Tambag, Mc Gregor G.

MTChem2
BSMT 1C December 2019

1. USING THIS IMAGE (COPY THIS IMAGE), LABEL THE PARTS OF THE CELL, AND ON
A TABLE, LIST THE PARTS AND THEIR FUNCTION.

ORGANELLE FUNCTION

encloses the content of the cell, provides shape,

Cell Membrane/ Plasma Membrane allows transport (by diffusion and osmosis), allows
the materials in and out of the cell
 contributes/ helps in the process of cytokinesis or
Centrioles
the splitting of the cell
macromolecule that are made up of DNA, RNA,
Chromatin and proteins, comprass the DNA into a compact
unit that can fit within the nucleus
contains enzymes responsible for all the metabolic
Cytoplasm
activity inside the cell, made up of cytosal
gives a cell its shape and prevent it from
Cytoskeleton
deforming
modification, packaging, and transport of
Golgi Apparatus/ Golgi Bodies materials, synthesis of lysosomes, it has two
phases: cis (receiving) and trans (supplying)
cellular housekeeper or waste disposal, contains
Lysosomes
enzymes that break down molecules
powerhouse of the cell, stores energy in the form
Mitochondria
of ATP molecules
made up of RNA and proteins, transcribes and
Nucleolus
modifies RNA
brain of the cell, controls the activity of the cell,
starts cell division, and contains chromosomes
Nucleus
(DNA) which controsls hereditary characteristics,
regulates cell growth and metabolism
synthesis of proteins, converts genetic material
Ribosomes
into proteins
manufactures enzymes and proteins, involved in
Rough ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum) the production, folding, quality control, and
dispatch of some proteins
manufactures lipids, phospholipids, and steroids,
Smooth ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum)
has a detoxification function

REFERENCES:
British Society for Cell Biology (2015). Endoplamic reticulum (rough and smooth). Retrieved from:
https://bscb.org/learning-resources/softcell-e-learning/endoplasmic-reticulum-rough-and-smooth/
De Vall, T. (2014). Printable animal cell diagram.: Labeled, unlabeled, and blank. Retrieved from:
https://www.timvandevall.com/animal-cell-diagram/
Toppr (n.d). The fundamemtal unit of life: Cell organelle. Retrieved from: https://www.toppr.com/
guides/biology/the-fundamental-unit-of-life/cell-organelle/

2. FIND AN IMAGE SHOWING THE BIOCHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF A CELL

MEMBRANE, AND IDENTIFY ITS PARTS.

REFERENCES:
Khan Academy (n.d) Structure of the plasma membrane. Retrieved from: https://www.khanacademy.org/
science/high-school-biology/hs-cells/hs-the-cell-membrane/a/structure-of-the-plasma-membrane

3. GIVE EXAMPLES OF BIOCHEMICAL PATHWAYS THAT HAPPENS IN THE FOLLOWING

CELL STRUCTURES:

i. MITOCHONDRIA
- β-oxidation of free fatty acids
- BCAA (branched amino acid) catabolism
- TCA (tricarboxylic acid) or Krebs cycle
- Ketogenesis
- Steroidogenesis
 - Glutaminolysis
- Lipogenesis
- Pentose phosphate pathway
- Glycolysis
- OXPHOS (oxidative phosphorylation)
- Urea cycle
- Heme biosynthesis
- Cardiolipin synthesis
- Quinone and steroid biosynthesis

ii. PLASMA MEMBRANE

- Passive transport
- Active transport
- Lipid diffusion
- Osmosis
- Vesicle formation
- Endocytosis

iii. NUCLEUS
- Genetic transcription
- Genetic translation

REFERENCES:
Abcore (2019). Plasma membrane metabolism. Retrieved from: https://www.abcore.com/plasma-
membrane-metabolism
Demine, S., Reddy, N., Renard, P., Raes, M., & Arnould, T. (2014). Unraveling biochemical pathways

affected by mitochondrial dysfunctions using metabolomic approaches. Metabolites, Retrieved

from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4192695/pdf/metabolites-04-00831.pdf

