
Its an active process where large quantities of materials are transported into or out of the cell.
Endocytosis
is the bulk movement of liquids (pinocytosis) or solids (phagocytosis) into a cell, by the infolding
of the cell surface membrane to form vesicles containing the substance, endocytosis is an active
process requiring ATP.

Ø Phagocytosis : is the engulfing of solid material forming a phagocytic vacuole ( phagosome )

Ø Pinocytosis : is the intake of liquid materials by the cell forming a pinocytic vacoule

Exocytosis

is the bulk movement of liquids or solids out of a cell, by the fusion of vesicles containing the
substance with the cell surface membrane, exocytosis is an active process requiring ATP.

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AS Biology Cell Membrane June 2024

Cell Signalling
Signaling is getting a message from one place to another.
In order to respond to changes in their immediate environment, cells must be able to receive and
process signals that originate outside their borders to produce an appropriate response.

The cell-signaling process helps ensure that crucial activities like activating an enzyme or
activating a gene in the nucleus occur in the right cells, at the right time, at right amounts

1) Reception - A signal or stimulus is "detected" when the signaling molecule binds to a receptor
protein located at the cell's surface or inside the cell.
Receptors are generally transmembrane proteins present on specific target cells, which bind
to signaling molecules outside the cell.
2) Transduction - Conversion of the original signal to a message that is then transmitted through
the cell by the formation of secondary messengers.
3) Response – like secretion of enzymes or hormones, movement, transcription done by the
effector cell

Because membrane receptors interact with both extracellular signals and molecules within the cell,
they permit signaling molecules to affect cell function without actually entering the cell. This is
important because most signaling molecules are either too big or charged to cross a cell's plasma
membrane. More commonly the signaling molecule is water soluble

Some signaling molecules are hydrophobic as steroid hormones so they can pass through the
membrane to activate receptors inside the cytoplasm or nucleus.

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AS Biology Cell Membrane June 2024

Insulin

Is secreted by beta cells of the pancreas into the blood where it circulates to reach target cells
( liver, muscle, fat cells )

These cells have the complementary protein receptor on their cell surface membrane thus they are
the only cells affected by insulin

Insulin binds to the receptor leading to a change in the receptor shape and activates G proteins
attached to that receptor so alpha subunits of the G protein dissociates and goes on activating
adenyl cyclase which is a membrane enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of ATP into cAMP
(secondary messenger )

The secondary messenger activates more enzymes leading to the amplification of the signal to
induce the appropriate response.

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AS Biology Cell Membrane
Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology 9700 syllabus for 2022, 2023 and 2024. Subject content
June 2024

Syllabus
4 Cell membranes and transport
The fluid mosaic model, introduced in 1972, describes the way in which biological molecules are arranged to
form cell membranes. The model continues to be modified as understanding improves of the ways in which
substances cross membranes, how cells interact and how cells respond to signals. The model also provides the
basis for our understanding of passive and active movement of molecules and ions between cells and their
surroundings, cell-to-cell interactions and long-distance cell signalling.

Investigating the effects of different factors on diffusion, osmosis and membrane permeability involves an
understanding of the properties of phospholipids and proteins covered in Biological molecules (Topic 2).
4.1 Fluid mosaic membranes
4.2 Movement into and out of cells
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 describe the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure with
reference to the hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions that
account for the formation of the phospholipid bilayer and the
arrangement of proteins
2 describe the arrangement of cholesterol, glycolipids and
glycoproteins in cell surface membranes
3 describe the roles of phospholipids, cholesterol, glycolipids,
proteins and glycoproteins in cell surface membranes, with
reference to stability, fluidity, permeability, transport (carrier
proteins and channel proteins), cell signalling (cell surface
receptors) and cell recognition (cell surface antigens – see
11.1.2)
4 outline the main stages in the process of cell signalling leading
to specific responses:
• secretion of specific chemicals (ligands) from cells
• transport of ligands to target cells
• binding of ligands to cell surface receptors on target cells
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 describe and explain the processes of simple diffusion,
facilitated diffusion, osmosis, active transport, endocytosis and
exocytosis
2 investigate simple diffusion and osmosis using plant tissue and
non-living materials, including dialysis (Visking) tubing and agar
3 illustrate the principle that surface area to volume ratios
decrease with increasing size by calculating surface areas and
volumes of simple 3-D shapes (as shown in the Mathematical
requirements)
4 investigate the effect of changing surface area to volume ratio
on diffusion using agar blocks of different sizes
continued

18 www.cambridgeinternational.org/alevel Back to contents page

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology 9700 syllabus for 2022, 2023 and 2024. Subject content
AS Biology Cell Membrane June 2024

4.2 Movement into and out of cells Learning outcomes

continued Candidates should be able to:
5 investigate the effects of immersing plant tissues in solutions
of different water potentials, using the results to estimate the
water potential of the tissues
6 explain the movement of water between cells and solutions in
terms of water potential and explain the different effects of the
movement of water on plant cells and animal cells (knowledge
of solute potential and pressure potential is not expected)

Back to contents page www.cambridgeinternational.org/alevel 19

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