STRUCTURE & FUNCTIONS OF

THE EUKARYOTIC CELL

MEMBRANE, INTERCELLULAR
CONNECTIONS AND
COMMUNICATION
Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lecture, students should be able to:

1. Describe the structure and function of the eukaryotic cell
membrane
2. Explain the fluid mosaic model of the eukaryotic cell
membrane.
3. State types of intercellular communications and their role.
4. Classify terms –endocrine, paracrine, neurocrine, autocrine
communication with examples for each.
• Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells contain a nucleus
and other membrane-bound organelles. There is a wide
range of eukaryotic organisms, including all animals, plants,
fungi, as well as most algae. Eukaryotes may be either single-
celled or multicellular.
Cytoplasm & Organelles

A. Endoplasmic Reticulum : Smooth and Rough.

B. Golgi Apparatus
C. Mitochondria
D. Lysosomes
E. Peroxisomes
F. Centrosomes
G. Microtubules & Microfilaments
CELL MEMBRANE/PLASMA MEMBRANE

In 1972, Singer and Nicholson

put forward the fluid mosaic
model of membrane structure
which is presently most
accepted.
Fluid Mosaic Model of Cell membrane

FLUID- because individual phospholipids and

proteins can move side-to-side within the
layer, like it’s a liquid.
(A mosaic is a piece of art or image made from
the assembling of small pieces of colored glass,
stone, or other materials.)
MOSAIC- because of the pattern produced by
the scattered protein molecules when the
membrane is viewed from above.
Structure of cell membrane
Membrane is made up of lipid bilayer and proteins

Hydrophilic phosphate
Heads of phospholipids Peripheral protein

ECF

LIPID

ICF
Hydrophobic tails Integral protein
of phospholipids
 Cell Membrane

Structure: phospholipd bilayer with proteins embedded

in, and attached to, the inner (intracellular) and
outer (extracellular) surfaces

Function: To establish, maintain or vary in a controlled

fashion the concentration of electrolytes, non-
electrolytes or water between two separate aqueous
compartments.(between ECF & ICF).
Structure of the Plasma Membrane

• Lipid bilayer – two sheets of lipids

(phospholipids).
• Found around the cell, the nucleus,
vacuoles, mitochondria, and chloroplasts.
• Embedded with proteins and strengthened
with cholesterol molecules.
 Main Parts of Cell
Membrane
• Phospholipid bilayer – 2 layers
• Phosphate “head” = is polar = likes
water(hydrophilic)
• Lipid “tails” = are non-polar = do not
like water(hydrophobic)

Lipid tails: point away from water

Phosphate head: is in water

Phospholipids

• Heads contain glycerol & phosphate and are

hydrophilic (attract water)
• Tails are made of fatty acids and are
hydrophobic (repel water)
• Make up a bilayer where tails point inward
toward each other
• Can move laterally to allow small molecules (O2,
CO2, & H2O to enter)
.
Membrane proteins

• Lipoproteins, i.e., the proteins containing

lipids which function as enzymes and ion
channels, and
• Glycoproteins, i.e., the proteins containing
carbohydrates which function as receptors for
hormones and neurotransmitters.
 Cell Membrane Proteins

•Proteins determine membrane’s specific functions

•Basically 2 types
ointegral proteins
•penetrate lipid bilayer, usually across whole
membrane . Proteins which extend into the lipid
bilayer(through & through )
operipheral proteins
•loosely bound to surface of membrane
•On Inner and outer surface of the membrane
 Membrane proteins
Peripheral Proteins
These are present peripheral to the lipid bilayer, both
inside and outside to it.
• (i) Intrinsic proteins: located on the inner surface of
the lipid bilayer and serve mainly as enzymes. Some of
these are anchored to the cytoskeleton of the cell .
• (ii) Extrinsic or surface proteins. These are the proteins
located on the outer surface of the lipid bilayer.
• These protein molecules are not associated tightly
with the cell membrane and thus can dissociate
readily from the cell membrane.
• Some of these proteins serve as cell adhesion
molecules (CAMs) that anchor cells to the
neighbouring cells and basal lamina.
 Membrane Proteins types &functions

• Channel proteins serve as channels for water-

soluble substances like glucose and electrolytes.
• Carrier proteins help in transport of substances
across the cell membrane by means of active
and passive (facilitated diffusion) transport.
• Receptor proteins that bind neurotransmitters
and hormones, initiating physiologic changes
inside the cell.
• Antigens Some proteins in the cell membrane
also act as antigens.
• Pumps. act as pumps and form active transport
system of the cell.
Membrane
carbohydrates
• Play a key role in cell-cell
recognition
• ability of a cell to
distinguish one cell from
another.
• Either as glycoproteins
or glycolipids
GLYCOPROTEINS