Lumen (n.d) Reading: Steps of genetic transcription. Retrieved from: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/

bio1/chapter/reading-steps-of-genetic-transcription/
Scheffler, I. (1999). Metabolic pathways inside mitochondria. Retrieved from: https://onlinelibrary.

wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/0471223891.ch6
4. EXPLAIN AND GIVE EXAMPLES OF SUBSTANCES THAT USES THE FOLLOWING
TRANSPORT MECHANISMS IN THE CELL:

i. PASSIVE TRANSPORT
- In definition, it is the movement of substances (as by diffusion) across a cell membrane without
the use of energy. Passive transport is the movement of molecules or ions from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration. It occurs due to the entropy of the system, so
additional energy isn't required for it to happen.
- The substances that use passive transport are oxygen and carbon dioxide (in diffusion) and
water (in osmosis).

ii. ACTIVE TRANSPORT

- In definition, it is the the movement of a substance with the use of energy through a gradient
in concentration across a plasma membrane. Active transport is the movement of molecules or
ions from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration, which does not
ordinarily occur, so enzymes and energy are required.
- The substances that use active transport are ATP (adenosine triphosphate), low calcium ions
(Ca2+), sodium-potassium pumps, and large (non-lipid soluble) molecules

iii. FACILITATED DIFFUSION

- It is an example of a passive transport wherein solutes move across a membrane from higher
to lower concentration with the aid of transmembrane proteins. It is utilised by molecules that
are unable to freely cross the phospholipid bilayer, and the process is mediated by channel and
carrier proteins.
- The substances under this are channel and carrier proteins, carbohydrates, amino acids, and
nucleosides

REFERENCES:
Bioninja (n.d). Facilitated diffusion. Retrieved from: https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-1-cell-
biology/14-membrane-transport/facilitated-diffusion.html
Cooper, G. (2000). The cell: A molecular approach (2nd Ed.) Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.
nih.gov/books/NBK9847/
Harwood, J., and Wilkin, D. (2019). Active transport. Retrieved from: https://www.ck12.org/c/life-science/
active-transport/lesson/Active-Transport-MS-LS/
Helmenstine, A. (2019). Defining active and passive transport. Retrieved from: https://www.thoughtco
.com/active-and-passive-transport-603886

5. DIFFERENTIATE DIFFUSION FROM OSMOSIS. EXPLAIN HOW THESE MECHANISMS

HAPPEN IN THE CELL.

Diffusion is a spontaneous movement of particles from a high to low concentration, and it can
occur in any mixture, including one that includes a semipermeable membrane. It can occur in any medium
(solid, liquid, or gas). It mainly depends on the presence of other particles. On the other hand, osmosis is
the spontaneous movement of water that always occurs across a semipermeable membrane. from a low
solute to a more concentrated solution, up a concentration gradient. It only occurs in liquid medium and it
mainly depends on the number of solute particles dissolved in the solvent.
The scent of perfume filling a whole room and the movement of small molecules across a cell
membrane are examples of diffusion. One of its simplest demonstrations is adding a drop of food coloring
to water. Although other transport processes do occur, diffusion is the main point.

Red blood cells swelling up when exposed to freshwater and plant root hairs taking up water are
included in osmosis. Its simplest demonstration of is to soak gummy candies in water, as the gel of the
candies acts as a semipermeable membrane.

The diffusion mainly occurs in gaseous state or within gas molecules and liquid molecules, like
the molecules of two gases in constant motion, and if the membrane separating them is removed, the gases
will mix because of random velocities. Simple diffusion occurs when small molecules pass through the
lipid bilayer of a cell membrane, while facilitated diffusion depends on carrier proteins imbedded in the
membrane to allow specific substances to pass through, that might not be able to diffuse through the cell
membrane. Osmosis, meanwhile, occurs when the medium surrounding the cell has a higher water
concentration than the cell. The cell gains water along with important molecules and particles for growth.
It also occurs when water and particles move from one cell to another. The result is a net transfer of
molecules down a concentration gradient from the water to the sugar solution that eventually when the
concentration of water is the same on both sides it will reach the state of equilibrium.
REFERENCES:
Beals, M., Gross, L., and Harrell, S. (1999). Diffusion through a cell membrane. Retrieved from: http://
www.tiem.utk.edu/~gross/bioed/webmodules/diffusion.htm
Diffen (n.d). Diffusion and osmosis. Retrieved from: https://www.diffen.com/difference/
Diffusion_vs_Osmosis
Helmenstine, A. (2019). Differences between osmosis and diffusion. Retrieved from: https://www.
thoughtco.com/difference-between-osmosis-and-diffusion-609191
Pass My Exams (2018). Biology: Osmosis. Retrieved from: http://www.passmyexams.co.uk/
GCSE/biology/osmosis-in-cells.html

6. WHICH CELLULAR ORGANELLE(S) IS/ARE INVOLVED IN GLYCEROPHOSPHATE AND

MALATE SHUTTLE MECHANISMS? BRIEFLY EXPLAIN THE IMPORTANCE OF THESE.
i. GLYCEROPHOSPHATE (Organelle involved: Mitochondria)
The glycerol phosphate or the glycerophosphate shuttle shuttles electrons to mitochondrial
carriers in an oxidative phosphorylation pathway from cytosolic NADH. It relies on mitochondrial
glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (mGPDH) and it is also a common process for the cell to
regenerate cytosolic NAD+ for other processes. It is defined as the process of transferring reducing
equivalents from the cytosol into the mitochondria; NADH is used to synthesise glycerol 3-
phosphate in the cytosol; this compound is then transported into the mitochondria where it is
converted to dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) using FAD; DHAP then returns to the cytosol
to complete the cycle.

ii. MALATE SHUTTLE (Organelle involved: Mitochondria)

In the malate/aspartate shuttle, cytoplasmic NADH is used to convert cytoplasmic
oxaloacetate to malate, which can be carried across the mitochondrial inner membrane by a
dicarboxylate carrier by facilitated diffusion with no metabolic energy expenditure. To complete
the cycle, oxaloacetate must get back outside. The aspartate is transported out of the mitochondria
where it is converted back to oxaloacetate and glutamate. The cycle is completed when glutamate
goes back into the mitochondria. In this shuttle, 3 ATP molecules are produced for each cytosolic
NADH because it is effectively transferred into the matrix as NADH. It is defined as the process
of transferring reducing equivalents from the cytosol into the mitochondria; NADH is used to
synthesise malate in the cytosol; this compound is then transported into the mitochondria where it
 is converted to oxaloacetate using NADH, the oxaloacetate reacts with gluamate to form aspartate,
and the aspartate then returns to the cytosol to complete the cycle.

REFERENCES:
Pascual, J., and Tondo, M. (2015). Rosenberg's molecular and genetic basis of neurological and psychiatric
disease (5th Ed.) Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/malate-
aspartate-shuttle
The Jackson Laboratory. (2019). Gene ontology browser: Glycerophosphate shuttle. Retrieved from:
http://www.informatics.jax.org/vocab/gene_ontology/GO:0006127
The Jackson Laboratory. (2019). Gene ontology browser: Malate aspartate shuttle. Retrieved from:
http://www.informatics.jax.org/vocab/gene_ontology/GO:0043490

7. HOW ARE THE BIOMOLECULES (CARBOHYDRATES, LIPIDS, PROTEINS, AND

NUCLEIC ACIDS) RELATED TO THE CELL'S FUNCTIONS?