Glycoproteins have carbohydrate

tails to act as markers for cell
recognition
 Intercellular connections/junctions

• Tight junctions (zonula occludens): bind cells

with strength; at apical margins of epithelial
cells, Impermeable Junctions, they are leak
proof at these junctions.
• Desmosomes: Anchoring junctions; prevent
cells from being pulled apart
• Gap junctions-allow molecules to pass from
one cell to other. These spaces allow chemicals,
ions to pass through thereby allowing cell to cell
communication. CONNEXONS are the tubes
which are seen between gap junctions.
Intercellular connections
 Gap Junctions
• Protein channels -
connexins
• Direct flow to neighbor
– Electrical - ions (charge)
– Chemicals/proteins

• CAMs - Cell Adhesion

Molecules
– Need direct surface contact

– Chemicals/proteins
• Gap junctions are typically seen in cardiac and smooth

muscle. Electrical impulses can easily spread from one cell to

the next through the gap junctions.

• Tight junctions can be observed in the epithelia of intestine,

renal epithelia of kidney, renal tubules, and the gall bladder.

Desmosomes

• They occur as belt desomsomes ,spot

desmosomes ,and hemidesomsomes.

• These are characterised by local thickening of the

adjecent cell membrane of two epithelial cells.

Hemidesmosomes are present at the basal border

of the epithelial cells. They help to attach the
epithelial cells firmly to the underlying connective
tissue.
Intercellular communications
 Introduction
• Like we communicate with
people through phones

• Cells also communicate with each

other, where:
External signal is received and
converted to another form to elicit
a response

Intercellular communication
refers to the communication
between cells.
Cell communication
• Cells communicate with each other
through signaling molecules

Hello
! Hello!

signaling cell target cell

Cells that produce the signaling molecule are referred to as

signaling cells

Cells that receive the signal are target cells

Types of intercellular
communications/signaling

• 1. Paracrine
• 2. Endocrine(hormone)
• 3. Nervous/ Neurotransmitter
• 4. Neuroendocrine/ Neurohormones
• 5. Autocrine
Paracrine

• Local chemical messengers – exert effect on neighbouring

cells at the site of their secretion
• Do not enter blood – rapidly inactivated
• Examples of signaling molecules that often function in a
paracrine manner include:
• Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) and fibroblast
growth factors (FGFs)
• Release of Cytokines that cause an inflammatory response;
Histamine released during inflammatory response
Paracrine Signaling/Communication
In Paracrine signaling,
secreted molecules diffuse
locally & trigger a
response in the
neighboring cells
Cell communicates only
with nearby targeted cells.
Endocrine(hormone) Signaling/Communication
• Endocrine signaling occurs when endocrine cells
release hormones that act on distant target cells in
the body.

Example:
• Thyroid an endocrine gland produces the hormone
thyroxine, which regulates calorigenesis in cells all over the
body.
Hormones

• Specificity is
determined by
receptor protein
 Neurocrine Signaling/Communication

•Neurocrine/ Neurotransmitter:
•Neuron secretes signal molecule called neurotransmitter
(NT)
•NT acts on receptors on neighbor (gland, another neuron
or muscle) cells. Acts locally, like a paracrine.
•Neuroendocrine:
•Neuron secretes signal molecule
•Cells receives neuronal input (neurotransmitters released
by nerve cells or neurosecretory cells) and, as a
consequence of this input, release message molecules
(hormones) to the blood. In this way they bring about an
integration between the nervous system and the
endocrine system, a process known as neuroendocrine
integration
.
Neurohormones

• Hormones
released into
blood by
neurosecretory
neurons
• Distributed
through blood to
distant target cells
 Neurotransmitters vs Neurohormones
• Neurotransmitters are chemicals secreted by neurons that diffuse across a
small gap to the target cells. Neurons use electrical signals as well.

Eg; Ach

• Neurohormones are chemicals released

by neurons into blood for action at distant
targets.

Examples of neurohormones are

oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
The effector sites of neurohormones are
not always endocrine cells
Autocrine Signaling/Communication
Autocrine signaling in which a cell
secretes a hormone or chemical
messenger (called the autocrine
agent) that binds to autocrine
receptors on that same cell, leading
to changes in the cell

Example;
cytokine interleukin-1 in monocytes.
When interleukin-1 is produced in
response to external stimuli, it can
bind to cell-surface receptors on the
same cell that produced it.
Disclaimer
• The texts, tables, figures and images contained in this course
presentation are not my own, they can be found on:
• References supplied or
• The web

Thank you for your Attention!