Biomolecules, range from small molecules, such as metabolites, to large molecules, such as protein
and carbohydrates, which are chemical compounds produced by living organisms. These biomolecules are
fundamental building blocks of living organisms, and therefore, the presence and appropriate
concentrations of biomolecules are vital for the structure and proper function of living cells. Any changes
in the concentration of specific biomolecules may lead to the malfunction of the cells and organisms.

i. CARBOHYDRATES
- The four primary functions of carbohydrates in the body are to provide energy, store energy,
build macromolecules, and spare protein and fat for other uses. The primary role of
carbohydrates is to supply energy to all cells in the body. If the body already has enough energy
to support its functions, the excess glucose is stored as glycogen. Although most absorbed
glucose is used to make energy, some glucose is converted to ribose and deoxyribose, which
are essential building blocks of important macromolecules, such as RNA, DNA, and ATP. In
a situation where there is not enough glucose to meet the body’s needs, glucose is synthesized
from amino acids, because there is no storage molecule of amino acids, this process requires
the destruction of proteins, primarily from muscle tissue.
 ii. LIPIDS
- Lipids can serve a diverse range of functions within a cell, including as a storage of energy for
long-term use, like. triglycerides, in hormonal roles in steroids, for insulation in both thermal
(triglycerides) and electrical (sphingolipids). They are also used to protect internal organs and
for sructural components of cells. The combination of fatty acids and a phosphate group make
phospholipids ideal for making cellular membranes. They are the molecules used to build the
membranes found around and inside cells. Without a plasma membrane a cell would not be
able to survive. A phosphate group has a negative charge so many other molecules can attach
themselves to the phosphate group and it is also hydrophilic. This phospholipid bilayer creates
a barrier for substances moving in and out of a cell.

iii. PROTEIN
- Proteins are large, complex molecules that play many critical roles in the body. They do most
of the work in cells and are required for the structure, function, and regulation of the body’s
tissues and organs. They are made up of hundreds or thousands of smaller units called amino
acids, which are attached to one another in long chains. They act as antibodies that bind to
specific foreign particles, such as viruses and bacteria, to help protect the body, as enzymes
that carry out almost all of the thousands of chemical reactions that take place in cells, as
messenger proteins that transmit signals to coordinate biological processes between different
cells, tissues, and organs. They also provide structure and support for cells that allow the body
to move.

iv. NUCLEIC ACID

- Nucleic acids are the most important macromolecules for the continuity of life. They carry the
genetic blueprint of a cell and carry instructions for the functioning of the cell. Nucleic acids
are molecules made up of nucleotides that direct cellular activities such as cell division and
protein synthesis. Each nucleotide is made up of a pentose sugar, a nitrogenous base, and a
phosphate group. The two main types of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA is the genetic material found in all living organisms, ranging
from single-celled bacteria to multicellular mammals. It is found in the nucleus of eukaryotes
and in the organelles, chloroplasts, and mitochondria. In prokaryotes, the DNA is not enclosed
in a membranous envelope.
REFERENCES:
Bioninja (n.d). Functions of lipids. Retrieved from: https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-2-
molecular-biology/23-carbohydrates-and-lipids/functions-of-lipids.html
Carter, S., and Learning, L. (n.d). Important biological macromolecules: Nucleic acids. Retrieved from:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-wmopen-biology1/chapter/nucleic-acids/
Chu Hong Voon,, H., and Sung, T. (2019). Physical surface modification on the biosensing surface.
Gobinath, S., and Lakshmipriya, T. (Ed.), Nanobiosensor for biomolecular targeting. Retrieved
from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/biomolecule
Pressbooks (n.d). The functions of carbohydrates in the body. Retrieved from: http://pressbooks-dev.oer.
hawaii.edu/humannutrition/chapter/the-functions-of-carbohydrates-in-the-body/
Purcell, A. (2016). Basic biology: An introduction. Lipids. Retrieved from: https://basicbiology.net/
micro/biochemistry/lipids
US National Library of Medicine. (2019). What are proteins and what do they do? Retrieved from:
https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/howgeneswork/protein